COAL PROPERTIES AND ANALYTICAL TESTS

1. INTRODUCTION
To ascertain the potential uses of coal, several test are generally conducted. Some tests are physical
tests to determine how a coal behaves when it is being processed, for example, how difficult it is to
grind a coal. Other tests are designed specifically to determine whether a coal can be used to make
coke or whether it can be combusted, to name just two uses.

2. LABORATORY TESTING AND ANALYSIS

Analysis of samples during the various stages of exploration is necessary to provide sufficient
reliable, and meaningful, data on which to base feasibility studies and initial mine plans. Analytical
data must be considered in this context as well as the physical attributes of any deposit.
Drill core test and analysis programmes can be arbitrarily grouped into the following categories:
non-destructive, sampling, destructive, chemical, physical, properties of the inorganic constituents,
caking/plastometric, petrographic and conversion.

3. NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTS
These tests are grouped as they do not change the core or sample in any way. They may disturb bore
core but it can be re-assembled afterwards into its original condition.
The information derived from the four tests described in this section can significantly assist the
geologist in establishing and confirming correlations and in subdividing the core for analysis.
These tests are usually applied to borecore, but may be used for any sample of uniform small cross-
sectional area.

3.1 X-ray Radiography

In this test a cored coal sample, contained in a split tube, preferably constructed of aluminium, is
moved through a collimated beam of x-rays at a uniform rate. The degree of adsorption of the x-
rays is related to the density of the material through which the radiation passes. The non-adsorbed
radiation is directed onto an x-ray sensitive film. Thus non-coal bands produce a clear image while
pure coal, which adsorbs x-rays fractionally produces a dark image.
The resultant developed film has the following uses:
i. a permanent objective natural scale record of the mineral matter distribution within the section
radiographed is obtained;
ii. pyritic, sideritic bands are easily discernible as they stand out readily;
iii. dull, low-ash coals are distinguishable from shaly coals and carbonaceous shale;
iv. the distribution of mineral matter throughout the cored section can be determined.
Whereas ash determinations on different coal plies may give the same result, the mineral matter
may occur as:
i. evenly dispersed siderite, pyrite, etc;
ii. finely interbanded coal and non-coal;
iii. a uniform inherent distribution; or
iv. distinct bands of coal and non-coal.
The nature of the distribution of the mineral matter content is of great significance in the judgement
of the ease of preparation of any coal.

3.2 Apparent Relative Density (ARD) Determination

This test is performed by weighing samples, or lengths of borecore, in air and then in water. The
ARD is determined by dividing the mass in air by the loss in mass on weighing in water. The
selection of samples for ARD determination is best determined by referring to the x-ray radiograph.
ARD results are useful in determining ply-by-ply sampling intervals, because of the relationship
between relative density and ash, and are necessary for compositing ply samples in their correct
proportions for subsequent analysis. ARD is also used in determining volumetric core recovery.
The test is a measure of the relative density of samples relative to water and includes any voids that
may be present in the core. The test results are therefore lower than the true relative density.

3.3 CORAN Testing

CORAN testing using a nuclear analyser developed by Australia's Commonwealth Scientific and
Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), designed to provide density and “grade” determinations,
non-destructively, on borecore.
The analyser is based on a gamma-ray attenuation technique and consists of a high and low energy
gamma ray source and sodium iodide gamma ray detector with associated electronics.
The borecore to be analysed is placed in the path of a well-collimated gamma ray beam and the
detector measures the attenuation of the gamma rays which is a measure of the density of the
borecore section. The ash content, or grade of such minerals as iron ore, is derived from the
attenuation of both the high energy and low energy gamma rays. Measurements are usually made on
each 5 mm section of borecore.
Claimed accuracy of this instrument is plus or minus 10% of the actual value of ash and
0.01 gm/cm3 density.
The output from this instrument can be recorded magnetically, using microcomputer techniques,
and then plotted in a scaled histogram format. The instrument also has applications in routine
analysis for quality control purposes.

4. DESTRUCTIVE TESTING - PHYSICAL TESTS

The treatment of a coal sample, prior to physical testing and chemical analysis, is determined by the
stage of exploration in association with the use to which the coal is to be put, ie, coke ovens feed,
power station feed, etc. While it may be certain that the coal is to be used in a raw, or run-of-mine,
state it is good practice to investigate the preparation characteristics, through float and sink analysis,
to enable property assessment of alternative utilisation options.

4.1 Float and Sink Analysis

This test involves the separation of a sized sample in liquids of varying densities to determine the
relative density/ash distribution of the particles in the sample. In the treatment of exploration
samples it is usual to determine the ash on each density-separated fraction after weighing.
For meaningful results it is necessary to have a sufficient number of discrete particles and for
production samples the Australian Standard recommends a minimum of 2000 particles for any
single float and sink analysis. This condition can obviously be never met with borecore samples
unless the core sample is crushed to a small particle size (say 2 mm) which would improve the
inherent test precision but would also achieve an ash liberation far in excess of that available in a
coal preparation plant. On the other hand, crushing to a more realistic top size (say 32 mm) will
reduce the test precision but produce a more realistic indication of ash liberation. The adopted
Australian Standard recommends crushing borecore to a maximum size of 11.2 mm whilst
producing a minimum of fine coal (less than 0.5 mm particle top size).
The purpose of float and sink testing of small diameter borecores on a ply-by-ply and section basis
is principally to enable the geologist to correlate seams, detect lateral changes in quality and define
possible mining sections.
Float and sink testing in this context is used to:
i. separate the coal and non-coal material so that vertical or lateral changes indicated by analysis
truly reflect changes in the coal matter and not localised variations in the occurrence of non-
coal bands; and
ii. provide a composite sample for indicative commercial quality coal by more detailed analysis.
Float and sink testing of this geological nature is usually performed at relative densities of
separation of 1.30, 1.45 and 1.60 and the results obtained will give an early indication of the
preparation potential of the coal.
The results cannot be used for preparation plant design purposes because the float and sink analysis
yield-ash-relative density relationship will probably be significantly different from that which could
be expected from the preparation of the mined coal in a commercial, non-perfect, plant.
If no sizing information is available for the particular coal under test it is necessary to use the
established relationship between the Hardgrove Grindability Index (HGI) and Rosin's (size)
distribution constant n. The following equation has been derived for 21 Australian coals with HGIs
in the range of 48 to 106:
HGI = 35.5(n)-1.54 (correlation coefficient= 0.91)
The determination of the HGI allows the computation of n. The second Rosin constant, x, the
absolute size constant, is based on the top particle size chosen for the coal preparation process
considered most likely and knowledge of values for similar coals.
Having selected the values of n and x it is now possible to draw the target preparation plant feed
sizing using Rosin-Rammler graph paper.
This size distribution is then produced by dropping the coal sample, from a height of approximately
2 m, onto a steel plate until no oversize remains and the overall sizing conforms to the desired
sizing computed above. A second step involves tumbling the sample with, or without, a standard
mass of steel cubes in a 200 litre drum containing a standard mass of water. The tumbling is related
to the HGI and the drum is rotated at 20 rpm.

5. CHEMICAL ANALYSES
5.1 Proximate Analysis
Proximate analysis is the most commonly used chemical analysis performed on coals. It is also the
simplest to perform. In this determination the inherent moisture, ash, volatile matter and fixed
carbon (by difference) are determined on a sample ground to pass 0.212 mm.

Moisture
A sample of about 5 gm is allowed to come into equilibrium with the laboratory atmosphere and
heated at 105“C, in an inert nitrogen atmosphere, to constant mass.
The loss of mass is calculated as the moisture content.
This analysis is used to calculate the results of other analyses to a common (dry) basis. In any one
coal, oxidation will be indicated by an increase in moisture.

Ash
Coal ash, as distinct from mineral matter content, comprises the incombustible oxide residue
remaining after the coal has burned and all the volatile mineral constituents have been driven off.
In this analysis about 5 gm of coal is heated in air, under standard conditions, to 815“C until
constant mass is achieved.

Volatile Matter
The volatile matter is determined from the loss of mass when about 5 gm of coal is heated out of
contact with air at 900“C in a muffle furnace for 5 minutes. The result has to be adjusted for
moisture content.
This analysis measures not only the organic volatile matter content but also volatile constituents
evolved from the mineral matter such as carbon dioxide, water of hydration and sulphurous gases.

Fixed Carbon
Fixed Carbon is calculated using the formula: FC = 100 - (moisture + volatile matter + ash) all on
an air dried (a.d.) basis.
Like all coal tests and analyses it is usual to perform proximate analysis on duplicate samples and
the mean of the two analyses is taken as the result.

5.2 Ultimate Analysis

Ultimate analysis involves the determination of the carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulphur and oxygen
composition of the coal sample. The results are of most use when they reflect the composition of the
pure coal substance by correction to a dry mineral matter free basis (d.m.m.f.).
Ultimate analyses indicate broadly the suitability of a coal for various uses and are used in rank and
classification systems.
Various empirical formulae are based on ultimate analyses and these are useful as checks against
actual determinations, for example, Seyler's formulae:
Gross Specific Energy = (123.9C + 388.1H - 4269)/430 MJ/kg
Volatile Matter % = 10.61H - 1.24C + 84.15

Carbon and Hydrogen

This determination involves heating a coal sample ground to pass 0.212 mm in a stream of oxygen
to convert carbon to carbon dioxide and hydrogen to water. These products are absorbed onto soda
asbestos (CO2) and magnesium perchlorate (H2O) and the percentages of carbon and hydrogen are
calculated from the increase in mass of the absorbents.

Nitrogen
The coal sample is decomposed catalytically with hot, concentrated sulphuric acid where the
nitrogen is converted to ammonium sulphate. Excess sodium hydroxide is added to liberate
ammonia, which is distilled and titrated against dilute sulphuric acid.

Sulphur
Sulphur occurs in coals as organic, sulphide or sulphate compounds. The sulphur determined as part
of an ultimate analysis is the total sulphur involving all these varieties.
The most commonly used method to determine total sulphur is the rapid high temperature method
where a coal sample is burned in oxygen at 1350°C where the sulphur is converted to gaseous
sulphur oxides. These oxides are absorbed in hydrogen peroxide to form sulphuric acid, which is in
turn titrated against sodium borate.

Oxygen
This is usually determined by difference.

5.3 Other Chemical Analyses

Carbon Dioxide
Determination of the carbon dioxide content liberated from carbonates in the coal mineral matter is
necessary to:
i. correct the determined percentage of total carbon when calculating to a dry mineral matter free
basis;
ii. correct the determined percentage of total carbon when calculating the organic carbon;
iii. calculate the volatile matter of anthracites and coals of low volatile matter and high carbonate
content to a dry ash free basis; and
iv. calculate the volatile matter of a coal to a dry mineral matter free basis.

Forms of Sulphur
If the sulphur, as determined during a total sulphur analysis, is high, say in excess of 1%, it may be
necessary to determine the forms in which the sulphur occurs, ie, organic, sulphate or sulphide.
High sulphur coals can lead to the following problems:
i. in steam-raising and domestic fuels the products of its combustion in the presence of water
form corrosive sulphuric acid;
ii. sulphur compounds can lower ash fusion temperatures and cause slag and foul the boiler
heating surfaces in power generation plants or domestic boilers;
iii. sulphur, mainly in pyritic form, in the presence of moisture is likely to promote spontaneous
combustion in coal stockpiles; and
iv. loss of plasticity in coking coals which result in increased coke consumption during iron
making operations, with associated higher slag volumes resulting in difficulty of furnace
control. High sulphur steels tend to be brittle.
The forms of sulphur are usually determined titrimetrically or calorimetrically.

Chlorine
Chlorine compounds can have the same corrosive effect on boilers as sulphur compounds so a
knowledge of the chlorine content of fuel coals is necessary.
Excess chlorine can cause a reduction in the softening and swelling capacity of coking coals, while
coals containing more than about 0.03% chlorine have a corrosive effect on refractory linings of
coke ovens unless made of silica.
Chlorine determination is usually carried out titrimetrically at the same time as the high temperature
sulphur analysis.

Phosphorous
All phosphorous in the washed coal enters the coke and it is considered, in Australia, that for iron
and steel making purposes a maximum of 0.05% in the washed coal is desirable. Phosphorous is
determined by spectrophotometry.

Mineral Matter
Determination of the mineral matter content of coals is necessary to convert, for comparison
purposes, coal matter properties such as carbon, hydrogen, volatile matter and specific energy to a
dry mineral matter free basis. The mineral matter content is always higher than the ash content and
is determined by completely oxidising the organic component of the coal sample in a
radiofrequency field applied to the analysis chamber containing oxygen at low pressure. This test is
not carried out frequently. However, recent developments of quantitative X-ray diffraction
mineralogical techniques may see this change in the near future

Ash Analysis
The ash of a coal contains the combustion residue of the mineral matter. The composition of the ash
is a useful guide to the minerals present in the coal when assessing the coal's slagging
characteristics in the blast furnace or on combustion
Normally the oxides of silica, aluminium, iron, calcium, magnesium, titanium, manganese and the
alkali metals are determined using one or more of the following techniques:
i. atomic absorption flame spectrophotometry; and/or
ii. x-ray fluorescence spectrometry; and/or
iii. optical emission spectrometry.
Apart from the major elements listed above other elements present in small amounts in a coal may
give rise to dangerous pollutants. A knowledge of the amounts of such trace elements as arsenic,
beryllium, cadmium, mercury and lead in coal-waste products is therefore desirable.

6. PHYSICAL TESTS
6.1 Specific Energy
The gross specific energy (also referred to as calorific value or heating value) is related to the actual
heat produced in a coal-fired boiler and is useful in comparing coals for this use. This property of
coal is obtained by ignition of a known mass of coal (usually 1 gm) in oxygen in a pressure vessel
surrounded by a water filled calorimeter. The gross specific energy is calculated from the
temperature rise of the water in the calorimeter and the mean effective heat capacity of the system.
The results are expressed as megajoules per kilogram (1MJ/kg = 430 btu/lb = 239 Kcal/kg).
The laboratory determination of specific energy takes place at constant volume while industrial
combustion takes place at constant pressure. For coal, the difference between gross specific energy
at constant pressure and that at constant volume is not significant.
In industrial practice, the gross specific energy is not achieved as the water vapour in the
combustion products cannot be condensed. The following formula allows calculation of the nett
specific energy.
Qnettas = Q grossas - 0.0245 (Mas + 9Has)
where:
Qnettas = nett specific energy as sampled in MJ/kg.
Q grossas = gross specific energy as sampled in MJ/kg
Mas = total moisture as sampled in %
Has = hydrogen as sampled in %
Australian practice regards coals for power generation purposes with a gross specific energy of
more than 26 MJ/kg as satisfactory, while high quality coals will have values exceeding 30 MJ/kg.

6.2 Relative Density (or Specific Gravity)

A weighed sample of coal ground to pass 0.212 mm is placed in a density bottle with water and a
small quantity of wetting agent, evacuated to displace entrapped air, and allowed to attain a
temperature of 30°C and weighed. The relative density is determined from the original mass and the
mass of water displaced.
This determination will obviously be more accurate than the determination by ARD methods, but
will not indicate the true density as the water used in the test cannot penetrate the internal pores of
the coal sample.
Precision should be within 0.02 units while accuracy within 0.03 units.
The determination is necessary for the calculation of the weighted average characteristics of seam,
or working, section from the analyses of the component plies or sub-sections.

6.3 Hardgrove Grindability Index (HGI)

The Hardgrove grindability index is a measure of the ease with which coal may be pulverised. This
test is necessary when comparing coals for combustion uses.
In the test a 50 gm sample (-1.180 mm + 0.060 mm) is placed in the Hardgrove ball and ring mill
and ground for 60 revolutions under standard load. The HGI is determined from the percentage of
minus 0.075 mm material in the ground sample using a standard calibration graph.
Coals that are difficult to grind have HGI values less than 50 while soft, easily pulverised coals
have a HGI over 100.
Precision should be within 2 units while accuracy is within 3 units.

6.4 Miscellaneous Physical Tests

(a) Abrasion Index This is a measure of wear in industrial grinding apparatus caused by the
mineral matter in coal, particularly silica.
(b) Moisture Holding Capacity Moisture holding capacity is a measure of the bed moisture of a
coal seam. Specific energies in the International and American systems are calculated on a moist
(bed moisture) basis.
(c) Crossing Point Temperature The results of this test are used to predict the liability of the coal
to spontaneous combustion on exposure to the atmosphere.

7. PROPERTIES OF THE INORGANIC CONSTITUENTS

7.1 Ash Fusion Properties
The behaviour of coal ash at high temperatures is of great significance in assessing the suitability of
the coal for use in certain furnaces.
The laboratory determination of ash fusion is carried out by making a pyramid of coal ash and
heating it through the range 900°C to 1600°C in either a mildly reducing or oxidising atmosphere.
Four temperatures are recorded by observing the change in shape of the original pyramid, namely at
initial deformation, spherical, hemisphere and flow.
The deformation temperature is the best guide to the performance of ash in industrial plants. For a
mildly reducing atmosphere the following comments on the measured deformation temperature can
be made:
>1450°C ash very refractory
1350°C-1450°C ash is refractory and is unlikely to give clinkering problems
1250°C-1350°C care is required in furnace design
<1250°C ash is always likely to clinker.

7.2 Electrostatic Precipitability of Fly Ash

This test is aimed at determining the ability of fly ash, resulting from the combustion of a coal in a
pulverised fuel using installation, to be retained from the atmosphere.
Special equipment has been developed for this test requiring about 3 kg of sample.

8 COKING AND PLASTOMETRIC PROPERTIES

The tests outlined in this group are usually, but not exclusively, used to measure the coking
potential of a coal or blend of different coals.

8.1 Crucible Swelling Number

This test is somewhat empirical in nature as it involves the comparison between a standard set of
profiles and the profile resulting from the rapid heating of 1 gm of analysis sample, in a crucible, to
800°C in 1.5 minutes and to 820°C in a further minute.
Crucible swelling numbers range from 0 to 9 and most good hard coking coals give values of
between 5 and 8, which equates with suitable coke porosity and strength. This test does not produce
plasticity information and results are in general non-additive for assessing blends of coals. The
depression of crucible swelling numbers is a good guide to coal oxidation. Precision and accuracy
of this test should be within 1 unit.

8.2 Gray-King Coke Type

This test requires the heating of 20 gm of coal in a special horizontal retort tube at a rate of
5°C/minute from 300°C to 600°C. The coke pencil produced is classified according to set standards.
Precision and accuracy should be within one letter or one unit in the sub-script.

8.3 Audibert-Arnu Dilatometer Test

This test, used particularly in Europe, measures the behaviour of coal as it is heated through the
plastic range. To perform this test 2 gm of finely ground, damp, sample coal are formed into a
pencil, 60 mm long and 6.5 mm in diameter, and placed into a cylinder. A piston, coupled to a
recording mechanism, is placed onto the coal sample and the sample, and apparatus, heated from
300°C, at 3°/minute, until the sample has formed in to a semi-coke.
Regular readings are made of the displacement of the piston, and therefore the change in the length
of the pencil, as a function of
i. temperature; and
ii. original length of pencil.
The important data to gain from this test are:
i. softening temperature (T1);
ii. temperature of maximum contraction (T2);
iii. temperature of maximum dilitation (T3);
iv. maximum contraction % (k); and
v. maximum dilitation % (d).
In Europe it is claimed that the coke strength of a blend may be preducted by Audibert-Amu data by
the computation of the "G" factor:
"G" = (T1 + T2)/2 * (k+ d)/(T1.k+T2.d)
A similar test is performed using the Ruhr Dilatometer. Results from this instrument show less
contraction and more dilatation than those from the Audibert-Amu machine.
8.4 Gieseler Plastometer Test
Japanese steel mills favour this empirical test that measures the fluidity of a coal when it is heated
through its plastic range.
Five grams of coal crushed to pass 0.425 mm are firmly compacted in a crucible containing a stirrer
fitted with rabble arms. The stirrer is coupled to a pulley system, and recorder, and a constant
torque applied using a 40 gm weight.
The crucible, containing the sample coal is placed in a solder bath at 300°C and heated at
3°C/minute. As the coal softens the torque causes the stirrer to move and a record is kept of the rate
of movement as a function of temperature.
The important data obtained from this test are:
i. initial softening temperature;
ii. fusion temperature;
iii. maximum fluidity;
iv. resolidification temperature;
v. maximum fluidity temperature; and
vi. range of fluidity.
Test work indicates that maximum fluidities of a blend are not additive but a close approximation
of the characteristics of a blend can be obtained by the addition of the logarithms, to the base 10, of
the individual coal fluidities.
An automatic, constant torque, apparatus is now available but this machine produces lower
maximum fluidity values than the traditionally used intermittent torque apparatus.
This test is extremely sensitive to oxidation.

The Hoehnepalstometer, used in parts of Western Europe, produces higher maximum fluidity
values than the Gieseler plastometer.
Precision values are:
Maximum fluidity (log10) 0.10
Characteristic temperatures (°C) 5

8.5 Other Caking-Plastometric Tests

Several other methods of determining the caking and plastometric properties of coals have been
developed around the world, but are not used as widely as those described above.

(a) Roga Index

This test is used in Europe to indicate caking capacity and as an alternative to the determination of
the crucible swelling number. The approximate relationships between Roga index and crucible
swelling number are:
Crucible Swelling Number Roga Index
2.5-4 0-5
2.5- 5-20
2.5-4 20-45
>4 >45

(b) Koppers Swelling Test. This test produces information on the swelling characteristics of coal
and in particular is used to predict the pressure applied to the walls of a coke oven during the
coking process.

(c) Penetration Plastometer. This test is little used in borecore evaluation because it requires a
relatively large sample mass. Correlations can be made between results of this test and laboratory
coke oven tests.
(d) Small Scale Coke Oven Tests. The most desirable method of assessing the coking potential
of a single coal, or blend of coals, is to perform small scale coke oven tests. The advantage of this
technique is that it produces coke samples than can be subjected to physical property measurements
as well as chemical and strength tests.
In general large pilot coke ovens (100 kg or more) are preferred, because these ovens can more
reliably simulate commercial practice, but smaller ovens of 7 kg and 15 kg capacity have been
developed to accept the smaller sample sizes that are often available from the concluding phases of
an exploration programme.

(e) Gray-King Carbonisation Assay. This test measures the yields of gases, tar, liquor and coke
on carbonising a small sample of coal at 600°C (low-temperature assay) or about 900°C (high-
temperature assay). In addition, the coke is examined and its nature ranging in type from
pulverulent through coherent to very highly swollen is reported. The results of this assay
complement that obtained from proximate and ultimate analyses. Different coals with the same
analyses can give different results in the Gray-King assay.
In the test a 20 gm sample of air-dried coal, ground to pass 0.212 mm is heated in a fused silica tube
to 300°C to expel expanded air and gas, then at a uniform rate to 600°C (900°C) in l h (2 h), and
held at the fmal temperature for l h (30 min). The products of decomposition are cooled, liquids
condensed, ammonia absorbed in dilute acid and the gas collected and its volume measured. If
required, the gas can be analysed to determine its composition and heating value after correcting for
water vapour and initial air in the system.
The yields of all products and coke (after cooling) are determined. The coke is visually examined
and compared with photographs of standard coke types given in the published method.
The test indicates the likely relative product yields and distribution as well as the caking
behaviour of the coal in large-scale carbonisation operations. However, it must be noted that the
yield data in this test rarely coincide exactly with large-scale yields of pyrolysis which depend
heavily on process conditions such as heating rate and residence time of volatile products.

(f) Fischer Carbonisation Assay. This test determines the yields of tar, water, gas and coke
residue by low temperature distillation of brown coal and lignite, and forms the basis for the
classification of brown coal and lignite for use in low temperature carbonisation.
The test is also used in the evaluation of oil shales.
In one method, the sample is heated in an aluminium retort to 520°C during a period of 80
minutes. The products of decomposition pass into a water-cooled receiver; the tar and water are
condensed while gaseous products pass to the atmosphere. The coke residue remaining in the
retort is weighed. The receiver and its contents are also weighed and the mass of the water in the
receiver determined by entrainment with toluene or xylene: the mass of tar is obtained by
difference. The total water in the receiver includes the moisture in the coal as well as that from
the decomposition of the coal. A separate determination of moisture in the coal, also by
entrainment with toluene or xylene, is made so that the decomposition water can be calculated.
The percentage of gas (plus errors) is obtained by subtracting from 100 the sum of the percentage
of coke residue, of tar and of decomposition water. The results are reported on the 'as analysed'
and on the 'dry' basis.

9. SUGGESTED TEST PROGRAMMES

It is possible to set hard and fast rules to apply to a borecore or other exploration sample
generating programme. The type of testing and range of analyses performed will depend not only
on local requirements but also on the stage reached in any exploration programme and on the
potential utilisation(s) of any product.
The following flow-charts provide a basis for determining the required analytical programme.
9.1 Initial Exploration Phases
The aim of initial exploration is to establish, subsequent to the presence of coal, seam correlation
and continuity. This is best done by testing seams on a ply-by-ply basis.
While some working section coal composite properties can be calculated on a thickness, relative
density and (proximate analysis, sulphur, and specific energy) basis, it is necessary to recombine
plies with the non-coal bands, plus roof and floor if necessary, so that the "as mined" seam
properties can be determined. This recombination is done with consideration of ply core
recoveries so that a truly representative composite is prepared.
This testing is only performed at a limited range of densities because of the limited amount of
material available from small diameter borecores for analysis. The results given should be treated
as indicative only.
Working section composite(s) overall float and sink results are calculated by combining all
individual coal ply float and sink results on a length x relative density x yield basis. In this
calculation all non-coal plies in the working section are assumed to be sinks 1.60 material.
Comprehensive analysis can be performed on the recombined working section floats composite
that approximates the ash considered to be the future economic level.
A guide to the types of analyses that can be carried out is given at the end of
this section.

9.2 Intermediate Exploration Phases

Continuation of exploration will allow the firm selection of potential working sections and as long
as inter- and intra-seam correlation is satisfactory, all seam sample material may be combined into
one or more proposed working section sample. The use of the non-destructive tests described earlier
in this section will allow the detection of any ply deterioration. Sub-sampling can then be
performed as a basis for the nomination of different working sections if necessary.
Only small diameter cores are generally available.

9.3 Final Exploration Phases

The testing programme described in this section is only applicable if the mined coal is to be
prepared in a washery prior to utilisation. If no preparation is planned or envisaged, detailed coal
testing would be carried out under 7 and 8 above.
Exploration works carried out in these phases will relate to mine planning where large diameter
borecores will be provided for analysis. It is good practice to perform pre-treatment testing to more
closely simulate industrial preparation plant operation. The results of this testing will not only
provide valuable plant design data but will provide "simulated washed coal" samples for detailed
larger scale testing and analysis.
If surface mining is planned the oxidation limit will be determined as a component part of this mine
planning investigation.

10. LITHOTYPE LOGGING

A lithotype is:
i. a rock defined on the basis of certain selected physical characteristics; or
ii. one of the four megascopically recognizable constituents of banded coal – vitrain (bright),
clarain (interbanded bright and dull), durain (dull) and fusain (fossil char)
Lithotype logging is usually carried out subsequent to x-ray radiography, ARD determination and
CORAN testing, and the results of these tests are used for the more accurate identification of
kithotypes. This form of logging should only be carried out on a fresh non-machined surface.
The following standard coal categories are used in Australian lithotype logging.
Lithotype Description Symbol
Coal – undifferentiated U
Coal – bright (>90% bright) B
Coal – bright with dull bands (60-90% bright) Bd
Coal – interbanded dull and bright (40-60% bright) BD
 Coal – mainly dull with frequent bright bands (10-40% bright) Db
Coal – dull with minor bright bands (1-10% bright) Dmb
Coal – dull (<1% bright) D
Coal – dull conchoidal Dch
Coal – fibrous (fusain) F
Coal – weathered W
Coal – heat altered X
Shaly coal -
Coaly shale -
On completion of lithotype logging a standard graphic profile can be drawn up for use, with other
non-destructive tests, to enable the selection of sub-sections for subsequent destructive testing and
analysis.