Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
2004
Outline
z Gilbert
(1600 AD), Franklin (1750), Coulomb,
Gauss, Volta (1800), Oersted (1819), Ampere
(1820), Ohm, Faraday, Henry (1831), Maxwell
(1873)
The First Antenna
z HeinrichRudolph Hertz’s (1886) built first
radio system:
The First Wireless (Radio)
z Guglielmo Marconi:
- Repeated Hertz’s experiments
- Built first radio system to signal over
large distances: England to Newfoundland
- Proved radio waves bend around earth
- Also applied technology to ships
Dipole
Blah bl ah
blah bl ah
dBd and dBi
How and why is dBc used with base station antenna specs?
• Antenna
• Jumper Cable
• Feeder Cable
• Surge Arrestor
• Jumper Cable
• Radio
Full System Sweep
• 3 different tests
• Return Loss
• VSWR
• Distance to Fault (DTF)
• Antenna
• Jumper Cable
• Feeder Cable
• Surge Arrestor
• Jumper Cable
• Radio
Impedance
• These 3 tests measure the reflected voltages caused
by change of impedance in a transmission line.
• Impedance is measured in ohms (Ω).
V=IxR
or V=IxZ
D d
Dielectric Inner
(Foam) Conductor
History note:
•Older CATV coax had air dielectric
utilizing plastic disc’s to support the
center conductor.
Impedance
Antenna
Source
= 50 ohms
50 ohms
Cable
=
50 ohms
Match!
Return Loss
Transmitted: 9.92W
51Ω
Reflected: 0.08W
Incident : 10W
Antenna
Source
= 50 ohms
50 ohms
Cable
=
50 ohms
System Failures
Smashed!
Antenna
Source
= 50 ohms 95 ohms
50 ohms
Mismatch!
When an impedance mismatch occurs in an RF subsystem, an amount
of RF energy is reflected back to the source.
System Failures
Transmitted: 5.9W
95Ω
Reflected:4.1W
Incident : 10W
RF components have some reflection but damaged components will cause larger
reflections and in that case creates a system to fail.
VSWR
Transmitted: 9.92W
51Ω
Reflected: 0.08W
Incident : 10W
Transmitted: 5.9W
95Ω
Reflected:4.1W
Incident : 10W
50Ω or
-3.84 dB RL = 4.60:1 VSWR FAIL!
VSWR
DTF
These tests work best when
used as a references.
Travel time(ms)
Travel time(ms) addition and subtraction of
phase, interfering signals
and cable lengths.
Source: COMSEARCH
Shaping Antenna Patterns
Vertical arrangement of properly phased dipoles allows control of radiation
patterns at the horizon as well as above and below the horizon.
The more dipoles are stacked vertically, the flatter the “beam” is and the higher
the antenna coverage or “gain” in the general direction of the horizon.
Shaping Antenna Patterns (cont . . .)
Aperture Vertical Horizontal Stacking 4 dipoles
of Dipoles Pattern Pattern vertically in line changes
the pattern shape
(squashes the doughnut)
Single Dipole and increases the gain
over single dipole.
The peak of the horizontal
or vertical pattern
measures the gain.
The little lobes, illustrated
in the lower section, are
4 Dipoles
Vertically Stacked secondary minor lobes.
GENERAL STACKING RULE:
• Collinear elements (in-line vertically).
• Optimum spacing (for non-electrical tilt) is approximately 0.9λ.
• Doubling the number of elements increases gain by 3 dB, and reduces
vertical beamwidth by half.
Gain
What is it?
Antenna gain is a comparison of the power/field characteristics of a
device under test (DUT) to a specified gain standard.
Why is it useful?
Gain is directly associated with link budget: coverage distance and/or
obstacle penetration (buildings, foliage, etc).
How is it measured?
It is measured using data collected from antenna range testing. The
reference gain standard must always be specified.
Gain References (dBd and dBi)
z An isotropic antenna is
a single point in space Isotropic (dBi)
Isotropic Pattern Dipole (dBd)
radiating in a perfect
Gain
sphere (not physically Dipole Pattern
possible)
-3 dB
+3 dBd 180°
+3 dBd 30° -3 dB
-3 dB
+6 dBd 90°
+6 dBd 15°
-3 dB
-3 dB
7.5°
+9 dBd +9 dBd 45°
-3 dB
-3 dB
Theoretical Gain of Antennas (dBd)
20
15
Gain (dBi)
10
5
G=10 log ( 2.2 λπ L W )
2
e
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Antenna Length (wavelengths)
20
15
Gain (dBi)
10
0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
z Losses: Conductor
Dielectric
Impedance
Polarization
z If
antenna and incoming EM wave are co-
polarized => Max response from antenna
BREAK
Various Radiator Designs
Elements
Center Feed
Series Feed (Hybrid) Corporate Feed
0°
corporate (less system
+1° ASP-705
bandwidth, less
+2°
450 455 460 465 470 MHz
beam shaping)
Feed Networks
z Cable
– Dielectric Substrate
– Air Substrate
z Dielectric Substrate
– uses ‘printed circuit’ technology
– power limitations
– dielectric substrate causes loss (1.0 dB/m)
z Air Substrate
– metal strip spaced above a groundplane
– minimal solder or welded joints
– laser cut or punched
– air substrate cause minimal loss (0.5 dB/m)
Air Microstrip Network
Dielectric Substrate Microstrip
Stacking Dipoles
8 Dipoles
1 Dipole 4 Dipoles
2 Dipoles
Azimuth Omni Antenna
Vertical Pattern
Directional Array Antenna
Pattern Simulation
Main Lobe
What is it?
The main lobe is the radiation pattern 35° Total
lobe that contains the majority portion of Main Lobe
radiated energy.
Why is it useful?
Shaping of the pattern allows the
contained coverage necessary for
interference-limited system designs.
How is it measured?
The main lobe is characterized using a
number of the measurements which will
follow.
Half-Power Beamwidth
Horizontal and Vertical
What is it?
1/2 Power
The angular span between the half-power Beamwidth
(-3 dB) points measured on the cut of the
antenna’s main lobe radiation pattern.
Why is it useful?
It allows system designers to
choose the optimum characteristics
for coverage vs. interference
requirements.
How is it measured?
It is measured using data collected from
antenna range testing.
Why is it useful?
It characterizes unwanted
interference on the backside of the
main lobe. The larger the number,
the better!
How is it measured?
It is measured using data collected from
antenna range testing.
F/B Ratio
What is T-Mobile standard? 0 dB - 25 dB = 25 dB
30 dB throughout the region that is +/- 45 degrees directly back of the
main lobe.
Sidelobe Level
What is it?
Sidelobe level is a measure of a
particular sidelobe or angular
group of sidelobes with Sidelobe Level
respect to the main lobe. (-20 dB)
Why is it useful?
Sidelobe level or pattern
shaping allows the minor lobe
energy to be tailored to the
antenna’s intended use. See
Null Fill and Upper Sidelobe
Suppression.
How is it measured?
It is always measured with respect to the
main lobe in dB.
Null Filling
What is it?
Null Filling is an array optimization technique
that reduces the null between the
lower lobes in the elevation plane.
Why is it useful?
For arrays with a narrow vertical beam-
width (less than 12°), null filling
significantly improves signal intensity in
all coverage targets below the main lobe.
How is it measured?
Null fill is easiest explained as the
relative dB difference between the peak
of the main beam and the depth of the
1st lower null.
What is T-Mobile standard?
The depth of the 1st lower null shall not be more than 20 dB
relative to the peak of the main beam.
Null Fill
Important for antennas with narrow elevation beamwidths.
0
Transmit Power = 1 W
-20
Base Station Antenna Height = 40 m
-40
Base Station Antenna Gain = 18 dBi
-60 Elevation Beamwidth = 6.5°
-80
-100
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Distance (km)
Upper Sidelobe Suppression
What is it?
Upper sidelobe suppression (USLS) is an array
optimization technique that reduces the
undesirable sidelobes above the main lobe.
Why is it useful?
For arrays with a narrow vertical
beamwidth (less than 12°), USLS can
significantly reduce interference due to
multi-path or when the antenna is
mechanically downtilted.
How is it measured?
USLS is the relative dB difference
between the peak of the main beam
peak of the first upper sidelobe.
What is T-Mobile standard?
Upper side lobes must be at least –18 dB from the main lobe through
zenith.
Orthogonality
What is it?
The ability of an antenna to discriminate δ
between two EM waves whose polarization
difference is 90 degrees.
Why is it useful?
Orthogonal arrays within a single
antenna allow for polarization diversity.
(As opposed to spatial diversity.)
How is it measured?
XPol = 20 log ( tan (δ))
The difference between the co-polar δ = 0°, XPol = -∞ dB
pattern and the cross-polar pattern, δ = 5°, XPol = -21 dB
usually measured in the boresite (the δ =10°, XPol = -15 dB
direction of the main signal). δ =15°, XPol = -11 dB
δ =20°, XPol = -9 dB
δ =30°, XPol = -5 dB
δ =40°, XPol =-1.5 dB
Cross-Pol Ratio (CPR)
What is it? 120°
CPR is a comparison of the co-pol vs. cross-pol 0
-10
-20
-30
-35
TYPICAL
Why is it useful? -40
-10
-25
-30
-40
LOG
16 dB minimum for azimuth pattern.
Horizontal Beam Tracking
What is it?
It refers to the beam tracking between the two 120°
beams of a +/-45° polarization diversity antenna
over a specified angular range.
Why is it useful?
-45° +45°
For optimum diversity Array Array
performance, the beams should
track as closely as possible.
How is it measured?
It is measured using data collected
from antenna range testing and
compares the two plots in dB over
the specified angular range.
How is it measured?
It is measured using data collected
from antenna range testing.
Why is it useful?
It is a percentage that allows comparison
of various antennas. The better the SPR,
the better the interference performance of
the system.
How is it measured?
It is mathematically derived from the DESIRED
measured range data.
UNDESIRED
300
What is T-Mobile standard?
Σ P
60
Undesired
(Being studied.) SPR (%) = X 100
60
Σ P
300
Desired
120° Sector Overlay Issues
“On the Capacity and Outage Probability of a CDMA Heirarchial Mobile
System with Perfect/Imperfect Power Control and Sectorization”
By: Jie ZHOU et, al IEICE TRANS FUNDAMENTALS, VOL.E82-A, NO.7 JULY 1999
. . . From the numerical results, the user capacities are dramatically decreased as the
imperfect power control increases and the overlap between the sectors (imperfect
sectorization) increases . . .
Percentage of
capacity loss
on CDMA System Capacity”
By: Chin-Chun Lee et, al IEEE
TRANSACTIONS ON VEHICULAR
TECHNOLOGY, VOL. 47, NO. 3,
AUGUST 1998
Horizontal
-16dB Ant/Ant -12dB
Isolation
Next Sector
Ant/Ant
-35dB -18dB
Isolation
-10
Amplitude (dB)
-20
-30
-40
-50
-180 -150 -120 -90 -60 -30 0 30 60 90 120 150 180
Azimuth Angle (Degrees)
System Issues
z RET optimization
z Antenna isolation
Choosing Sector Antennas
Criteria:
z Area of service indifference between adjacent sectors
(“ping-pong” area).
z For comparison, use 6 dB differentials.
z Antenna gain and overall sector coverage.
3 x 120° Antennas
120°
Horizontal
Overlay
Pattern
57° 3 dB
3 x 90° Antennas
90°
43° Horizontal
Overlay
Pattern
5 dB
3 x 65° Antennas
24° 65°
Horizontal
Overlay
Pattern
6 dB
Beam Downtilt
In urban areas, service and frequency utilization are
frequently improved by directing maximum radiation power at
an area below the horizon.
This Technique:
z Improves coverage of open areas close
to the base station.
z Allows more effective penetration of
nearby buildings, particular high-traffic
lower levels and garages.
z Permits the use of adjacent frequencies
in the same general region.
Electrical/Mechanical Downtilt
Mechanical Electrical
Mechanical Downtilt Mounting Kit
Mechanical Downtilt
140 40 140 40
150 30 150 30
160 20 160 20
170 10 170 10
180 0 180 0
85°
Sample Antenna
7° Mechanical Downtilt
93°
Sample Antenna
15° Mechanical Downtilt
123°
Sample Antenna
20° Mechanical Downtilt
Horizontal
3 dB Bandwidth
Undefined
Managing Beam Tilt
For the radiation pattern to show maximum gain in the direction
of the horizon, each stacked dipole must be fed from the signal
source “in phase”. Feeding vertically arranged dipoles “out of
phase” will generate patterns that “look up” or “look down”.
The degree of beam tilt is a function of the phase shift of one
dipole relative to the adjacent dipole and their physical spacing.
Energy
in ¼λ
e
Phase
t
W av
Fron
Exciter
Exciter
Electrical Downtilt
140 40 140 40
150 30 150 30
160 20 160 20
170 10 170 10
180 0 180 0
350 0 10
340 20
330 30
320 40
310 50
300 60
290 70
280 80
270 90
260 100
250 110
240 120
230 130
220 140
210 150
200 160
190 180 170
With Variable Electrical Downtilt (VED),
you can adjust anywhere in seconds.
Sample Antenna
3° Electrical Downtilt
Sample Antenna
8° Electrical Downtilt
Sample Antenna
Overlay Electrical Downtilt
3°
6°
8°
Remote Electrical Downtilt (RET)
Optimization
ANMS
ATC100 Series
Future
ATC200 Series
BREAK
Causes of Inter-Modulation Distortion
z Current Disruption:
– Loosely Contacting Surfaces
– Non-Conductive Oxide Layers Between Contact
Surfaces
“Intermod” Interference
Where?
F1 F3
Tx Rx Tx Rx
F1 F2 F3 F1 F2 F3
RECEIVER-PRODUCED TRANSMITTER-PRODUCED
Tx Tx
F2 F2
F1
F2 F3 F
1
F3 Rx
DUP Tx1 F3
C F2
Tx1
O ELSEWHERE
M
Tx2 Rx3
B Tx2
ANTENNA-PRODUCED
Remember dBc?
2ΔF 2ΔF
F2 – 2ΔF F1 + 2ΔF
Unlicensed
20 MHz
Unlicensed
20 MHz
-10
270° 90°
210° 150°
180°
105° Horizontal Pattern
Obstruction at -10 dB Point
0°
330° 30°
300° 60°
880 MHz
270° 90°
0°
-10 dB Point
3½'
240° 120° Building
Antenna Corner
210° 150°
180°
105° Horizontal Pattern
Obstruction at -6 dB Point
0°
330° 30°
300° 60°
880 MHz
270° 90°
0° -6 dB Point
'
3½
240° 120° Building
Antenna Corner
210° 150°
180°
105° Horizontal Pattern
Obstruction at -3 dB Point
0°
330° 30°
210° 150°
180°
90° Horizontal Pattern
No Obstacle
0°
330° +15
30°
+10
+5
300° 0 60°
-5 880 MHz
-10
270° 90°
240° 120°
Antenna
210° 150°
180°
90° Horizontal Pattern
0.5 l Diameter Obstacle at 0°
0°
330° 30°
300° 60°
880 MHz
270° 90°
0°
12λ
240° 120°
Antenna
210° 150°
180°
90° Horizontal Pattern
0.5 l Diameter Obstacle at 45°
0°
330° 30°
300° 60°
880 MHz
270° 90°
45°
8λ
240° 120°
Antenna
210° 150°
180°
90° Horizontal Pattern
0.5 l Diameter Obstacle at 60°
0°
330° 30°
300° 60°
880 MHz
270° 90°
60°
6λ
240° 120° Antenna
210° 150°
180°
90° Horizontal Pattern
0.5 l Diameter Obstacle at 80°
0°
330° 30°
300° 60°
880 MHz
270° 90°
80°
3λ
240° 120°
Antenna
210° 150°
180°
General Rule
Area that needs to be free of obstructions (> 0.57 WL)
Maximum Gain
> 12 WL
3 dB Point
(45°)
L
W
8
6 dB Point
>
(60°)
L
W
>6
WL > 3 WL 10 dB Point
(80° - 90°)
Antenna
90° horizontal (3 dB) beamwidth
Attenuation Provided By Vertical
Separation of Dipole Antennas
70
60
50
MHz Hz Hz Hz Hz Hz
Isolation in dB
M M M M M
00 0 0 0 5 0
20 85 45 16 7 4
40
30
20
10
1 2 3 5 10 20 30 50 100
(0.3) (0.61) (0.91) (1.52) (3.05) (6.1) (9.14) (15.24)
(30.48)
Antenna Spacing in Feet (Meters)
The values indicated by these curves are approximate because of coupling which exists between the
antenna and transmission line. Curves are based on the use of half-wave dipole antennas. The curves
will also provide acceptable results for gain type antennas. Values are measured between the physical
center of the tower antennas and the antennas are mounted directly above the other, with no horizontal
offset (collinear). No correction factor is required for the antenna gains.
Attenuation Provided By Horizontal
Separation of Dipole Antennas
80
z
70 0 MH
20 0
z
50 MH
8
60
z
MH
Isolation in dB
450
50
z
MH
150
40 Hz
70 M
Hz
50 M z
H
30 30 M
20
10 20 30 50 100 200 300 500 1000
(3.05) (6.1) (9.14) (15.24) (30.48) (60.96) (91.44) (152.4)
(304.8)
Antenna Spacing in Feet (Meters)
Curves are based on the use of half-wave dipole antennas. The curves will also provide acceptable
results for gain type antennas if (1) the indicated isolation is reduced by the sum of the antenna gains
and (2) the spacing between the gain antennas is at least 50 ft. (15.24 m) (approximately the far field).
Pattern Distortions
d
tan a =
D
d = D * tan a
tan 1° = 0.01745
Note: tan 10° = 0.1763 10 * 0.01745 = 0.1745
Antenna Elevation Pattern
-10
Amplitude (dB)
-20
-30
-40
-50
-180 -150 -120 -90 -60 -30 0 30 60 90 120 150 180
Elevation Angle (Degree)
Gain Points of a Typical Main Lobe
(Relative to Maximum Gain)
Vertical
a Beam
a Width= 2 a
(-3dB point)
FIBERGLASS
DIM “A”
Performance of Sample PCS Antenna
Behind Camouflage (¼" Fiberglass)
120° FIBERGLASS
110°
DIM “A”
100°
90°
80°
1/4 λ 1/2 λ 3/4 λ 1λ 1-1/2 λ 2λ
70°
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
FIBERGLASS
1.6
1.5
DIM “A”
1.4
1.3
300° 60°
Distance 300° 60°
270°
-55
-50
90°
From 270°
-55
-50
90°
Fiberglass
-45 -45
-40
240° -40 240° 120°
120° -35
-35
-30 -30
-25 -25
210° 150° 210° 150°
-20 -20
180° 180°
330°
0°
30°
68°
300° 60°
270° 90°
-50
-45
-40
-35
240° 120°
-30
-25
-20
210° 150°
-15
180°
1.5" to Fiberglass
77°
0° 0°
330° 30° 330° 30°
112°
270°
Distance 270°
From
90° 90°
-50 -50
-45 -45
-40 -40
Fiberglass
240° -35 -35
120° 240° 120°
-30 -30
-25 -25
-20 -20
210° 150° 210° 150°
-15 -15
180° 180°
300° 60°
270° 90°
-50
-45
-40
240° -35
120°
-30
-25
-20
210° 150°
-15
180°
9" to Fiberglass