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Ê
 Ê

TATA MOTORS, LUCKNOW
Ê


Ê

 



Ê
 
 
Submitted by

 
Mechanical Engineering
Department SRMS
CET,BAREILLY

Under the Guidance of

 
 
CX-CWP
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0c Declaration
0c Acknowledgement
0c TATA MOTORS- An Introduction
0c TATA Journey-Year by year
0c Organisation Structure
0c TATA MOTORS-Lucknow Plant
0c What is a CROWN wheel
0c Gears Manufacturing and its uses
0c Detailed Study of GLEASON NO.610
0c Productivity Improvement
0c My Role
0c Overview

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I hereby declare that the project work entitled: 1.

Ê

 Ê

 



Ê
   is an authentic record of my
own work carried out 

 Ê!

as

requirements of four week summer project , under the

guidance of   
 


 "#$%&'

Certified that the above statement made by the student

is correct to the best of our knowledge and belief.






 
  (   
 Ê      

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Industrial training is a crucial period in engineering

curriculum since it exposes a student to the real world
which he or she is going to enter after the completion of
the graduation. This is the period during which an
engineer actually becomes an engineer by gaining the
Industrial experience. I am very thankful to God who has
given me the opportunity to get training in 



one of the most renowned
organization of India. I would like to express my deep
gratitude to my Project Head   
 
 Ê for having provided me with the wonderful &
conductive environment to work in and realize what
really industry is, he has been ever helpful and
supportive. Last but not the least I would like to thank
   $)' ! for providing me
the opportunity to add a new dimension to my
personality. I will remain indebted to her for her
generous ways of dealing with industrial trainees.




 ,B.Tech. 2nd year,SRMS CET,Bareilly

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Tata Motors is a part of the Tata Group manages its

share-holding through Tata Sons. The company was
established in 1935 as a locomotive manufacturing unit
and later expanded its operations to commercial vehicle
sector in 1954 after forming a joint venture with Daimler-
Benz AG of Germany. Despite the success of its
commercial vehicles, Tata realized his company had to
diversify and he began to look at other products. Based
on consumer demand, he decided that building a small
car would be the most practical new venture. So in 1998
it launched Tata Indica, India's first fully indigenous
passenger car. Designed to be inexpensive and simple to
build and maintain, the Indica became a hit in the Indian
market. It was also exported to Europe, especially the UK
and Italy. In 2004 it acquired Tata Daewoo Commercial
Vehicle, and in late 2005 it acquired 21% of Aragonese
Hispano Carrocera giving it controlling rights of the
company. It has formed a joint venture with Marcopolo of
Brazil, and introduced low-floor buses in the Indian
Market. Recently, it has acquired British Jaguar Land
Rover (JLR), which includes the Daimler and Lanchester
brand names.

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0c ,,: Jamsetji Nusserwanji Tata starts a private

trading firm, laying the foundation of the TATA
group.
0c ,-.+ The Central India Spinning, Weaving and
Manufacturing Company is set up, marking the
Group's entry into textiles.
0c /#+ The Indian Hotels Company is incorporated
to set up the Taj Mahal Palace and Tower, India's
first luxury hotel, which opened in 1903.
0c /-+ The Tata Iron and Steel Company (now Tata
Steel) is established to set up India's first iron and
steel plant in Jamshedpur. The plant started
production in 1912.
0c /+ The first of the three Tata Electric Companies,
The Tata Hydro-Electric Power Supply Company,
(now Tata Power) is set up.
0c /+ The Indian Institute of Science is established
in Bangalore to serve as a centre for advanced
learning.
0c /#+ Tata Steel introduces eight-hour working
days, well before such a system was implemented by
law in much of the West.
0c /-: The Tatas enter the consumer goods industry,
with the Tata Oil Mills Company being established to
make soaps, detergents and cooking oils.
0c /0#+ Tata Airlines, a division of Tata Sons, is
established, opening up the aviation sector in India.
0c /0/+Tata Chemicals, now the largest producer of
soda ash in the country, is established.

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0c /.1+ Tata Engineering and Locomotive Company

(renamed Tata Motors in 2003) is established to
manufacture locomotive and engineering products.
Tata Industries is created for the promotion and
development of hi-tech industries.
0c /1#+ Jawaharlal Nehru, India's first Prime
Minister, requests the Group to manufacture
cosmetics in India, leading to the setting up of
Lakme.
0c /1.+ India's major marketing, engineering and
manufacturing organization, Voltas, is established.
0c /#+ Tata Finlay (now Tata Tea), one of the largest
tea producers, is established. Tata Exports is
established. Today the company, renamed Tata
International, is one of the leading export houses in
India.
0c /,+ Tata Consultancy Services (TCS), India's first
software services company, is established as a
division of Tata Sons.
0c /-+ Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company is
created to publish educational and technical books.
Tata Economic Consultancy Services is set up to
provide services in the field of industrial, marketing,
statistical and techno-economic research and
consultancy.
0c /,.+ Titan Industries - a joint venture between the
Tata Group and the Tamil Nadu Industrial
Development Corporation (TIDCO) - is set up to
manufacture watches.
0c //+Tata Motors rolls out its millionth vehicle.
(The two-million mark was reached in 1998 and the
third million in 2003.)
0c //1+ Tata Quality Management Services institutes
the JRD QV Award, modelled on the Malcolm
Baldrige National Quality Value Award of the United
States, laying the foundation of the Tata Business
Excellence Model.
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0c //+ Tata Tele services (TTSL) is established to

spearhead the Group's foray into the telecom sector.
0c //,+ Tata Indica - India's first indigenously
designed and manufactured car ² is launched by
Tata Motors, spearheading the Group's entry into
the passenger car segment.
0c ///+ The new Tata Group corporate mark and logo
are launched.
0c #+ Tata Tea acquires the Tetley Group, UK. This
is the first major acquisition of an international
brand by an Indian business group.
0c #+ Tata-AIG - a joint venture between the Tata
Group and American International Group Inc (AIG) -
marks the Tata re-entry into insurance. (The
Group's insurance company, New India Assurance,
was nationalized in 1956). The Tata Group Executive
Office (GEO) is set up to design and implement
change in the Tata Group and to provide long-term
direction.
0c ##+ The Tata Group acquires a controlling stake
in VSNL, India's leading international
telecommunications service provider Tata
Consultancy Services (TCS) becomes the first Indian
software company to cross one billion dollars in
revenues. Titan launches Edge, the slimmest watch
in the world. Idea Cellular, the cellular service born
of a tie-up involving the Tata Group, the Birla Group
and AT&T, is launched. Tata Indicom, the umbrella
brand for telecom services from the Tata Tele
services stable, starts operations.
0c #0+ Tata Motors launches City Rover ² Indicas
fashioned for the European market. The first batch
of City Rovers rolled out from the Tata Motors stable
in Pune on September 16, 2003.
0c #.+ Tata Motors acquires the heavy vehicles unit
of Daewoo Motors, South Korea. TCS goes public in
July 2004 in the largest private sector initial public

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offering (IPO) in the Indian market, raising nearly

$1.2 billion.
0c #1+Tata Steel acquires Singapore-based steel
company NatSteel by subscribing to 100 per cent
equity of its subsidiary, NatSteel Asia.
0c #/+ Tata Motors launched Tata Nano, world·s
cheapest family car.
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Ý
Ý
 
  



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Ê 

2'''2''%343(35$(3$55(678$59+

c3$3$)%343(35$

The Training Center at the Lucknow plant aims at

providing high quality Apprenticeship Training. In
addition, the Centre provides both internal and external
training, support to operators, supervisors and managers
in areas like special skills and technology, safety,
personnel practices etc.
The Lucknow plant, after a major restructuring exercise,
executed a smooth transition from function-based to
process-based structure. By this structure, process
owners are required to meet stretched targets, and in
order to do so, are required to encourage individual
learning and development of employees. A structured
process is being followed to establish and reinforce an
environment that encourages innovation.

c((':;<&%343(35$

Lucknow Plant started with the assembly of Medium

Commercial Vehicles (MCVs) to meet the demand in the
Northern Indian market. However, in 1995, the unit
started manufacturing bus chassis of Light Commercial
Vehicles (LCVs) and SUMOs. The facilities for
manufacturing the spare parts were set up and started
supply of Crown wheel & pinion (CWP) in 1994.
Subsequently, G-16 & G-18 Gear Parts started in 1998.
With the availability of G-16 gear parts manufacturing
facility, the Plant also started assembly of G-16 Gear Box
to meet in-house requirement for SUMO vehicles in the
year 2000.Now TATA Motors Lucknow has started

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assembling of CNG MCV`s to meet the consumers

demand. TATA Motors is also producing Rear Engine
CV`s.

c$6=763$)343(35$

In TATA Motors Lucknow Crown Wheel and Pinion are

manufactured by various gear cutting process.
Machining (grinding and heat treatment) of Gear Box
parts is also done here. These gears are used in gear
boxes or as spares. Now TATA Motors is assembling Gear
Box of ACE (Newly launched small ²CV) in Lucknow
itself. The Manufacturing unit of Tata Motors at Lucknow
is the latest manufacturing facility of Tata motors and is
located towards East of Lucknow plant©cc
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6

66  
A crown wheel is a type of circular gear wheel with teeth
that extend perpendicular to the base. While a traditional
gear features teeth that sit parallel to the edges of the
base, a crown wheel's teeth sit on the surface of the
wheel, forming a crown-like shape. Crown wheels are
considered a type of beveled gear, which is the general
term for all gears with teeth located on the surface of the
wheel rather than the edges. The teeth on a beveled
wheel may be placed at any angle to the surface, while
the crown wheel teeth are distinguished by the fact that
they are positioned at a 90-degree angle to the gear.

These gears are often used along with a pinion to rotate a

mechanical device. They are used in many automotive
applications, as well as in industrial and manufacturing
equipment. Many vehicles rely on crown wheel and
pinion systems to create the vehicle's forward motion, or
to rotate the axles. A crown wheel gear is also used with
a pinion to operate a traditional mechanical clock.

While standard gears line up edge to edge, crown wheels

mesh at an angle with pinions or other gears. Rather
than being located in the same plane, the two gears are
positioned at an angle, or perpendicular to one another.
This allows the teeth in the gears to fit together and
transfer motion or force between various operating
components.

There are three basic types of crown wheel for buyers to

choose from. Standard models have squared-off teeth
that sit parallel to the top of the gear. This design results
in a high level of vibration and noise when these gears
are used. Spiral gears use teeth with angled edges,
resulting in quieter performance, but also in faster wear

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and o ain nan poid o n h l are si ilar

to spiral models, b t work with an o set pinion to create
better stren th and performance.

Users sho ld select crown wheel gears carefull to match

the needs of the application. The si e and pattern of the
teeth on the wheel must fit exactl with all adjacent gears
or pinions. It is also helpful to choose higher quality
gears, because are more precisely made to minimi e
noise and vibration. The material used to manufacture
these gears is also a critical factor. If one gear is harder
than the adjacent one, it will rapidly wear away the edges
of the softer gear, shortening the life of the installation.

63 6   6
  Ê    
 66  6   " 

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A |
 is a rotating machine part having cut ? ?
, or

, which  
with another toothed part in order to
transmit torque. Two or more gears working in tandem
are called a ? 

 and can produce a mechanical
advantage through a gear ratio and thus may be
considered a simple machine. Geared devices can change
the speed, magnitude, and direction of a power source.
The most common situation is for a gear to mesh with
another gear, however a gear can also mesh a non-
rotating toothed part, called a rack, thereby producing
translation instead of rotation.

The gears in a transmission are analogous to the wheels

in a pulley. An advantage of gears is that the teeth of a
gear prevent slipping.

When two gears of unequal number of teeth are

combined a mechanical advantage is produced, with both
the rotational speeds and the torques of the two gears
differing in a simple relationship.

In transmissions which offer multiple gear ratios, such

as bicycles and cars, the term |
, as in ¦
? , refers
to a gear ratio rather than an actual physical gear. The
term is used to describe similar devices even when gear
ratio is continuous rather than discrete, or when the
device does not actually contain any gears, as in a
continuously variable transmission.

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5:>3(5$93252'%34':'72$3(:(
The definite velocity ratio which results from having teeth
gives gears an advantage over other drives (such as
traction drives and V-belts) in precision machines such
as watches that depend upon an exact velocity ratio. In
cases where driver and follower are in close proximity
gears also have an advantage over other drives in the
reduced number of parts required; the downside is that
gears are more expensive to manufacture and their
lubrication requirements may impose a higher operating
cost.

The automobile transmission allows selection between

gears to give various mechanical advantages.











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 ? 

 3  
 |


Internal gear

An ?     is one with the teeth formed on the

outer surface of a cylinder or cone. Conversely, an

?     is one with the teeth formed on the inner

surface of a cylinder or cone. For bevel gears, an internal
gear is one with the pitch angle exceeding 90 degrees.
Internal gears do not cause direction reversal.

# 6

Spur gear

g
  or ?

?
?  are the simplest type of
gear. They consist of a cylinder or disk, and with the
teeth projecting radially, and although they are not
straight-sided in form, the edge of each tooth thus is
straight and aligned parallel to the axis of rotation. These
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gears can be meshed together correctly only if they are

fitted to parallel axles.

0  3


Helical gears
Top parallel configuration
Bottom: crossed configuration

’
   offer a refinement over spur gears. The
leading edges of the teeth are not parallel to the axis of
rotation, but are set at an angle. Since the gear is curved,
this angling causes the tooth shape to be a segment of a
helix. Helical gears can be meshed in a  or
  orientations. The former refers to when the
shafts are parallel to each other; this is the most
common orientation. In the latter, the shafts are non-
parallel.

The angled teeth engage more gradually than do spur

gear teeth causing them to run more smoothly and
quietly. With parallel helical gears, each pair of teeth first
make contact at a single point at one side of the gear
wheel; a moving curve of contact then grows gradually
across the tooth face to a maximum then recedes until
the teeth break contact at a single point on the opposite
side. In spur gears teeth suddenly meet at a line contact
across their entire width causing stress and noise. Spur
gears make a characteristic whine at high speeds and
can not take as much torque as helical gears. Whereas

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spur gears are used for low speed applications and those
situations where noise control is not a problem, the use
of helical gears is indicated when the application involves
high speeds, large power transmission, or where noise
abatement is important. The speed is considered to be
high when the pitch line velocity exceeds 25 m/s.

A disadvantage of helical gears is a resultant thrust along

the axis of the gear, which needs to be accommodated by
appropriate thrust bearings, and a greater degree of
sliding friction between the meshing teeth, often
addressed with additives in the lubricant.

For a crossed configuration the gears must have the

same pressure angle and normal pitch, however the helix
angle and handedness can be different. The relationship
between the two shafts is actually defined by the helix
angle(s) of the two shafts and the handedness, as
defined:

 = ǃ1 + ǃ2 for gears of the same handedness

 = ǃ1 ï ǃ2 for gears of opposite handedness

Where ǃ is the helix angle for the gear. The crossed

configuration is less mechanically sound because there is
only a point contact between the gears, whereas in the
parallel configuration there is a line contact.

Quite commonly helical gears are used with the helix

angle of one having the negative of the helix angle of the
other; such a pair might also be referred to as having a
right-handed helix and a left-handed helix of equal
angles. The two equal but opposite angles add to zero:
the angle between shafts is zero ² that is, the shafts are


. Where the sum or the difference (as described in
the equations above) is not zero the shafts are  .

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For shafts   at right angles the helix angles are of

the same hand because they must add to 90 degrees.

. 56  3


Double helical gears

Double helical gears, or


  , overcome the
problem of axial thrust presented by "single" helical gears
by having two sets of teeth that are set in a V shape.
Each gear in a double helical gear can be thought of as
two standard mirror image helical gears stacked. This
cancels out the thrust since each half of the gear thrusts
in the opposite direction. Double helical gears are more
difficult to manufacture due to their more complicated
shape.

For each possible direction of rotation, there are two

possible arrangements of two oppositely-oriented helical
gears or gear faces. In one possible orientation, the
helical gear faces are oriented so that the axial force
generated by each is in the axial direction away from the
center of the gear; this arrangement is unstable. In the
second possible orientation, which is stable, the helical
gear faces are oriented so that each axial force is toward
the mid-line of the gear. In both arrangements, when the
gears are aligned correctly, the total (or ?) axial force on
each gear is zero. If the gears become misaligned in the
axial direction, the unstable arrangement generates a net
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force for disassembly of the gear train, while the stable

arrangement generates a net corrective force. If the
direction of rotation is reversed, the direction of the axial
thrusts is reversed, a stable configuration becomes
unstable, and Œ
 Π.

Stable double helical gears can be directly interchanged

with spur gears without any need for different bearings.

1 "


Bevel gear

A bevel gear is shaped like a right circular cone with

most of its tip cut off. When two bevel gears mesh their
imaginary vertices must occupy the same point. Their
shaft axes also intersect at this point, forming an
arbitrary non-straight angle between the shafts. The
angle between the shafts can be anything except zero or
180 degrees. Bevel gears with equal numbers of teeth
and shaft axes at 90 degrees are called 
?  .

The teeth of a bevel gear may be straight-cut as with

spur gears, or they may be cut in a variety of other
shapes. g
  Π  teeth are curved along the
tooth s length and set at an angle, analogously to the way
helical gear teeth are set at an angle compared to spur
gear teeth.    Π  have teeth which are curved
along their length, but not angled. Spiral bevel gears
have the same advantages and disadvantages relative to
their straight-cut cousins as helical gears do to spur
gears. Straight bevel gears are generally used only at
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speeds below 5 m/s (1000 ft/min), or, for small gears,

1000 r.p.m.

 & 53

Hypoid gear

Hypoid gears resemble spiral bevel gears except the shaft

axes do not intersect. The pitch surfaces appear conical
but, to compensate for the offset shaft, are in fact
hyperboloids of revolution. Hypoid gears are almost
always designed to operate with shafts at 90 degrees.
Depending on which side the shaft is offset to, relative to
the angling of the teeth, contact between hypoid gear
teeth may be even smoother and more gradual than with
spiral bevel gear teeth. Also, the pinion can be designed
with fewer teeth than a spiral bevel pinion, with the
result that gear ratios of 60:1 and higher are feasible
using a single set of hypoid gears. This style of gear is
most commonly found in mechanical differentials.

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-
5

Crown gear

"   or  ??   are a particular form of

bevel gear whose teeth project at right angles to the plane
of the wheel; in their orientation the teeth resemble the
points on a crown. A crown gear can only mesh
accurately with another bevel gear, although crown gears
are sometimes seen meshing with spur gears. A crown
gear is also sometimes meshed with an escapement such
as found in mechanical clocks.

, 5

Worm gear

6  resemble screws. A worm gear is usually

meshed with an ordinary looking, disk-shaped gear,
which is called the  , 
, or 
.

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Worm-and-gear sets are a simple and compact way to

achieve a high torque, low speed gear ratio. For example,
helical gears are normally limited to gear ratios of less
than 10:1 while worm-and-gear sets vary from 10:1 to
500:1. A disadvantage is the potential for considerable
sliding action, leading to low efficiency.

Worm gears can be considered a species of helical gear,

but its helix angle is usually somewhat large (close to 90
degrees) and its body is usually fairly long in the axial
direction; and it is these attributes which give it its screw
like qualities. The distinction between a worm and a
helical gear is made when at least one tooth persists for a
full rotation around the helix. If this occurs, it is a
'worm'; if not, it is a 'helical gear'. A worm may have as
few as one tooth. If that tooth persists for several turns
around the helix, the worm will appear, superficially, to
have more than one tooth, but what one in fact sees is
the same tooth reappearing at intervals along the length
of the worm. The usual screw nomenclature applies: a
one-toothed worm is called  

 or  
 ; a
worm with more than one tooth is called
 

or
 
. The helix angle of a worm is not usually
specified. Instead, the lead angle, which is equal to 90
degrees minus the helix angle, is given.

In a worm-and-gear set, the worm can always drive the

gear. However, if the gear attempts to drive the worm, it
may or may not succeed. Particularly if the lead angle is
small, the gear's teeth may simply lock against the
worm's teeth, because the force component
circumferential to the worm is not sufficient to overcome
friction. Worm-and-gear sets that do lock are called ('<=
<5783$), which can be used to advantage, as for instance
when it is desired to set the position of a mechanism by
turning the worm and then have the mechanism hold

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that position. An example is the machine head found on

some types of stringed instruments.

If the gear in a worm-and-gear set is an ordinary helical

gear only a single point of contact will be achieved. If
medium to high power transmission is desired, the tooth
shape of the gear is modified to achieve more intimate
contact by making both gears partially envelop each
other. This is done by making both concave and joining
them at a saddle point; this is called a 5  3
.

Worm gears can be right or left-handed following the long

established practice for screw threads.

/ 5 36


Non-circular gears

Non-circular gears are designed for special purposes.

While a regular gear is optimized to transmit torque to
another engaged member with minimum noise and wear
and maximum efficiency, a non-circular gear's main
objective might be ratio variations, axle displacement
oscillations and more. Common applications include
textile machines, potentiometers and continuously
variable transmissions.

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8
 335

Rack and pinion gearing

A rack is a toothed bar or rod that can be thought of as a

sector gear with an infinitely large radius of curvature.
Torque can be converted to linear force by meshing a
rack with a pinion: the pinion turns; the rack moves in a
straight line. Such a mechanism is used in automobiles
to convert the rotation of the steering wheel into the left-
to-right motion of the tie rod(s). Racks also feature in the
theory of gear geometry, where, for instance, the tooth
shape of an interchangeable set of gears may be specified
for the rack (infinite radius), and the tooth shapes for
gears of particular actual radii then derived from that.
The rack and pinion gear type is employed in a rack
railway.

 3&3

Epicyclic gearing

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In epicyclic gearing one or more of the gear axes moves.

Examples are sun and planet gearing (see below) and
mechanical differentials.

# 6
 
 

Sun (yellow) and planet (red) gearing

Sun and planet gearing was a method of converting

reciprocal motion into rotary motion in steam engines. It
played an important role in the Industrial Revolution.
The Sun is yellow, the planet red, the reciprocating crank
is blue, the flywheel is green and the driveshaft is grey.

. 
 53 3

Harmonic drive gearing

A


Πis a specialized proprietary gearing
mechanism.

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1

| |


A   , also called a  ?    or  ?  


has cylindrical rods for teeth, parallel to the axle and
arranged in a circle around it, much as the bars on a
round bird cage or lantern. The assembly is held together
by disks at either end into which the tooth rods and axle
are set.

5 
6
  
 5 
6

Rotational frequency, n
Measured in rotation over time, such as RPM.

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Angular frequency, ǚ

Measured in radians per second. 1Æ
= Ǒ / 30

rad/second

Number of teeth, N

How many teeth a gear has, an integer. In the case

of worms, it is the number of thread starts that the
worm has.

Gear, wheel

The larger of two interacting gears.

Pinion

The smaller of two interacting gears.

Path of contact

Path followed by the point of contact between two

meshing gear teeth.

Line of action, pressure line

Line along which the force between two meshing

gear teeth is directed. It has the same direction as
the force vector. In general, the line of action
changes from moment to moment during the period
of engagement of a pair of teeth. For involute gears,
however, the tooth-to-tooth force is always directed
along the same line³that is, the line of action is
constant. This implies that for involute gears the
path of contact is also a straight line, coincident
with the line of action³as is indeed the case.

Axis

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Axis of revolution of the gear; center line of the shaft.

Pitch point, p
Point where the line of action crosses a line joining
the two gear axes.
Pitch circle, pitch line
Circle centered on and perpendicular to the axis,
and passing through the pitch point. A predefined
diametral position on the gear where the circular
tooth thickness, pressure angle and helix angles are
defined.
Pitch diameter, d
A predefined diametral position on the gear where
the circular tooth thickness, pressure angle and
helix angles are defined. The standard pitch
diameter is a basic dimension and cannot be
measured, but is a location where other
measurements are made. Its value is based on the
number of teeth, the normal module (or normal
diametral pitch), and the helix angle. It is calculated
as:

in metric units or in imperial

units.
Module, m
A scaling factor used in metric gears with units in
millimeters who's effect is to enlarge the gear tooth
size as the module increases and reduce the size as
the module decreases. Module can be defined in the

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normal ( ), the transverse (?), or the axial planes

() depending on the design approach employed
and the type of gear being designed. Module is
typically an input value into the gear design and is
seldom calculated.
Operating pitch diameters
Diameters determined from the number of teeth and
the center distance at which gears operate. Example
for pinion:

Pitch surface
In cylindrical gears, cylinder formed by projecting a
pitch circle in the axial direction. More generally, the
surface formed by the sum of all the pitch circles as
one moves along the axis. For bevel gears it is a
cone.
Angle of action
Angle with vertex at the gear center, one leg on the
point where mating teeth first make contact, the
other leg on the point where they disengage.
Arc of action
Segment of a pitch circle subtended by the angle of
action.
Pressure angle, lj
The complement of the angle between the direction
that the teeth exert force on each other, and the line

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joining the centers of the two gears. For involute

gears, the teeth always exert force along the line of
action, which, for involute gears, is a straight line;
and thus, for involute gears, the pressure angle is
constant.

Outside diameter, d

Diameter of the gear, measured from the tops of the

teeth.

Root diameter

Diameter of the gear, measured at the base of the

tooth.

Addendum, a

Radial distance from the pitch surface to the

outermost point of the tooth.
= (d ï d) / 2

Dedendum, b

Radial distance from the depth of the tooth trough to

the pitch surface.
= (d ï  
) / 2

Whole depth, 

The distance from the top of the tooth to the root; it

is equal to addendum plus dedendum or to working
depth plus clearance.

Clearance

Distance between the root circle of a gear and the

addendum circle of its mate.

Working depth

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Depth of engagement of two gears, that is, the sum

of their operating addendums.

Circular pitch, p

Distance from one face of a tooth to the

corresponding face of an adjacent tooth on the same
gear, measured along the pitch circle.

Diametral pitch, 

Ratio of the number of teeth to the pitch diameter.

Could be measured in teeth per inch or teeth per
centimeter.

Base circle

In involute gears, where the tooth profile is the

involute of the base circle. The radius of the base
circle is somewhat smaller than that of the pitch
circle.

Base pitch, normal pitch,

In involute gears, distance from one face of a tooth

to the corresponding face of an adjacent tooth on the
same gear, measured along the base circle.

Interference

Contact between teeth other than at the intended

parts of their surfaces.

Interchangeable set

A set of gears, any of which will mate properly with

any other.

'<37<)'$5:'$7<6'
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Helix angle, Ǚ

Angle between a tangent to the helix and the gear

axis. Is zero in the limiting case of a spur gear.

Normal circular pitch,

Circular pitch in the plane normal to the teeth.

Transverse circular pitch, p

Circular pitch in the plane of rotation of the gear.

Sometimes just called "circular pitch". = cos(Ǚ)

Several other helix parameters can be viewed either in

the normal or transverse planes. The subscript n usually
indicates the normal.

5:)'$5:'$7<6'

Lead

Distance from any point on a thread to the

corresponding point on the next turn of the same
thread, measured parallel to the axis.

Linear pitch, p

Distance from any point on a thread to the

corresponding point on the adjacent thread,
measured parallel to the axis. For a single-thread
worm, lead and linear pitch are the same.

Lead angle, nj

Angle between a tangent to the helix and a plane

perpendicular to the axis. Note that it is the
complement of the helix angle which is usually given
for helical gears.

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Pitch diameter, 
Same as described earlier in this list. Note that for a
worm it is still measured in a plane perpendicular to
the gear axis, not a tilted plane.

Subscript w denotes the worm, subscript g denotes the

gear.

55 5
 5 
6

Path of Plane of
Line of contact action Line of
action action

Lines of contact Length of

(helical gear) Arc of actionaction Limit
diameter

Face advance Zone of

action
Point of contact
Any point at which two tooth profiles touch each
other.
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Line of contact

A line or curve along which two tooth surfaces are

tangent to each other.

Path of action

The locus of successive contact points between a

pair of gear teeth, during the phase of engagement.
For conjugate gear teeth, the path of action passes
through the pitch point. It is the trace of the surface
of action in the plane of rotation.

Line of action

The path of action for involute gears. It is the

straight line passing through the pitch point and
tangent to both base circles.

Surface of action

The imaginary surface in which contact occurs

between two engaging tooth surfaces. It is the
summation of the paths of action in all sections of
the engaging teeth.

Plane of action

The surface of action for involute, parallel axis gears

with either spur or helical teeth. It is tangent to the
base cylinders.

Zone of action (contact zone)

For involute, parallel-axis gears with either spur or

helical teeth, is the rectangular area in the plane of
action bounded by the length of action and the
effective face width.

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Path of contact

The curve on either tooth surface along which

theoretical single point contact occurs during the
engagement of gears with crowned tooth surfaces or
gears that normally engage with only single point
contact.

Length of action

The distance on the line of action through which the

point of contact moves during the action of the tooth
profile.

Arc of action, Qt

The arc of the pitch circle through which a tooth

profile moves from the beginning to the end of
contact with a mating profile.

Arc of approach, Qa

The arc of the pitch circle through which a tooth

profile moves from its beginning of contact until the
point of contact arrives at the pitch point.

Arc of recess, Qr

The arc of the pitch circle through which a tooth

profile moves from contact at the pitch point until
contact ends.

Contact ratio, m c, dž

The number of angular pitches through which a

tooth surface rotates from the beginning to the end
of contact.In a simple way, it can be defined as a
measure of the average number of teeth in contact

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during the period in which a tooth comes and goes

out of contact with the mating gear.
Transverse contact ratio, mp, džǂ
The contact ratio in a transverse plane. It is the ratio
of the angle of action to the angular pitch. For
involute gears it is most directly obtained as the
ratio of the length of action to the base pitch.
Face contact ratio, mF , džǃ
The contact ratio in an axial plane, or the ratio of
the face width to the axial pitch. For bevel and
hypoid gears it is the ratio of face advance to
circular pitch.
Total contact ratio, mt, džDŽ
The sum of the transverse contact ratio and the face
contact ratio.
džDŽ = džǂ + džǃ
t = p + F
Modified contact ratio, mo
For bevel gears, the square root of the sum of the
squares of the transverse and face contact ratios.

Limit diameter
Diameter on a gear at which the line of action
intersects the maximum (or minimum for internal
pinion) addendum circle of the mating gear. This is
also referred to as the start of active profile, the start

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of contact, the end of contact, or the end of active

profile.
Start of active profile (SAP)
Intersection of the limit diameter and the involute
profile.
Face advance
Distance on a pitch circle through which a helical or
spiral tooth moves from the position at which
contact begins at one end of the tooth trace on the
pitch surface to the position where contact ceases at
the other end.

55  38  5 
6

Tooth Chordal Tooth thickness

thickness Thickness thickness measurement
relationships
over pins

Span Long and

measurement short
addendum
teeth
Circular thickness

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Length of arc between the two sides of a gear tooth,

on the specified datum circle.

Transverse circular thickness

Circular thickness in the transverse plane.

Normal circular thickness

Circular thickness in the normal plane. In a helical

gear it may be considered as the length of arc along
a normal helix.

Axial thickness

In helical gears and worms, tooth thickness in an

axial cross section at the standard pitch diameter.

Base circular thickness

In involute teeth, length of arc on the base circle

between the two involute curves forming the profile
of a tooth.

Normal chordal thickness

Length of the chord that subtends a circular

thickness arc in the plane normal to the pitch helix.
Any convenient measuring diameter may be
selected, not necessarily the standard pitch
diameter.

Chordal addendum (chordal height)

Height from the top of the tooth to the chord

subtending the circular thickness arc. Any
convenient measuring diameter may be selected, not
necessarily the standard pitch diameter.

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Profile shift

Displacement of the basic rack datum line from the

reference cylinder, made non-dimensional by
dividing by the normal module. It is used to specify
the tooth thickness, often for zero backlash.

Rack shift

Displacement of the tool datum line from the

reference cylinder, made non-dimensional by
dividing by the normal module. It is used to specify
the tooth thickness.

Measurement over pins

Measurement of the distance taken over a pin

positioned in a tooth space and a reference surface.
The reference surface may be the reference axis of
the gear, a datum surface or either one or two pins
positioned in the tooth space or spaces opposite the
first. This measurement is used to determine tooth
thickness.

Span measurement

Measurement of the distance across several teeth in

a normal plane. As long as the measuring device has
parallel measuring surfaces that contact on an
unmodified portion of the involute, the measurement
will be along a line tangent to the base cylinder. It is
used to determine tooth thickness.

Modified addendum teeth

Teeth of engaging gears, one or both of which have

non-standard addendum.
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Full-depth teeth
Teeth in which the working depth equals 2.000
divided by the normal diametral pitch.
Stub teeth
Teeth in which the working depth is less than 2.000
divided by the normal diametral pitch.
Equal addendum teeth
Teeth in which two engaging gears have equal
addendums.
Long and short-addendum teeth
Teeth in which the addendums of two engaging
gears are unequal.

Ê3 5 
6

Ê3 is the distance between a point on one tooth and

the corresponding point on an adjacent tooth. It is a
dimension measured along a line or curve in the
transverse, normal, or axial directions. The use of the
single word
?
without qualification may be
ambiguous, and for this reason it is preferable to use
specific designations such as transverse circular pitch,
normal base pitch, axial pitch.

Base pitch Principal

Pitch Tooth pitch relationships pitches
Circular pitch,

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Arc distance along a specified pitch circle or pitch

line between corresponding profiles of adjacent
teeth.

Transverse circular pitch, t

Circular pitch in the transverse plane.

Normal circular pitch, n, e

Circular pitch in the normal plane, and also the

length of the arc along the normal pitch helix
between helical teeth or threads.
Axial pitch, x

Linear pitch in an axial plane and in a pitch surface.

In helical gears and worms, axial pitch has the same
value at all diameters. In gearing of other types,
axial pitch may be confined to the pitch surface and
may be a circular measurement. The term axial
pitch is preferred to the term linear pitch. The axial
pitch of a helical worm and the circular pitch of its
worm gear are the same.

Normal base pitch, N, bn

An involute helical gear is the base pitch in the

normal plane. It is the normal distance between
parallel helical involute surfaces on the plane of
action in the normal plane, or is the length of arc on
the normal base helix. It is a constant distance in
any helical involute gear.

Transverse base pitch, b, bt

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In an involute gear, the pitch on the base circle or

along the line of action. Corresponding sides of
involute gear teeth are parallel curves, and the base
pitch is the constant and fundamental distance
between them along a common normal in a
transverse plane.
Diametral pitch (transverse), Êd
Ratio of the number of teeth to the standard pitch
diameter in inches.

Normal diametral pitch, Ênd

Value of diametral pitch in a normal plane of a
helical gear or worm.

Angular pitch, ljN, Ǖ

Angle subtended by the circular pitch, usually
expressed in radians.

degrees or radians

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"78<(2

Backlash is the error in motion that occurs when gears

change direction. It exists because there is always some
gap between the trailing face of the driving tooth and the
leading face of the tooth behind it on the driven gear, and
that gap must be closed before force can be transferred
in the new direction. The term "backlash" can also be
used to refer to the size of the gap, not just the
phenomenon it causes; thus, one could speak of a pair of
gears as having, for example, "0.1 mm of backlash." A
pair of gears could be designed to have zero backlash,
but this would presuppose perfection in manufacturing,
uniform thermal expansion characteristics throughout
the system, and no lubricant. Therefore, gear pairs are
designed to have some backlash. It is usually provided by
reducing the tooth thickness of each gear by half the
desired gap distance. In the case of a large gear and a
small pinion, however, the backlash is usually taken
entirely off the gear and the pinion is given full sized
teeth. Backlash can also be provided by moving the gears
farther apart.

For situations, such as instrumentation and control,

where precision is important, backlash can be minimised
through one of several techniques. For instance, the gear
can be split along a plane perpendicular to the axis, one
half fixed to the shaft in the usual manner, the other half
placed alongside it, free to rotate about the shaft, but
with springs between the two halves providing relative
torque between them, so that one achieves, in effect, a
single gear with expanding teeth. Another method
involves tapering the teeth in the axial direction and
providing for the gear to be slid in the axial direction to
take up slack.

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 3 3| 5 |


In some machines (e.g., automobiles) it is necessary to

alter the gear ratio to suit the task. There are several
methods of accomplishing this. For example:

îc Manual transmission
îc Automatic gearbox
îc Derailleur gears which are actually sprockets in
combination with a roller chain
îc Hub gears (also called epicyclic gearing or sun-and-
planet gears)

There are several outcomes of gear shifting in motor

vehicles. In the case of air pollution emissions, there are
higher pollutant emissions generated in the lower gears,
when the engine is working harder than when higher
gears have been attained. In the case of vehicle noise
emissions, there are higher sound levels emitted when
the vehicle is engaged in lower gears. This fact has been
utilized in analyzing vehicle generated sound since the
late 1960s, and has been incorporated into the
simulation of urban roadway noise and corresponding
design of urban noise barriers along roadways.

55 5 3

Profile of a spur gear

Undercut

A profile is one side of a tooth in a cross section between

the outside circle and the root circle. Usually a profile is
the curve of intersection of a tooth surface and a plane or

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surface normal to the pitch surface, such as the

transverse, normal, or axial plane.

The fillet curve (root fillet) is the concave portion of the

tooth profile where it joins the bottom of the tooth space.

As mentioned near the beginning of the article, the

attainment of a non fluctuating velocity ratio is
dependent on the profile of the teeth. Friction and wear
between two gears is also dependent on the tooth profile.
There are a great many tooth profiles that will give a
constant velocity ratio, and in many cases, given an
arbitrary tooth shape, it is possible to develop a tooth
profile for the mating gear that will give a constant
velocity ratio. However, two constant velocity tooth
profiles have been by far the most commonly used in
modern times. They are the cycloid and the involute. The
cycloid was more common until the late 1800s; since
then the involute has largely superseded it, particularly
in drive train applications. The cycloid is in some ways
the more interesting and flexible shape; however the
involute has two advantages: it is easier to manufacture,
and it permits the center to center spacing of the gears to
vary over some range without ruining the constancy of
the velocity ratio. Cycloidal gears only work properly if
the center spacing is exactly right. Cycloidal gears are
still used in mechanical clocks.

An undercut is a condition in generated gear teeth when

any part of the fillet curve lies inside of a line drawn
tangent to the working profile at its point of juncture
with the fillet. Undercut may be deliberately introduced
to facilitate finishing operations. With undercut the fillet
curve intersects the working profile. Without undercut
the fillet curve and the working profile have a common
tangent.


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 3


Wooden gears of a historic windmill

Numerous nonferrous alloys, cast irons, powder-

metallurgy and even plastics are used in the
manufacture of gears. However steels are most commonly
used because of their high strength to weight ratio and
low cost. Plastic is commonly used where cost or weight
is a concern. A properly designed plastic gear can replace
steel in many cases because it has many desirable
properties, including dirt tolerance, low speed meshing,
and the ability to "skip" quite well. Manufacturers have
employed plastic gears to make consumer items
affordable in items like copy machines, optical storage
devices, VCRs, cheap dynamos, consumer audio
equipment, servo motors, and printers.

 56 & 

Countries which have adopted the metric system

generally use the module system. As a result, the term
module is usually understood to mean the pitch diameter
in millimeters divided by the number of teeth. When the
module is based upon inch measurements, it is known
as the  


to avoid confusion with the metric
module. Module is a direct dimension, whereas diametral
pitch is an inverse dimension (like "threads per inch").
Thus, if the pitch diameter of a gear is 40 mm and the


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number of teeth 20, the module is 2, which means that

there are 2 mm of pitch diameter for each tooth.


6
6

Gear are most commonly produced via hobbing, but they

are also shaped, broached, cast, and in the case of
plastic gears, injection molded. For metal gears the teeth
are usually heat treated to make them hard and more
wear resistant while leaving the core soft and tough. For
large gears that are prone to warp a quench press is
used.

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Ê
 

  Ê


   Ê
-TheNo.610 Universal Hypoid

Gear Machine sets new standards in precision high
speed roughing and finishing of medium and large non-
generated hypoid and spiral bevel gears.The No.610
Machine offers many production and advantages where
quantities are insufficient to justify separate roughing
and finishing machines.Desinged primarily for use in
the truck,tractor and off the road equipment field,the
No.610 accomodate gear members upto 20µ in diameter
and a minimum ratio of 2-1/4-1.maximum whole depth
is 1.000µ.

When the work head is in the horizontal level-

load position,the work can be rapidly and conveniently
loaded.This feature provides the added benefit of
safety.The work spindle is widely separated from the
cutter,when the gears are mounted or removed.

An overhead tieprovides a fixed relationship

between cutter and work.When the work head is raised
into the cutting position,the tie is hydraulically
clamped.Hydraulic pressure on the clamp is maintained
through the cutting cycle.

A new hydraulic mechanism rigidly clamps the

work spindle to the housing,providing increased rigidity
during cutting and loading to improved surface finish
and tooth spacing.The clamp is automatically released
each time the work is indexed.In additionto the

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overhead tie and the work spindle clamp,rigidity is

assured as the cutting forces are directed vertically
downwards against the machine bed.When the work
head is raised into cutting position,the rotating cutter
contacts the work,so that the blades pass down the
tooth slotlocated at the lowest point on the roughed
gear.This design utilizes the weight of the machine in
obtaining maximum rigidity.

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63|6 #   Ê 
 
 

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-


-No generating motion is

employed.Roughed out gears are finished accurately
and quickly by the single cycle cutter,which rotates
uniformly completing one tooth with each
revolution.Indexing takes place in the large gap of the
cutterand the machine stops automatically at the
completion of the last tooth.

Roughing is accomplished by a simple depth

feed motion of the cutter into the work .indexing takes
place when the cutter withdraws from the tooth
slot.One tooth slot is roughed with ech revolution of the
feed cam.The number of turns of the cutter depends on
the depth of the tooth slot.

#-For low production quantities,the CYCLEX

method may be used to rapidly produce
FORMATE,hypoid and spiral bevel gears in one
operation from the solid.

In this form of CYCLEX cutter,the roughing and

semi-finishing blades are of gradually increasing height
and the two finishing blades are located so that their
top and cutting edges are slightly below those of the
other blades.

During the cutting cycle.the cutter makes a

number of revolution for roughing operation,as the
cutter is fed into the work by means of cam.Since the
finishing blades are set lower than the preceding blades

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they do not engage the work during this position of the

cutting cycle.

As the semi-finishing blades are passing

through the tooth slot at full roughing depth,the cutter
speed is reduced.The cutter is then quickly
advanced,and the two finishing blades complete the
tooth profile shape. The cutter is then rapidly
withdrawn so that the roughing blades do not contact
the work. Further withdrawal of the cutter provides
clearance necessary for indexing.

0 
-As each blade of a HELIX FORM cutter

passes through a tooth space,the cutter is advanced
axially then quickly withdrawn, before the following
cutter blade enters the tooth space. The combined
motion makes the path of the cutter tip tangent to the
root plane of the gear being cut.

The cutter computes one tooth with each revolution.

Indexing takes place when the large gap in the cutter is
beside the blank.

The HELIX FORM method of cutting produces

gear tooth surfaces which are close to the true
mathematical conjugacy with the mating pinion. It also
minimises development.

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cc

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-A blank is mounted on the work spindle and
chucked manually. The cycle starts and the dual control
buttons are activated, the work head raises to the cutting
position, is hydraulically clamped for rigidity and the feed
and coolant motor starts.

The cutting cycle is controlled by the feed cam

which feeds the cutter into the work. Indexing and
Chamfering is done during a dwell in the feed cam while
the cutter is in the rear position. In the case of CYCLEX
cutting set-in takes place at full depth as the two
finishing blades pass through the cut. After all the
teeth have been cut, the machine automatically stops,
the work head unclamps and lowers to the loading
positon.

 
    -A

roughed gear is mounted on the work spindle and
chucked manually. The cycle starts and dual control
buttons are activated, the work head raises to the
cutting position, is hydraulically clamped for rigidity
and the feed and coolant motors start. The cutter
completes one tooth with each revolution and indexing
take place in the large gap of the cutter. After all the
tooth have been cut, the machine automatically stops ,
the work head unclamps and lowers to the loading
position.

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Ê  

 -The heaters in

the hydraulic unit warm the oil when the hydraulic unit
is running because the hydrostatic bearings for the
cutter spindle require warm oil. The heaters are set at
the factory for 150 degrees fahrenheit and the
thermostat cuts out when the temperature reaches 90.
Light will come on and enable the machine to operate.

#
  -These lights show if a wire has

come loose somewhere and is touching the machine.
Normally these lights each have a dull pink glow . If
some wire becomes grounded, one light will dim and the
other will brighten significantly.

0   -If filter becomes clogged , this light

will come on. The machine will be inoperative until this
filter is cleaned. The machine does not stop in the
middle of a cycle , but completes it and will not start the
next.

.
 Ê


  -This counter

is set by the operator to the number of pieces to be cut
before the cutter is to be sharpened.

1 Ê   -This light comes on when

the machine has cut the amount of blanks preselected
on the production counter, signifying that the cutter
should be sharpened.

   -This switch connects and

disconnects the machine with the input power supply.

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-  
 -Before changing a

cutter, rotate this handle to the ¶lock· position, then
engage and secure the latch.

,   "
-After the main line

switch is closed, depress this button to start the
hydraulic, hydrostatic bearing and lubricating pump
motors.

/

  @"
 -When this light is ¶ON·, it
indicates the bore of the blank chucked on the arbor is
too large and the arbor drawrod has travelled too far.
This would make it unsafe to cut the part because there
would not be proper workholding pressure . The light
must be ·OUT· to run the machine.

  
Ê -Depress this button

to stop all machine functions. In an emergency, it is
more effective to depress this button than the cycle
button.

  -When ON , this light

indicates that the cutter is at the full depth. This light
must be ON when gaging the cutter for length.

#
Ê
 
 - This light is ON ,when the

feed cam stop zone is adjacent to the cam follower. To
begin an automatic cycle, this light must be ON.

0 "
-It is necessary to depress this

button prior to changing from a manual cycle to an
automatic cycle(not vice versa).

.
  -When ON , this light indicates

that an automatic machine cycle can be started by
depressing the cycle start and the dual control button.

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1
Ê  -This light comes ON when

the work spindle revolves 360 degrees. A cam on the
work spindle under the index plate contacts the 360
degrees switch. This indicates the work spindle has
made one revolution and all the teeth are cut. If the
index switch is OFF and the 360 degrees switch is
contacted , the machine can be run during setup and
not index off this position.

 "
-This button along with the

dual control button is used to jog the machine from the
main control panel when a manual mode is selected
and remote jog switch is set to RUN. This button is also
used to start an automatic cycle along with the dual
control button when an automatic mode has been
selected.

-
Ê"
-The machine can be stopped

at any time during an automatic cycle with this button.

,  -When ON , the machine can be run

in an automatic cycle.

/" 
 -When OFF, the feed

cam and cutter spindle can be rotated by hand. The
machine can only run with this switch in the ON
position.

# 

 

 !Change this switch setting when setting up
to cut a new job, different type of cutter than previously
used. Set to:

!3$3(2-for Single Cycle and HELIX FORM cutters, the

main motor will run at slow speed.

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;! 56)2-for TRIPLEX cutters, the main motor will run

at high speed.

7!&7<' -for CYCLEX cutters , the main motor will run

at high speed during the roughing portion of the cycle,
and will run at low speed when in finishing portion of
the cycle.

#
  
 -This

switch is used in setting up the outside chamfering tool
and may only be used when in manual cycle mode.
When the machine is to be operated in the automatic
cycle mode, set this switch to OUT.

##   
 -This

switch is used in setting up the inside chamfering tool
and may only be used when in manual cycle mode.
When the machine is to be operated in the automatic
cycle mode, set this switch to OUT.

#0 

"
-This button is used to

enable the feed cam to be easily put on center must be
set to JOG for this button to be operative, and will
make operator station inoperative when set on JOG as a
safety feature.

#. 

 -This switch allows

the use of both left hand and right hand cutters .

#1 

Ê -Set this switch to

high speed when roughing and to low speed when
finishing.

#  

-The cutter spindle

may be rotated manually by rotating the upper speed
pulley shaft when the brake is off
 

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Ê  



 Ê  The probable would be
either the cutter spindle or its housing would be
damaged.

#-
 By turning

this switch counter clockwise , the work holding
equipment is dechucked. By turning this switch
clockwise , the work holding equipment is chucked.

#,

"
This button is used in

conjunction with the cycle start buttonto begin either a
manual or auto cycle. Both buttons must be depressed
at the same time.

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 6 

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  6

cutters from 5µto 18µ may be used on this machine. A
marking screw , on the face of cutter head ,identifies
the blade setup by giving the point width and point
diameter of the setup. The blades are held in place in
the slots by bolts. The last blade of each set is marked
with the following information: the point width, set
serial number, ordering number and the blades
pressure angles.

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41/7 255
48/7 210
35/9 270
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!! ! ! !"! !
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Graph showing per day output

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 20Mn CR-5

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Carbon 0.17-0.22
Silicon 0.15-0.35
Manganese 1.0-1.4
Chromium 1.0-1.3
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Ê

Ê



Metal cutting is the outwardly simple process of

removing metal on a work piece in order to get a desired
shape by using a tool, either by rotating the workpiece
(as in a lathe) or by rotating the tool (as in a drilling
machine). But behind this simple process lie numerous
parameters that play their roles, from a small to a big
way, in deciding many things in the act of metal cutting,
including the speed of doing the job, the quality and
accuracy of the finish, the life of the tool, the cost of
production, and so on.

Some parameters involved in the metal cutting process

are in fact closely related with some other parameters in
the metal cutting process; playing with one will have an
influencing effect on another. Thus, even after several
years of experience, process planning engineers may find
difficulty in confidently declaring themselves as experts
in metal cutting!

!'3<:723$;3<3&+

The machinability of a material decides how easy or

difficult it is to cut it. The material·s hardness is one
factor that has a strong influence on the machinabilty.
Though a general statement like a soft material is easier
to cut than a harder material is true to a large extent, it
is not as simple as that. The ductility of a material also
plays a huge role.

#!63$)55<'3<+

In metal cutting, High Speed steel and Carbide are two

major tool materials widely used. Ceramic tools and CBN

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(Cubic Boron Nitride) are the other tool materials used

for machining very tough and hard materials. A tool·s
hardness, strength, wear resistance, and thermal
stability are the characteristics that decide how fast the
tool can cut efficiently on a job.

0!63$)(>''%$%(>3$%<'(>''%+

Cutting speed is the relative speed at which the tool

passes through the work material and removes metal. It
is normally expressed in meters per minute (or feet per
inch in British units). It has to do with the speed of
rotation of the workpiece or the tool, as the case may be.
The higher the cutting speed, the better the productivity.
For every work material and tool material combo, there is
always an ideal cutting speed available, and the tool
manufacturers generally give the guidelines for it.

Spindle speed: Spindle speed is expressed in RPM

(revolutions per minute). It is derived based on the
cutting speed and the work diameter cut (in case of
turning/ boring) or tool diameter (in case of drilling/
milling etc). If V is the cutting speed and D is the
diameter of cutting, then Spindle speed N =   d

.!'>25=76+

It indicates how much the tool digs into the component

(in mm) to remove material in the current pass.

1!''%'+

The relative speed at which the tool is linearly traversed

over the workpiece to remove the material. In case of
rotating tools with multiple cutting teeth (like a milling
cutter), the feed rate is first reckoned in terms of ´feed
per tooth,µ expressed in millimeter (mm/tooth). At the
next stage, it is ´feed per revolutionµ (mm/rev).

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In case of lathe operations, it is feed per revolution that

states how much a tool advances in one revolution of
workpiece. In case of milling, feed per revolution is
nothing but feed per tooth multiplied by the number of
teeth in the cutter.

To actually calculate the time taken for cutting a job, it is

´feed per minuteµ (in mm/min) that is useful. Feed per
minute is nothing but feed per revolution multiplied by
RPM of the spindle.

!55<)'5:'&+

For the tool to effectively dig into the component to

remove material most efficiently without rubbing, the
cutting tool tip is normally ground to different angles
(known as rake angle, clearance angles, relief angle,
approach angle, etc). The role played by these angles in a
tool geometry is a vast subject in itself.

-!55<$+

To take away the heat produced in cutting and also to

act as a lubricant in cutting to reduce tool wear, coolants
are used in metal cutting. Coolants can range from
cutting oils, water soluble oils, oil-water spray, and so
on.

,!723$'A>3$%<'Ê59'+

In the metal cutting machine, adequate power should be

available to provide the drives to the spindles and also to
provide feed movement to the tool to remove the material.
The power required for cutting is based on the Metal
removal rate ² the rate of metal removed in a given time,
generally expressed in cubic centimeters per minute,
which depends on work material, tool material, the
cutting speed, depth of cut, and feed rate.

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/! 3)3%3&5=:723$'+

The rigidity of the machine is based on the design and

construction of the machine, the age and extent of usage
of the machine, the types of bearings used, the type of
construction of slide ways, and the type of drive provided
to the slides all play a role in the machining of
components and getting the desired accuracies, finish,
and speed of production.

Thus, in getting a component finished out of a metal

cutting machine at the best possible time within the
desired levels of accuracy, tolerances, and surface finish,
some or all the above parameters play their roles. As
already mentioned in the beginning, each of the
parameters can create a positive or negative impact on
other parameters, and adjustments and compromises are
to be made to arrive at the best metal cutting solution for
a given job.

!Ê57'((&7<'

The time required to produce a given quantity of parts

includes the initial setup time and the cycle time for each
part. The setup time is composed of the time to setup the
milling machine, plan the tool movements (whether
performed manually or by machine), and install the
fixture device into the milling machine. The cycle time
can be divided into the following four times:

1.c
 
  - The time required to load the

workpiece into the milling machine and secure it to the
fixture, as well as the time to unload the finished part.
The load time can depend on the size, weight, and
complexity of the workpiece, as well as the type of
fixture.

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2.c"
  - The time required for the cutter to make all

the necessary cuts in the workpiece for each operation.
The cut time for any given operation is calculated by
dividing the total cut length for that operation by the
feed rate, which is the speed of the cutter relative to
the workpiece.
3.cà - Also referred to as non-productive time, this
is the time required for any tasks that occur during
the process cycle that do not engage the workpiece and
therefore remove material. This idle time includes the
tool approaching and retracting from the workpiece,
tool movements between features, adjusting machine
settings, and changing tools.
4.c9  
    - The time required to replace a
tool that has exceeded its lifetime and therefore
become to worn to cut effectively. This time is typically
not performed in every cycle, but rather only after the
lifetime of the tool has been reached. In determining
the cycle time, the tool replacement time is adjusted
for the production of a single part by multiplying by
the frequency of a tool replacement, which is the cut
time divided by the tool lifetime.

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• 


As a summer trainee, I was placed in the TRANSMISSION
DEPARTMENT & was given the task of studying
,observing and analyzing the work being done in the
TRANSMISSION FACTORY and to explore the
possibilities of improving the productivity of GLEASON
NO.610 HYPOID CUTTER MACHINE which was being
used in CROWN manufacturing process.
Thus,for increasing the productivity of the
process being carried out at the TRANSMISSION
FACTORY , I have sorted out following points:-

1.cChange in the CROWN WHEEL material.

2.cChange in the CUTTING TOOL material.
3.cChange in the cutting speed and spindle speed.
4.cChange in the cutting depth.
5.cChange in the feed rate.
6.cChange in the cutting tool geometry.
7.cCutting ²with and without use of coolant.
8.cChange in machine power.
9.cEffecting the rigidity of machine.
10.c Decreasing the process cycle time like:
îc Loading and unloading time of crown wheel
îc Cycle time
îc Idle time
îc Cutting Tool replacement time
îc Change in the machine setting

Now we will have a look at each of the points as given

above on the productivity of the machine.

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| 3 
  
 3
The

CROWN wheel material used at the present is 20Mn
CR-5. But there are other options available for the
CROWN wheel material that can be used such as
16MnCr5 and 42CrMo4v can used. The advantages
of these materials over 20Mn Cr5 have been shown
graphically as below:

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#c2$)'3$2' 

:'3<HSS is the

cutting tool material that is widely used nowadays as
a cutting tool material. But cutting tools of carbide
,cubic boron nitride(CBN) which has hardness of 50
Rc and cutting speed of 30-310m/min etc.could be
used which will be more advantageous and
productive as a cutting tool material.HSS can also be
used profitably by coating it with various materials
like applying a copper coating or a TiN(Titanium
Nitrate) coating on the cutting tool. 
The cutting speed and tool life of an cutting tool can
be related by the TAYLOR·s equation as below:

Å
 
Where V=cutting speed in m/min
T=tool life in min.
C=cutting speed for a tool life of 1min.
n=Taylor·s exponent

Tool material Typical ¶n· value

HSS 0.08-0.2

Cast alloy 0.1-0.15

Carbides 0.2-0.5

Ceramics 0.5-0.7

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Comparasion of these materials in the process of

cutting can be viewed pictorially as below:c

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0c2$)'3$2'763$)(>''%$%(>3$%<'(>''%
This option is presently not possible in the case of
GLEASON No.610 Machine because of the rigidity of
the machine. The GLEASON No.610 uses a pulley
based system for the energy conversion , that is
electrical energy to mechanical energy to supply
rotational motion to the cutting tool which is as
shown:



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Belt
 cc

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"cc

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Fig.Pulley system used in GLEASON No.610


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.c

| 3  63|   This is another

method to mprove the productivity and efficiency of
the machine. Presently the machine works on the
principle of indexing and renders a single cut each
time. If we could decrease the cutting depth than it is
possible that it would less strain on the cutter and
also increase the cutter life which is presently
changed after manufacturing around 350-400
pieces.

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Fig.vectorial representation of forces

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| 3    
 This option is also not

available with this machine due to its rigidity.
c

| 3  63| 55 | 5 & Cutting time
can be significantly reduced by changing the
geometry of the cutting tool.The various shapes and
studies related to these shapes have been shown
diagrammatically as below:

Fig.shape of a cutter

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-63$)*932$%932566('5=755<$ Presently
coolant is used in large scale in the process of cutting.
This cause wide loss in the form of economic losses as
the coolant oil that is recovered afterwards is very less in
comparasion to the quantity that is being used. To
minimize these losses techniques like dry cutting and of
ice cooled cutters are used. In dry cutting process no
coolant is used. This causes decrease in economic
expenditure whereas in ice cutting technology the cutter
is internally cooled which causes very less or minimal
usage of coolant.Fette is now introducing to the world the
idea of internally cooled gear cutters. The ICE cutters can
be used for either wet or dry cutting. Although this tool is
currently under study , there are enough benefits to
introduce the product and concept to the market. The
concept is quiet simple ; having coolant orifices projected
at each cutting tooth with a central coolant line to keep
the core temperature constant. The tool can operate in
severe applications with outstanding results. One early
test has shown a 40 percent increase in tool life on a test
gear. This is quiet an exciting result , but the true
savings be in the elimination of the chip welding to the
part.c

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,2$)'3$:723$'>59'-No change in power

supplied to the machine is possible due to the rigidity
of the machine.
/=='73$)2'3)3%3&5=:723$'-As there is
minimal of option available for changing the rigidity of
the machine as the machine mostly works on the
mechanical process. So there is no space available for
this option to come into effect.
'7'(3$)2'>57'((7&7<'3:'<38'+
îc 5%3$)$%6$<5%3$)3:'5=759$92''<
îc &7<'3:'
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îc 63$)55<'><7':'$3:'
îc 2$)'3$2':723$'('3$)
cI have calculated the production figures and the
problems that occurred during one week of the
production in all the shifts A,B and C and found out the
following result:

DATE CROWN SHIFT SHIFT SHIFT CAUSE

type A B C
5/7/10 45/7 70 50 58 Cutter
change in
shift B
6/7/10 45/7 91 50 31 Unavailability
of material in
shift B
7/7/10 45/7 32 13 0 Cutter
changed in
shift A
8/7/10 41/6 2 60 55 Setting of
machine
changed
9/7/10 41/7 50 41 3 Chamfer tool
breaks three
times in shift

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C
10/7/10 41/7 23 30 65 House
keeping done
in shift B
11/7/10 41/7 70 70 65 Cutter
changed in
shift B and
hydraulic oil
filled in shift
C
12/7/10 41/7 70 70 60 Cutter
changed in
shift B and
hydraulic oil
filled in shift
C

The cycle time for both rougher and finisher machine is

around 4.2 minutes. That is both rougher and finisher
finish one crown wheel in this estimated time. The cycle
time of rougher and finisher also includes the loading
and unloading time taken by the operator respectively,
which is mostly around 1-1.5 minutes. Thus , the total
estimated cycle time is approximately 5-5.5 minutes.
Thus by minimizing the movement of operator the cycle
time can be significantly brought down to 4.5-5 minutes.
This reduction will have a positive impact on
productivity.

c Many a times it is seen that the bottom neck

machine which is the rougher machine is idle due to
inefficiency of the operator and his extra movements.
This time can also be significantly reduced if the operator

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gets the material directly on his working area. Presently

the operator has to himself put the material on the
conveyer belt located at a distance of about 150 metres.
If this distance is reduced than the idle time of the

bottom neck rougher machine will almost be negligible.

There is also significant loss of time in the cutter
changing and machine setting changing process. This
time needs to be reduced.

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ccccccccccccccccccccccccc

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