FLUID DYNAMICS II –

COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

1. INTRODUCTION

Compressible flow is defined as a fluid flow with variable density,

as opposed to incompressible flows where the density is assumed
to be constant.

In reality, all fluids are compressible to some extent, but for almost
all liquids and some gas flows under certain conditions, the density
changes are so small that the assumption of constant density still
holds. In these flows, Bernoulli’s equation p + ½ ρ v 2 = constant
may be used, which relates the pressure distribution and the local
velocity changes along a single streamline.

For compressible flows, the change in density dρ corresponds to a

change in pressure dp . The relationship between dp and dρ is
given by the compressibility of the fluid τ :

1 dρ
τ=
ρ dp

The fractional change in density is then given by dρ ρ = τ dp .

High speed flows thus generally incur large pressure differences.

For gas velocities less than ~0.3 of the speed of sound, the
associated pressure changes are small, such that dρ will also be
small. Low speed gas flows are thus assumed to be incompressible.

ME2101 – Fluid Dynamics 1

A flow is considered to be compressible if the change in pressure,
dp , results in a fractional change in density, dρ ρ , that is too large
to ignore. Generally this occurs for gas speeds larger than ~0.3 of
the speed of sound.

The Mach number is the parameter that we will use to determine

the effects of compressibility. The Mach number is also very
useful for determining the property ratios ahead of and behind
shock waves, to be discussed later.

2. GENERAL DEFINITIONS

• Density, ρ : Mass per unit volume (kg/m3).

• Specific volume, ν = 1 / ρ: Volume per unit mass (m3/kg).

• Pressure p: (Pa).
A normal stress which is isotropic (pressure at a point in a fluid
is independent of the orientation of the surface passing through
the point). Pressure is therefore a scalar and it always acts
normal to the surface.

• Temperature (oK).
H2O at 100oC and freezes at 0oC at ambient atmospheric
conditions (p=101.5 kPa). If pressure changes, these
temperatures will change. The boiling point is the temperature at
which the partial pressure of the water vapour equals
atmospheric pressure. If atmospheric pressure is reduced,
temperature required for boiling is reduced.

ME2101 – Fluid Dynamics 2

• Perfect gas

The gas flows will be assumed to be thermally perfect, that is,

the gas obeys the equation of state p = ρ R T (The perfect gas
law). We will also assume that the flow is calorifically perfect,
that is, the specific heats c p and c v are constant such that the
relations h = c p T and e = c v T hold. Note that ratio γ = C p C v

A fluid that is both thermally and calorifically perfect is called a

perfect gas. All other gases are known as imperfect or real
gases.

• Dynamic or Absolute Viscosity, µ: (Ns/m2)

Calculated using Sutherland’s Law:

3
⎛ T ⎞ 2
⎛ Tref + C ⎞
µ = µ ref ⎜⎜ ⎟
⎟
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ Tref ⎠ ⎝ T +C ⎠

Where: µref =1.716x10-5 Ns/m2 and Tref = 273.15 K and C =

110.4 K for air.
µ
Kinematic viscosity (m2/s): υ=
ρ

• Stagnation properties

The stagnation properties refer to the maximum values of each

property that the fluid would achieve if brought to rest
adiabatically. The subscript 0 indicates a stagnation condition.
Thus h 0 , T0 , ρ 0 and p 0 are the maximum values of enthalpy,
temperature, density and pressure that will occur anywhere in the
flow field. Derivations for the values of the stagnation properties
will be discussed later.

ME2101 – Fluid Dynamics 3

3. COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

All fluids to some extent are compressible, ie. variable density,

hence the fact we can hear sound waves in both air and water.
Liquids can be considered practically incompressible (constant
density), however, while gases undergo significant changes in
density if pressure or temperature are abruptly changed.

Gases must be treated as compressible for the following cases,

which involve appreciable changes in density:

• Velocity is greater than 0.3 times the speed of sound, a.

• Large accelerations of gas
• Large changes in elevation
• Natural convection due to heat transfer.

Also curious, counter intuitive, phenomena can occur with

compressible flows, such as:

• Fluid accelerates due to friction

• Fluid decelerates in converging duct
• Fluid temperature decreases with heating

3.1 Governing Flow Equations

For incompressible, constant density flows, Bernoulli’s equation,

which assumes constant density, can be valid. This equation is
obviously not valid for compressible flows.

The 1D Euler equation for inviscid compressible flows is:

dp
+ udu + gdz = 0 (1)
ρ

ME2101 – Fluid Dynamics 4

Integrating this expression, with constant density, yields
Bernoulli’s equation.

3.1.1 Isothermal Flows (T=constant)

Substituting the perfect gas law, p=ρRT, into equation 1 gives:

dp
RT + udu + gdz = 0
p

Integrating, in the limits between two arbitrary points 1 and 2 on

the same streamline, with constant T and assuming no change in
elevation gives:

⎛ p 2 ⎞ u12 − u 22
RT ln⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ =
⎝ p1 ⎠ 2

3.1.2 Adiabatic Flows (No heat transfer)

Most compressible flows cannot be assumed to be isothermal and

it is more rigorous to assume that a compressible flow is an
adiabatic, isentropic process (isentropic, constant entropy, flow is
adiabatic and reversible). Thus:

p
= constant = c (2)
ργ

Then from equation (2):

1 1
1 −
=c p γ
γ
(3)
ρ

ME2101 – Fluid Dynamics 5

Substituting equation (3) into Euler’s equation and integrating
gives:

dp
+ u du = 0
ρ

1 1
−
∴c p γ γ
dp + u du = 0

1
1 − +1
pu2 γ
∴c γ
+ = constant (4)
1 2
1−
γ

Substituting the constant, c, from equation (3) into this equation

gives:

1 1
− +1
⎛ p ⎞ p
γ u2 γ
⎜⎜ γ ⎟⎟ + = constant
⎝ρ ⎠ γ - 1 2
γ

γ p u2
∴ + = constant
γ −1 ρ 2

Thus, between two points on a streamline:

2 γ ⎛ p1 p 2 ⎞
∴u 22 − u 12 = ⎜ − ⎟ (5)
γ − 1 ⎜⎝ ρ1 ρ 2 ⎟⎠

This is the compressible version of Bernoulli’s equation.

ME2101 – Fluid Dynamics 6

4. MACH WAVES AND THE SPEED OF SOUND

Consider the wave patterns below for two dimensional flow, which
were first presented by Ernst Mach. The figures show the pattern
of infinitesimally weak pressure disturbances (ie. sound waves)
propagated by a small particle (point source) moving at speed u
through a still medium whose sound velocity is a.

As the particle moves, it continually interacts (collides) with other

fluid particles, and sends out spherical pressure waves that emanate
from every point along its path. The behaviour of the wave fronts
is different depending on whether the particle speed is subsonic or
supersonic.

Consider the figure 1 where the particle moves subsonically,

(u < a) :

Figure 1: Pressure disturbances for a subsonic particle

ME2101 – Fluid Dynamics 7

Since u < a then M = u/a < 1. The spherical disturbances move out
radially in all directions and do not catch up with each other. The
sound waves also move well out in front of the particle, since they
travel a distance a δt in the time interval δt , while the particle has
only moved u δt . A subsonic body thus makes its presence felt
everywhere in the flow field.

For the case of a particle moving at the sonic speed, (u=a), as

shown in figure 2, the pressure disturbances move at exactly the
speed of the particle, and thus coalesce at the position of the
particle into a “wave front locus”, called a Mach wave. No
pressure disturbances propagate ahead of the particle. Thus an
observer to the left of the particle would not feel the presence of, or
hear the sound waves from, the particle until it collided with them.

Figure 2: Pressure disturbances for a sonic particle

ME2101 – Fluid Dynamics 8

The case of a particle moving at supersonic speed, (u > a), is
depicted in the figure 3.

Figure 3: Pressure disturbances for a supersonic particle

In supersonic motion, the spherical pressure disturbances cannot

catch up with the fast-moving particle that created them. The
sound waves trail behind the particle, and are tangent to a conical
locus called the Mach cone. The half-angle of the Mach cone is:

1
sin µ =
M

For the limiting case of sonic flow, M = 1 , µ = 90 o , the Mach cone

becomes a plane front moving with the particle, as shown in Figure
2.

ME2101 – Fluid Dynamics 9

The disturbance caused by the supersonic particle cannot be felt
unless an observer is in the zone of action inside the Mach cone.
The region outside the Mach cone is called the zone of silence.

There is thus a fundamental difference between subsonic (u < a)

and supersonic (u > a) flows. In subsonic flows, the pressure
disturbance propagates upstream of its location, and the upstream
flow receives information of the presence of the particle.
However, in supersonic flows no information is received, since
pressure disturbances cannot propagate upstream into a supersonic
flow field.

In order to define the mathematical definition of the speed of

sound, a, in a gas, in terms of the static temperature and pressure of
the gas, consider figure 4, which shows the infinitesimally small
changes in the flow properties across a sound wave (isentropic).

Weak pressure wave

with frontal area A.

p p + dp

ρ ρ + dρ

a a - du

T T + dT

control
volume

Figure 4: Change in flow properties across a sound wave

propagating in at sonic velocity, a, in a gas flow of velocity du.

ME2101 – Fluid Dynamics 10

The pressure wave moves at the speed of sound, a, in a fluid
flowing at a low subsonic speed, du. If we analyse the problem
from the reference of a fixed pressure wave such that the problem
becomes a steady one, the conservation of mass (continuity) gives:

ρAa = (ρ + δρ )A(a − δu )

∴ ρAa = A(ρa − ρδu + aδρ − δuδρ )

∴ aδρ − ρδu − δuδρ = 0

Ignoring second order terms ( δuδρ ) which for a weak disturbance

are vanishingly small, gives:

aδρ − ρδu = 0

ie: aδρ = ρδu (6)

Now, the linear momentum equation can be derived:

pA − ( p + δp )A = (a − δu ) (ρ + δρ )A − a 2 ρA
2

∴ − δp = a 2 ρ − 2aρδu + a 2δρ − 2aδρδu − a 2 ρ

Substituting equation (6) and neglecting second order terms:

− δp = −2a 2δρ + a 2δρ = − a 2δρ

dp
Thus: a2 = for vanishingly weak pressure disturbances.
dρ

For an isentropic process we have, from equation (2):

ME2101 – Fluid Dynamics 11

 p
= constant = c
ργ

Such that:

a =
2 d cρ γ ( ) = cγρ γ −1 =
p
γρ γ −1 =
p
γ
dρ ργ ρ

And, given the perfect gas equation, p=ρRT, we have:

a = γRT (7)

The ratio of the velocity, u, of a gas to the speed of sound, a, in

that gas is called the Mach number, M, ie:

u
M =
a

Historically, the compressible flow regime has been subdivided

into a number of flow categories, depending on the Mach number
range, ie:

• Compressible subsonic flow: 0.3 < M < ~0.6*

• Compressible transonic flow: 0.6* < M < ~1.1*
• Compressible supersonic flow: 1.1* < M < 5.0
• Compressible hypersonic flow: M > 5.0

ME2101 – Fluid Dynamics 12