Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
by Roger F. Harrington
Chapter 2: Introduction to Waves
– Wave function ψ
– EM fields can be constructed by choosing
k = ω εµ
solutions that satisfy the Helmholtz
d 2 Eequation
2
x
+ k 2
Ex = 0
– Perfect dielectric: dz
– One-dimensional Helmholtz equation
Uniform Plane Wave
• Consider the solution: Ex = E0e−jkz
Ex µ
– Wave impedance η = =
Hy ε
• Physical concept E H
– Plane wave: phase (kz) of and is constant over a set of
equiphase surfaces (z = constant)
E H
– Uniform: amplitudes of and are constant over set of
equiphase planes
Parameters of Plane Wave
– In phase: same phases at any point ( E and H )
– Traveling wave: direction of travel; in this solution +z
direction
– Polarization: specify the behavior of E ; in this solution the
wave is linearly polarized (E lines are always parallel to
the x axis)
– Phase velocity: velocity at which an equiphase surface
travels dz p ω 1
vp = = =
• Intrinsic phase velocity dt k εµ
– Wavelength: distance in which the phase increases by 2π
2π 2π v p v p
λ= = =
k ω f
• Usual circuit theory based on assumption that distance are much
shorter than wavelength
Uniform Plane Wave
• Given a plane-wave solution, other uniform plane-
wave solutions can be obtained by rotations of the
coordinate axis
– For waves traveling in +z and –z directions
+ − jkz + A
E = Ae H = e − jkz
x y
η
−B
E y+ = Be − jkz H x+ = e − jkz
η
−C
Ex− = Ce jkz H y− = e jkz
η
D
E y− = De jkz H x− = e jkz
η
Uniform Plane Wave
• Consider the wave
E0
Ex = E0 e − jkz Hy = e − jkz
η
– Energy and power quantities
ε 2 ε
we = Einst = ε E02 cos 2 (ωt − kz ) wm = 2
H inst = ε E02 cos 2 (ωt − kz )
2 2
2
Sinst = Einst × H inst = zˆ E02 cos 2 (ωt − kz )
η
E02
S = E × H = zˆ
*
η
– Velocity of propagation of energy
power flow density Sinst
ve = =
energy density we + wm
1
• Uniform traveling wave: ve =
µε
Standing Wave
• Consider standing wave solution
E0
Ex = E0 sin kz Hy = j cos kz
η
E0
Ex ,inst = 2 E0 sin kz cos ωt H y ,inst = − 2 cos kz sin ωt
η
– Phase is independent of z, there is no traveling motion
– Uniform plane wave and linearly polarized
– Energy and power quantities
ε µ
we = 2
Einst = ε E02 sin 2 kz cos 2 ωt wm = 2
H inst = ε E02 cos 2 kz sin 2 ωt
2 2
E02
Sinst = Einst × H inst = − zˆ sin 2kz sin 2ωt
2η
jE02
S = E × H = − zˆ
*
sin 2kz
2η
Superposition of Waves
• Consider a superposition of waves traveling in
opposite direction and unequal amplitudes
H = ( Ae − Ce )
− jkz 1 − jkz
E = Ae + Ce jkz jkz
x
η y
– Standing-wave pattern
A2 + C 2 + 2 AC cos 2kz
A+C
• Standing-wave ratio (SWR): SWR =
A−C
Traveling Wave
• Consider a traveling wave where both x and y
components exist
E = ( xA
? + yB ) e− jkz
1 − jkz
H = ( − xB + yA) e
?
η
– If B = 0, the wave is linearly polarized in x direction
– If A = 0, the wave is linearly polarized in y direction
– If A and B are both real, the wave is linearly polarized with
axis of polarized inclined at angle tan-1 (B/A)
– If A and B are complex with different phase angles, E will
not point in a single direction
Polarizations
– For A = |A|eja and B = |B|ejb, instantaneous electric intensity
Ex ,inst = 2 A cos (ωt − kz + a )
E y ,inst = 2 B cos (ωt − kz + b )
• Vector picture of changes in amplitude and direction
E
• Elliptically polarized: vector picture traces out an ellipse
• Circularly polarized: vector picture traces out a circle
• Right-handed: rotates according to R.H.S.
• Left-handed E
– For A = jB = E0
E0
E = ( z? − jy?) E0 e− jkz H = ( z − jy ) j e − jkz
• Right-handed circular polarization η
Circularly Polarized Standing Wave
• Energy and power quantities
ε ε
we = 2
Einst = ε E02 wm = 2
H inst = ε E02
2 2
2 2
Sinst = Einst × H inst = u z E02 S = E × H * = u z E02
η η
• No change in energy and power densities with time or space
• Circular polarization gives a steady power flow
• Consider circularly polarized standing-wave field
E0
E = ( x? + jy ) E0 sin kz H = ( x? + jy ) j cos kz
η
Einst = ( x? cos ωt − y sin ωt ) 2 E0 sin kz
E
H inst = ( x? cos ωt − y sin ωt ) 2 0 cos kz
η
• Einst and H inst are always parallel to each other
• Amplitudes are independent of time
Standing Wave: Energy and Power
– Energy and power densities
ε
we = 2
Einst = ε E02 sin 2 kz
2
ε
wm = 2
H inst = ε E02 cos 2 kz
2
Sinst = Einst × H inst = 0
j
S = E × H * = − zˆ E02 sin 2kz
η
• Instantaneous energy and power densities are independent of time
• This field can represent resonance between two perfectly
conducting planes situated where E is zero
Intrinsic Wave Constants
• The wave number k and intrinsic impedance η
specifies the characteristics of a medium
k = − ( jωµ )( jωε ) η= ( jωµ ) ( jωε )
• General complex form of wave number
k = k' − jk"
Im
(ωµ ''+ jωµ ')
(σ + ωε ''+ jε ')(ωµ ''+ jωµ ') (σ + ωε ''+ jε ')
– Intrinsic phase constant k'
– Intrinsic attenuation constant k" k'
Re
k ''
σ + ωε ''+ jε ' k
− (σ + ωε ''+ jε ' )(ωµ ''+ jωµ ')
ωµ ''+ jωµ '
Intrinsic Wave Impedance
• Intrinsic wave impedance η Im (ωµ ''+ jωµ ')
η = R + jX (σ + ωε ''+ jε ')
(σ + ωε ''+ jε ') / (ωµ ''+ jωµ ')
– Intrinsic wave resistance R X
k
R Re
– Intrinsic wave reactance X
1/ (ωµ ''+ jωµ ' )
⎛ ε '' ⎞ ⎛ ε '' ⎞
k = ω µε ' ⎜1 − j ⎟ ≈ ω µε ' ⎜1 − j ⎟
⎝ ε ' ⎠ ⎝ 2ε ' ⎠
k* µ⎛ ε '' ⎞
η= ≈ ⎜1 + j ⎟
(ωε ''+ jε ') ε ' ⎝ 2ε ' ⎠
Conductor Material
– Good conductor
σ ? ωε
ε1 + ε 2 ε1
Total Reflection
• Total reflection occurs for |Γ| = 1
– Point of transition between real and imaginary values of the
transmitted angle and wave impedance is the critical angle
ε 2 µ2
sin θi =
ε1µ1
• A wave incident upon the boundary at an angle equal to or greater
than the critical angel will be completely reflected
• Real critical angle only exist for intrinsic impedance of (1) greater
than (2)
R − jX
– Reflection coefficient Γ =
R + jX
– For (1) nonmagnetic dielectric, (2) nonmagnetic conductor
sin θt k1 jωε
= ≈
sin θi k2 σ
Transmission Line Equations
• Consider the following I I + dI
two-conductor
V V + dV
transmission line
dz
• AC transmission-line equations
dV dI
= − IZ = −VY
dz dz
• Impedance per unit length Z
• Shunt admittance per unit length Y
– If Z and Y are independent of z, transmission line is
uniform
Transmission Line Parameters
• One-dimensional Helmholtz equation
d 2V d 2I
2
− ZYV = 0 2
− ZYI = 0
dz dz
• Propagation constant
γ = ZY
• Characteristic impedance of the transmission line
Z
Z0 =
Y
Z = R + jω L Y = G + jωC
TEM Mode
• Assume perfect conductors immersed in a
homogenous medium
γ E y = − jωµ H x γ H y = jωε Ex
γ Ex = jωµ H y γ H x = − jωε E y
∂E y ∂Ex ∂H y ∂H x
− =0 − =0
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
• Propagation constant: γ = jk
– “The propagation constant of any TEM wave is the
intrinsic propagation constant of the medium.”
– “…the Z-directed wave impedance of any TEM wave is the
intrinsic wave impedance of the medium.”
TEM Mode
– “…each component of E and H satisfies the two-
dimensional Laplace equation, summarized by the
transverse Laplacian operator”
– Capacitances and inductances under static cases can be
used for transmission lines even thought the field is time-
harmonic
Transmission Line: L and C
• Electrostatic capacitance
q ε C2
C= =
V V ∫
C2
En dl
• Magnetostatic inductance C1
ψ µ
I ∫
L= = H n dl
I C1
• Permissible π b of kc knownn as
kc = nvalues = 1,eigenvalues
2,3,... or characteristic
values
Waveguide Modes
• Choice of n in determines a possible field or mode
– Transverse electric (TE) mode has no Ez component
• TE0n where subscript denotes no variation in x
– Transverse magnetic (TM) mode has no Hz component
– All the modes in the rectangular waveguide fall into one of
these two classes
• For a real k, propagation constant defined as
⎧ j β = j k 2 − nπ b 2
⎪ ( ) k > nπ b
γ =⎨
⎪ a = ( nπ b )2 − k 2 k < nπ b
⎩
– Propagating mode
– Nonpropagating mode
Waveguide Parameters
• Cutoff frequency: transition frequency between
propagating and nonpropagating mode
n
fc =
2b εµ
• Cutoff wavelength
2b
λc =
n
• Guide wavelength: distance in which the phase of E
increase by 2π
λ
λg =
1 − ( fc f )
2
( )
32
πη a b +c 2 2
– Conductor loss Qc =
(
2 R bc b 2 + c 2 ) + 2a ( b 3
+ c3 )
1 1 1
– Overall loss = +
Q Qd Qc
Summary of Wave Parameters
• Wave function: complex function of coordinates
representing an instantaneous function
ψ = A ( x, y , z ) e j Φ ( x , y , z )
– Corresponding instantaneous function
2 A ( x, y, z ) cos ⎡⎣ωt + Φ ( x, y, z ) ⎤⎦
– Magnitude A of the complex function is the rms amplitude
of the instantaneous function
– Phase Φ of the complex function is the initial phase of the
instantaneous function
– Surfaces over which the phase is constant are called
equiphase surfaces
Summary of Wave Parameters
• Waves are called plane, cylindrical, or spherical
depending on their equiphase surface
• Uniform waves: amplitude A is constant over
equiphase surfaces
– Perpendiculars to the equiphase surfaces are called wave
normals
• Phase constant: rate at which the phase decreases in
some direction
• Phase velocity: velocity of surfaces of constant phase
in a particular direction
Summary of Wave Parameters
• For the wave function expressed as…
ψ = eθ ( x , y , z )
– Vector propagation constant: rate of change of θ
γ = −∇θ = α + j β
• Vector attenuation constant α
• Wave impedance: ratios of components of E and H
• Poynting vector in terms of wave impedances
( )
2
Sz = E × H = Z xy H y + Z yz + H z
+
* 2