Keeping Women Active

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Keeping Women Active: An Examination of the Impacts of Self-Efficacy,

Intrinsic Motivation, and Leadership on Women's Persistence in Physical
Activity
Kathleen M. Lloyda; Donna E. Littleb
a
Department of Tourism, Leisure, Hotel and Sport Management, Griffith University, Brisbane,
Australia b Queensland Outdoor Recreation Federation, Brisbane, Australia
Online publication date: 19 November 2010
To cite this Article Lloyd, Kathleen M. and Little, Donna E.(2010) 'Keeping Women Active: An Examination of the Impacts
of Self-Efficacy, Intrinsic Motivation, and Leadership on Women's Persistence in Physical Activity', Women & Health,
50: 7, 652 — 669
To link to this Article: DOI: 10.1080/03630242.2010.520250
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Women & Health, 50:652–669, 2010
Copyright © Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
ISSN: 0363-0242 print/1541-0331 online
DOI: 10.1080/03630242.2010.520250
Keeping Women Active: An Examination

of the Impacts of Self-Efficacy, Intrinsic
Motivation, and Leadership on Women’s
Persistence in Physical Activity
Downloaded By: [EBSCOHost EJS Content Distribution - Current] At: 09:11 18 March 2011
KATHLEEN M. LLOYD, PhD

Department of Tourism, Leisure, Hotel and Sport Management, Griffith University,
Brisbane, Australia
DONNA E. LITTLE, PhD

Queensland Outdoor Recreation Federation, Brisbane, Australia
Physical inactivity in women is a worldwide problem that has not

only been well-documented but has provoked much government
concern and policy activity. However, an even more important
issue is encouraging women’s persistence in physical activity. The
purpose of this study was to examine the links between women’s
experiences of participation in a government-funded physical ac-
tivity festival, their intentions to continue participation, and their
participation behavior six months after the festival. Results from
semi-structured, in-depth interviews with 20 women revealed that
enhanced self-efficacy, intrinsic motivation, and supportive lead-
ership had motivated the women’s future intentions to participate.
Follow-up surveys showed their levels of interest and participation
in physical activity had been maintained. These results enhance
our understanding of the relationship between key outcomes of
women’s physical activity participation and their persistence in
physical activity.
KEYWORDS leadership, motivation, persistence, self-efficacy,

women
Received March 9, 2010; revised June 16, 2010; accepted August 18, 2010.
Address correspondence to Kathleen M. Lloyd, PhD, Griffith Business School, Department
of Tourism, Leisure, Hotel and Sport Management, Griffith University, Nathan Campus, 170
Kessels Road, Nathan, QLD 4111, Australia. E-mail: k.lloyd@griffith.edu.au
652
Women, Physical Activity, Persistence 653
INTRODUCTION
Rates of physical inactivity are high for women in virtually all developed and
developing countries (World Health Organization [WHO], 2009) and have
been linked to numerous physical and psychological health problems (WHO,
2009). While the need is clear to increase women’s participation in physical
activity, another important issue is what aspects of the physical activity expe-
rience will sustain women’s interest and participation over the life span. In
general, recreational forms of physical activity are more enjoyable in and of
themselves than physical exercise and are linked more closely to the desired
motivations to participate (Kilpatrick, Hebert, & Bartholomew, 2005), and
to enhanced adherence rates in comparison with aerobic or strength-based

interventions (Dishman & Buckworth, 1996). Furthermore, in a major New
Zealand population study, ‘Obstacles to Action,’ perceptions of self-efficacy
and intrinsic types of motivation such as enjoyment were reported to have the
most significant influence on physical activity participation (Sullivan et al.,
2003). Both of these concepts facilitate women’s continuing participation in
physical activity (Wilbur et al., 2003).
Self-Efficacy, Women, and Physical Activity

Self-efficacy (i.e., a situation-specific self confidence in which an individual
has confidence to participate in a physical activity) is one of the most
important correlates of physical activity behavior in women (McAuley &
Blissmer, 2000). This level of self-belief influences exercise behavior, par-
ticipation in physical activity, and even enhances adherence to long-term
physical activity (Brassington et al., 2002; Wilbur et al., 2003). However, self-
efficacy can decrease when women fall short of the goals and expectations
(often centered on industry standards for body shape and weight loss) they
have set at the start of a physical activity program (White et al., 2005).
Subsequently, their desire to adhere to a program over the long-term may be
reduced (Wilcox, Casto, & King, 2006). Thus, indices of success that focus
not only on physical but on psychological health (Ryan & Deci, 2000) may
provide women with more opportunities to experience successful, efficacy-
enhancing behaviors and greater personal levels of self-efficacy (McAuley
et al., 2006). These outcomes have the potential to then enhance intrinsic
motivation, autonomous behavioral regulation (Ryan & Deci, 2000) and in-
tentions for future participation (Ransdell, Oakland, & Taylor, 2003).
Intrinsic Motivation, Women, and Physical Activity

At the core of understanding motivation toward physical activity is the belief
that it is as much a function of helping people find what they love to do
as getting them to exercise because it is good for them (Wankel, 1993).
654 K. M. Lloyd and D. E. Little
For example, traditional goals related to physical activity (e.g., weight and
fitness) have socio-cultural influences and are associated with more extrinsic
motivations and behavioral regulation (i.e., engaging in behavior to gain
social approval or avoid disapproval) (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Such motivat-
ing factors can undermine women’s persistence in physical activity (Segar
et al., 2007). In contrast, physical activity programs that enhance intrinsic
motivation (i.e., starting and maintaining a behavior because of its inherent
enjoyment or satisfaction) (Ryan & Deci, 2000) have emphasized enjoy-
ment and quality of the experience rather than health outcomes (Rhodes
& Courneya, 2003). In these situations, persons with higher intrinsic moti-
vations have performed more physical activity more often and experienced
more satisfaction with their activities (Losier, Bourque, & Vallerand, 1993).
An important influence on the development of self-efficacy and intrinsic
motivation during physical activity is the activity leader (Little, Lloyd, &
Kiewa, 2003).
Leadership and Women’s Self-Efficacy and Motivation

Self-efficacy can be enhanced by activity leaders in two main ways. First,
when individuals know they are not on their own, and they have someone
on whom to rely and guide them through a physical activity, they feel more
confident and capable (Rhodes, Martin, & Taunton, 2001). Second, leaders
who establish non-competitive, caring environments can enhance women’s
learning and skill development during physical activity experiences (Cohen-
Mansfield et al., 2004; Little, Lloyd, & Kiewa, 2003). Furthermore, Chatzis-
arantis and Hagger (2009) found that leadership style can motivate the trans-
ference of physical activity intentions and behavior from a program-based
setting to individuals’ leisure-time physical activity (LTPA). In their study,
school pupils whose physical education teachers adopted an autonomy-
supportive interpersonal style (i.e., they showed empathy for individuals,
provided a strong rationale for behavior, and gave students choices) (Ryan
& Deci, 2000) reported stronger intentions to pursue LTPA and participated
more frequently in LTPA than pupils taught by teachers who adopted a
more controlling style. Overall, these findings suggest that the activity leader
may have the potential to positively influence women’s self-efficacy and
motivation toward long-term physical activity participation.
The Contours Active Women’s Festival

The setting for this research was the annual Contours Active Women’s Festi-
val (CAWF) held in Christchurch, New Zealand. The festival offers a month-
long program of physical activity experiences with a view to facilitating
women’s ongoing participation. The diverse program includes outdoor ad-
venture (e.g., abseiling, mountain biking, sea kayaking), sport (e.g., rowing,
golf, fencing), and health and fitness (e.g., exercise, pilates, yoga) activi-
ties delivered by non-profit and commercial providers (Sport Canterbury,
2003). Previous evaluations have shown the Festival to be highly successful
at attracting women to physical activity participation and increasing their
knowledge of future activity options. However, no examination has been
made of the festival’s influence on women’s intentions to continue partici-
pating and their actual participation behavior after the festival. To explore
these issues, the evaluation of the 2004 CAWF addressed three additional
questions:
1. How did women describe their experiences of self-efficacy, intrinsic mo-

tivation and leadership during CAWF?

2. How did CAWF influence women’s intentions to participate in leisure-time
physical activity after the festival?
3. What level of transference of physical activity behavior from CAWF to
women’s leisure-time physical activity occurred in the six months after
the festival?
METHOD
In 2004, the researchers conducted an evaluation of CAWF on behalf of

Sport Canterbury. The evaluation was designed in consultation with the
festival manager and comprised three stages. Stage one included a mail-
out survey to all festival participants. Stage two included in-depth, semi-
structured interviews with 20 women who had participated in the festival,
while stage three involved a follow-up email survey of the twenty inter-
view respondents six months after the festival had concluded. The results
reported here are based on data drawn from stages two and three of the
evaluation.
Sample
The festival was designed as a physical activity intervention for all adult
women (16 years and over) across all cultural and social groups and levels of
physical activity engagement. Participants were recruited through newspaper
advertisements and brochures placed in public libraries, retail stores and fit-
ness, sport and recreation centers. The initial self-administered questionnaire
was mailed to all women who had registered for the festival and provided
contact details to Sport Canterbury (n D 365). At the end of the questionnaire,
the women were asked to indicate whether they would be prepared to take
part in an in-depth, one-on-one interview to explore issues identified through
the survey and to talk about their personal experiences of the festival. Of the
172 (47%) returned surveys, 78 women (46.84%) agreed to be interviewed.
A process of purposive sampling (Miles & Huberman, 1994) was then used
to select 20 respondents from the 78 women who had agreed to take part
in stage two of the evaluation. The sample size was determined based on
the degree of homogeneity assumed in purposive samples, which are by
definition chosen according to some common criteria (e.g., their experience
in respect to the research domain). In this situation, data saturation has been
shown to be reached with as few as 12 interviews (Guest, Bunce, & Johnson,
2006).
Eligibility criteria for selecting women in the sample included that they
had similar demographic characteristics to festival participants; had either
attended CAWF in previous years or were attending for the first time; had
participated in two or more activities; and that overall, these activities rep-
resented a broad range of CAWF experiences. Based on an analysis of the
survey responses, 27 (35%) of the 78 volunteers were found to reflect this
profile with an average participation rate of 2.9 activities per woman. The
researchers then contacted the potential respondents who met the eligibility
criteria by telephone, explained the study again and confirmed their interest
in being interviewed and their availability during the data collection period.
Of the 27 potential candidates that met the criteria, two declined to be
interviewed and five were not available, leaving 20 women in the final
sample. All of these women agreed at the time of the interview to be part of
the follow-up email survey to be sent in the months following the interviews.
However, it was made clear that they could choose not to complete the
survey once it had been sent. The project received ethical approval from its
institutional review board, and all respondents received information sheets
about the study and provided signed, written informed consent forms prior
to the interviews.
Data Collection and Analysis

Interviews. Qualitative methods seek the evaluative meanings (e.g.,
thoughts, feelings, and intentions) that people give to the processes that are
being examined and that cannot be observed by researchers (Henderson,
1991; Patton, 1980). In this study, researchers operated in a discovery mode
using in-depth interviews to create an interaction with each participant
and gain rich and detailed data related to the women’s inner perspectives
(Henderson, 1991) of their experiences at the festival. The interviews were
conducted by female researchers as women tend to be more active listeners
(Tannen, 1991). In addition, the shared experience of women allowed the
respondents more opportunity for self-expression and a greater degree of
comfort to disclose their thoughts. Introductory letters were sent, and follow-
up phone calls and emails were used to organize an interview time and lo-
cation convenient and comfortable for each woman. It was recommended to
participants that interviews take place in a quiet location with little likelihood
of interruption. Most of the women chose to meet with researchers in their

homes, but interviews were also held in workplaces and the researcher’s
hotel. Efforts were made to minimize the time commitment required by the
women, and most interviews lasted between 40 and 60 minutes.
The interview guide approach (Patton, 1980) was used in this study.
That is, questions were asked as they were appropriate to the progress
of the interview (Henderson, 1991) and topics (e.g., motivations, benefits,
future intentions to participate) were covered in open-ended questions to
guide but not constrain the conversation. This allowed flexibility to follow
any issues or experiences highlighted by individual women. The interviews
were tape recorded with the permission of the women, then transcribed
verbatim. All respondents were advised that pseudonyms would be used to

protect their anonymity. Transcripts were then analyzed through a process
of constant comparison in a search for common major themes (Glaser &
Strauss, 1967). This consisted of identifying and coding data into categories
of information (open coding), finding categorical links (axial coding) and
integrating categories and their properties within the context of a central
theme (selective coding) (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). Thus, while the essen-
tial meaning of the women’s comments was retained, the series of coding
passes allowed for the iterative reduction of data to identifiable themes
(Neuman, 1997). Two methods were used to enhance the reliability of the
findings. First, both researchers separately coded each transcript, discussed
the resulting open codes and negotiated to resolve any discrepancies in the
themes emerging from the data. Second, two informed peers coded three
transcripts to assess the researcher’s interpretation of the data and identify
any assumptions underpinning the findings (Henderson, 1991). This process
limited personal bias and produced a high degree of consistency in coding
and theme development.
Follow-up survey. Six months after the festival, a two-page email survey
was sent to each of the interviewed women. After two weeks, a reminder
email was sent to any of the women who had not returned the survey
and/or who had not identified that they did not want to participate in
the survey. Respondents were asked to complete questions relating to their
activity profile and interests; current participation behavior and perceived
impacts of the festival on their participation behavior. The survey contained
a range of closed and open-ended questions and scales in which responses
were measured using a 5-point scale where for example, 1 D ‘Strongly
Disagree’ to 5 D ‘Strongly Agree.’ In addition, at the end of the survey
respondents could provide comments on any other issue they saw as im-
portant or any reflections they had in relation to the festival. In this stage,
18 of the 20 women contacted to take part in the follow-up study returned
their surveys. Descriptive statistics of the demographic and activity data were
computed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) (SPSS
Inc., Chicago, IL).
FINDINGS
Interviews
Respondents ranged in age from 23 to 64 years (Table 1). The sample
included women who worked full-time (13), part-time (3), and/or did shift
work (1), as well as women who were self-employed (1), worked full-time
in the home (1), or were retired (1). Marital status was diverse, with women
who were married (9), separated (2), divorced and with a new partner (1),
single (5), widowed (1), or in de facto relationships (2). Respondents also
included women who had dependent children (10) or independent or no
children (10).
Activities the women had chosen included: fencing, archery, triathlon,

rowing, golf, lawn bowls, walking, mountain biking, abseiling, sea-kayaking,
windsurfing, tennis, fitness sessions and rollerblading. While the interviews
produced a wide range of issues and themes, this paper reports on aspects
of the women’s experiences that reflected the focus areas of self-efficacy,
intrinsic motivation, leadership, and intentions to participate.
Self-efficacy. After participating in the festival, the women reported a
number of outcomes related to self-efficacy, including: enhanced confidence,
new knowledge and skills and a sense of achievement. For example, after
rowing, Heather explained: ‘‘I definitely feel confident: : : : You don’t have
to be experienced, you don’t have to be competitive.’’ While Gwen felt she
TABLE 1 Demographic Characteristics of CAWF Interview Participants
Age Dependent
Pseudonym (years) Marital status children Employment status
Simone 45 Separated 1 Full-time

Sue 45 Divorced/New partner 2 Full-time
Jill 30 Partnered None Full-time
Lyn 38 Single None Full-time
Val 43 Married 2 Full-time
Suzette 23 Single None Full-time
Heather 50 Widow None Full-time, self-employed
Milly 27 Single None Full-time
Lesley 52 Married None Part-time
Penny 40 Married 4 Part-time
Robyn 39 Married 3 Homemaker
Louise 39 Married 2 Full-time
Mindy 44 Separated 3 Full-time
Chloe 28 Partnered None Full-time
Gwen 46 Married 2 Part-time, shift-worker
Therese 51 Single None Full-time
Joan 62 Married None Retired
Nola 64 Single None Full-time
Julie 52 Married 2 Full-time
Tina 39 Married 1 Part-time
would definitely continue with rowing: ‘‘I could do it! It’s real concentration
and rhythm and if you get out of rhythm it is a problem. I did and I almost
toppled the boat, but we got up to speed and it was great. I just felt good
about myself and confident that I can try.’’ For Sue, abseiling over an 80
meter waterfall had given her more than confidence and inspiration, she felt
she could ‘‘conquer the world.’’
New knowledge and skills developed during the sessions also engen-
dered confidence and helped women overcome feelings that they were, as
Chloe stated, ‘‘out of my depth.’’ For example, after archery Penny believed,
‘‘next time I will understand the technique and the physiological perspective
too. I’m very much into working out how things are done. So that was a
buzz. I’ve go those options now if I choose to continue.’’ As a nervous first

time rower, Jill also found the sessions very effective because the instructors:
Put a lot of effort into providing a good experience for us. If they’d just
thrown us in I don’t think we would have ever gone near the water
again. They knew this was the way to help us feel as though we were
learning and give us a sense of success. They worked out a way to bring
novices in to the fold, give them a positive experience and give the right
sort of instructions. They weren’t impatient they were very supportive
and encouraging. All the things that you think are positive affirmation.
Jill’s experience in particular showed how the sessions, structured specifically

for women who were learners, provided a pathway to personal success. This
was especially important for Jill who felt she would be intimidated if she was
with people who had more experience. However, she soon realized, ‘‘the
festival was designed for people like me who want to have a go but nothing
great was expected of you. Now I can row too and it feels great.’’ Julie, who
had tried mountain biking for the first time, also saw it as a major personal
achievement:
After that marathon effort I’m physically knackered and emotionally it’s
amazing. I’m just really happy, I know I did it and it’s like I could do
anything. I’m absolutely on top of the world. The sense of achievement
that I get from it, I wasn’t aware before that activity is an achievement
thing.
Therese’s achievement was even more than mastering the basics of wind-
surfing. She felt that she had emerged from a life-time of self-doubt and now
understood:
The only thing that has stopped me doing anything like this before is my
own script. Whereas in the past I’ve let things hold me back, now I’ve
realized that I’m the one that’s not progressing because I’ve let my own
internal dialogue hold me back.
The relationship between the women-only sessions, elimination of self-doubt,

development of confidence and effective learning was a common theme in
interviews with respondents. For example, Mindy believed the other women
at golf helped her deal with the challenge of learning a new skill: ‘‘It was the
social affect of working together. You know that all the women probably
haven’t done it before either, so you’re all in the same boat and you don’t feel
a fool while you’re learning the basics.’’ While Val, who had previously had
negative experiences with mountain biking, found the session she attended
‘‘absolutely perfect for me. It was a small group and women only. It wasn’t
intimidating, it was supporting and I just felt I want to go back and do it
myself.’’ The festival experience was regularly described as supportive and
this added to the women’s motivation to try, make mistakes and sometimes
fail, but keep going.
Intrinsic motivation. The women readily acknowledged the enjoyment
and fun they had experienced during the festival which appeared to come
from a combination of four factors: the new activities, the location, the
people, and the sense of success. For example, Gwen felt that all of the
activities had been ‘‘fun and funny’’ and in particular the mountain biking
session:
I enrolled in the Bottle Lake ride because I’d heard all these people went
biking there and I’d never been. It was such fun. I’ve been there lots
of times now and it’s wonderful. It was really worth it for me, all the
activities I chose.
Other activities such as abseiling and fencing, were described as ‘‘awe-

some’’ and ‘‘brilliant’’ (Julie). Lyn also described sea-kayaking as ‘‘a buzz,’’
but apart from the ‘‘thrill of actually doing it’’ she was ‘‘just blown away
to see dolphins swimming around our kayaks.’’ Even in a more traditional
activity such as golf, Mindy felt that the environment was a key factor in her
enjoyment: ‘‘Being in surroundings I like makes me feel completely relaxed
as opposed to being in a gym with lots of other sweaty people and loud
music.’’ Similarly, Heather found that she got more out of rowing than just
the basic skills: ‘‘I loved it. It was a perfect day. Just getting out in the fresh
air, getting out on the water, it was the tranquillity of it all.’’ Participating in
new activities and experiencing new environments had provided challenges
for these women. However, the social context of the festival was a major
element in facilitating positive outcomes. As Lyn stated when reflecting on
her sea-kayaking experience:
It was a lovely bunch of ladies: : : : I made the comment out there, that if
this was a bunch of blokes they’d be charging around racing each other.
We were just cruising and having a great time and it was really nice. I
think everybody’s out there to have a good time and experience. It was
a really neat atmosphere.
Thus, enjoyment was enhanced through supportive environments where

no pressure was placed on participants to do well and a relaxed group
atmosphere was created by women who were ‘‘laughing and encouraging
each other. They were great fun to be with’’ (Milly). Respondents also felt
that it was important that they had participated with women who had similar
motivations but different backgrounds and life experiences. This made the
activities more interesting, enjoyable, and in some cases validated women’s
participation. For example, Therese believed the inclusive nature of the
festival had provided all women with opportunities to participate but more
importantly, a sense that they had a right to be there:
Festivals like this inspire and enable people to take part, regardless of
what level they are at and there are people that participate and they
come in with all levels of disability and handicaps and I think, good on
you.
Robyn also felt that during the tennis session, she had given ‘‘the older
ladies a different perspective on life and they gave me a different perspective
too.’’ While Heather was happy to find that ‘‘I wasn’t the oldest one there
giving it a go and that means its okay.’’ Regardless, of ability, disability
or age, Lyn saw a link between all participants: ‘‘everybody’s out there
to have a good time and experience it.’’ This common bond enhanced
participants’ sense of success and motivated some women to take advantage
of other opportunities offered by the festival. For example, Suzette and Nola
organized a group of women to go to the Krypton Challenge (triathlon) and
they ‘‘made a whole day of it’’ mixing ‘‘the challenge’’ with ‘‘fun and a social
environment.’’ As Milly commented:
That’s quite a nice feeling to do something new, completely new, and
be at least a little bit successful at it that it makes you think, hey this
is something I might want to do on a regular basis. It’s just the thought
there is new and exciting things out there to do and I can be part of
them.
The motivation to pursue activities and re-capture feelings of success was

strongly influenced by the CAWF leaders and their ability to create a positive
activity context.
Leadership. For the interviewed women, leaders enhanced their expe-
riences by designing sessions to fit with the women’s current level of skill
and aspirations for development of skills; adopting a positive attitude and
approach to individuals and the group, and encouraging women to keep
participating in the future. For example, Heather’s rowing instructors ‘‘didn’t
just jump in boots and all. They took it slowly one step at a time and gave us
enough of a taste. They knew when to stop. I think they were recruiting. All
of us were hooked.’’ Another important leadership attribute Heather noticed
was that:
They helped give you the confidence. They kept telling us that we were
good at it and I kind of felt like I was really quite professional. Probably I
was belting someone in the back but they made me feel that I was okay.
They didn’t laugh at me.
Nola was also impressed with the leader of the assault course session
who encouraged women to choose their own level of participation on the
day: ‘‘He was dynamite. He was magical, really, really good. No pressure, do
what you can, if you can’t do it this way, do it that way, excellent.’’ Similarly,
when Lyn tried abseiling and sea kayaking, she felt ‘‘totally safe with the
leaders. They explained everything and made us feel comfortable. They
were nice, cruisy people and we were all there to have some fun.’’ While
Milly, who thought ‘‘all of the CAWF instructors were really encouraging’’
appreciated the positive way that the surfing instructor related to first-time
participants: ‘‘If we fell off five times in a row, he made you feel like you
were still doing well and you’re almost there. You didn’t feel self conscious
about trying until you could achieve what you wanted.’’ Therese also felt
the demeanor of the windsurfing instructor was an important influence on
the group’s outcomes:
He was fun and upbeat and there was absolutely no reference to the
maturity of some of the participants or anything like that. It was just a
level playing field. Most encouraging and very practical information. He
kept us informed, just a simple technique, nothing too complicated. He
explained in everyday terms and was very encouraging.
A number of the women felt that the leaders had influenced their desire
to continue with these activities. For example, Penny explained how the
fencing instructors motivated the women to consider taking their interest in
the activity further by remaining positive despite participant’s doubts that
they would be any good at this highly skilled activity:
They were open to all the fears and all the range of different expectations
you carry in. They understood you were new to it and didn’t have a clue
about the technique but they didn’t treat you like an imbecile. Good
encouragement to learn. It opened a whole world I didn’t know existed.
It was friendly and welcoming, we felt pretty special.
According to Mindy, having the right instructor was the key to her learning,
enjoying and being interested in going further with golf:
She’s got a nice sense of humour and was very clear and hands on. I
think because she’s so effective is why I did so well and if I hadn’t had
someone like her it might not have been good and I might have thought,
well I can’t do this it’s hopeless and I’m not going to carry on.
For Julie, active follow-up from her archery instructor to encourage

future participation was seen as a positive step: ‘‘I got a call from the guy
from archery about a week and a half ago to see if I was keen on coming
back and starting the beginner’s class which I thought was really good.’’
While Tina explained that ‘‘most people were asking, how can I do this and
they’d start telling you phone numbers and who to call. They were really
good but were not pushy.’’ Finally, perhaps Nola best expressed the qualities
of the leaders that the women found inspiring: ‘‘They imparted knowledge
to you. They had a commitment to you and told you how you could go
further.’’
Future Intentions
Many of the women indicated a desire to continue with physical activity after
the festival (i.e., get more involved with the CAWF activities in which they
had participated, continue to try new experiences, and/or make more room
for physical activity in their lives). For example, Mindy’s interest in golf was
strong: ‘‘I see myself probably playing nine holes and then learning more
about the sport and getting more into it.’’ Milly was definitely ‘‘continuing
with mountain biking and I will be doing something about that next week.’’
Therese, who had discovered windsurfing, stated that she ‘‘loved it! I want
to keep on doing it. As far as I’m concerned I’d love to still be participating
when I am 90.’’
Robyn also saw herself being more active in future because she had
been taken ‘‘out of my comfort zone and had a ball.’’ She typified many of
the women who had put their interests and physical activity needs on hold
for many years but had now rediscovered the feelings that being active can
engender: ‘‘Next year we’re going to do the Contours Triathlon. The other
thing I’d like to do is a long tramp race I saw in a running magazine and
hopefully, I’ll get back to skiing again too this year.’’ Finally, Heather and
Gwen were now committed to rowing. Heather planned to ‘‘start straight
after Easter, Sunday is my first date’’ while Gwen thought after trying rowing
‘‘I really like this. I’m going to pursue it again: : : : They really did show us
some amazing things on the water.’’
In contrast, Val stated that she ‘‘did not formally set goals, but I do have
intentions of doing more things and build up to bigger activities.’’ Similarly,
Chloe realized the festival offered new ideas she could add to her physical
activity repertoire: ‘‘I like doing something new and these opportunities
extend the ideas I have.’’ For all respondents, there was some element of
future potential due to the range of activities they had been exposed to and
respondents’ positive participation experiences. As Lyn explained, ‘‘If I go
now and join that club then this has been a building block for me and a
pathway into trying something new.’’ Finally, Milly’s journey was all about
wanting ‘‘to see if I loved something enough that I would carry it on, like the
surfing. I thoroughly enjoyed it so I’m looking at doing that.’’ The follow-up

survey conducted six months after the festival sought to ascertain whether the
strong intentions to continue participation expressed by respondents during
the interviews had translated into increased leisure-time physical activity.
Follow-Up Survey
A total of 18 out of the 20 women interviewed completed the CAWF follow-
up survey. Respondents were firstly asked to describe their current level of
involvement in physical activity. On a scale of 1 to 5 where 1 D ‘currently not
participating and not thinking about starting’ and 5 D ‘currently participating
and have participated for longer than six months’ the mean was 5, indicating
that all of the women considered themselves physically active at the time of
the survey. These results showed some change in respondent’s self-reported
levels of involvement in physical activity from the initial interviews in which
14 (78%) of the women described themselves as active on a regular basis
before the festival. Two women (11%) reported they were active but had
only just started prior to the festival, and of the remaining two respondents,
one (5.5%) was doing some irregular activity, while the other (5.5%) was
inactive but thinking about becoming active just prior to the festival.
Physical recreation attributes. The women’s perceptions of their phys-
ical activity attributes were measured on a scale of 1 to 5 where 1 D ‘Low’
and 5 D ‘High.’ Respondents considered their ‘Physical fitness’ to be more
than above average (4.25), their ‘potential to master’ physical activities as
above average (4.00), and their ‘overall competence’ in physical activity was
slightly above average (3.88). This shows a relatively high level of confidence
in their fitness, potential to learn new or further develop existing skills, and
confidence in relation to their current participation in physical activity.
Interest in physical activities. Respondents were also asked to respond
to four statements that reflected their level of interest in participating in
physical activity. On a 5-point scale, the women’s responses to ‘intention to
participate’ (4.75); ‘interest in participating’ (4.63), and ‘plan to participate’
(4.50) regularly in the coming months were all relatively high. However,
when asked whether they would ‘like to participate’ more in physical activity
the response was much lower (3.25). This would indicate that the women
in the follow-up sample were either satisfied with, or did not believe they
could increase, their level of involvement in physical activity at the time of
the survey.
Impact of CAWF on physical activity participation. Just over one-third
(37.5%) of respondents stated that they participated in physical activity more
often based on their experiences at the festival. No respondents stated they
participated less often based on their festival experiences. A majority of the
activities women participated in were pre-existing (62%) but interestingly
38% were new activities for the participants.
Women’s reflections on CAWF. Overall, 47.1% of respondents felt that

the festival was an important ‘chance to try something new,’ while almost one
quarter of respondents (23.5%) saw the festival as an ‘opportunity to learn
new skills.’ Written responses also showed that the women’s main outcomes
from participating in the festival were the ‘development of knowledge’ and
‘confidence,’ ‘finding out about activities,’ and ‘developing skills’ that resulted
in an increased level of confidence doing activities. In addition, participants
cited experiencing a ‘sense of achievement,’ ‘development of self respect,’
and ‘fun’ as other outcomes they had experienced through CAWF.
DISCUSSION
This study set out to explore women’s experiences of self-efficacy, intrinsic

motivation and leadership during the Contours Active Women’s Festival and
the impacts of those experiences on women’s intentions to participate in
physical activity after the festival, and women’s self-reported participation
behavior six months after the festival. The findings showed that, for these
women, a key factor in building confidence and efficacy was the ability to
participate and learn new skills with other women who had similar personal
goals and skill levels. This outcome supports previous research that has
shown that women can gain greater confidence and a sense of self-worth
as a result of participating with other women in challenging activities and
in some cases facing personal fears (Little, Lloyd, & Kiewa, 2003) if the
environment is non-competitive and they feel safe and supported (Bialeschki,
1999). Being supported includes giving participants the autonomy to set and
pursue personal goals and meet their own expectations, not those prescribed
by a leader or other external groups (Segar et al., 2007; White et al., 2005).
Enjoyment was also a strong component of, and motivational outcome
from, women’s experiences during CAWF and centred on the type of activi-
ties they had chosen (mostly for the first time), the physical settings (mostly
in the outdoors) and the social context (e.g., other participants and activity
leaders). However, in this study, enjoyment was largely associated with the
socio-contextual environment (Ryan & Deci, 2000) where women spoke of
feeling that ‘‘they belonged’’ to a group, that they had ‘‘learnt new skills’’
and ‘‘felt successful’’ but also had ‘‘learnt with and from other women,’’
and had ‘‘made friends’’ with whom they could socialize and/or plan future
participation. Thus, motivating women to engage in physical activity because
of what they will learn and experience may be the most powerful way to
influence behavioral regulation and persistence in physical activity (Segar
et al., 2007).
Activity leaders were also shown to play a central role in facilitating
women’s self-efficacy and level of enjoyment in activity sessions (Cohen-
Mansfield et al., 2004; Rhodes, Martin, & Taunton, 2001). For example,
the CAWF leaders (regardless of gender) provided activity sessions where

respondents felt they could and had achieved despite their initial lack of
experience and confidence. This was possible through appropriate program
design (e.g., gradual skill development and optimal levels of challenge) and
by showing support for and empathy with participants (e.g., encouraging
and treating women as individuals, creating a non-competitive atmosphere,
balancing learning with fun, acknowledging achievements no matter how
small and ensuring the women felt comfortable at all times) (Chatzisarantis
& Hagger, 2009). Previous research supports the view that positive leadership
enhances the learning of new skills by actively encouraging women to
participate at their own level and fostering a fun, team approach among
women (Little, Lloyd, & Kiewa, 2003).

Based on their experiences, the women expressed intentions to continue
their participation after the festival. This took three forms: continuing with
the activities they had tried at the festival, exploring new activity options
and/or participating more often in existing activity interests. Respondents
now felt they had the basic skills and confidence to go further on their
own and try even more activities without the burden of self-doubt. For
example, some of the women had already planned activities in the future
(e.g., in the next few weeks and months after the festival and as far as
the following year). This suggests that the women’s physical activity ex-
periences had enhanced their motivational orientation to persist in leisure-
time physical activity (Chatzisarantis & Hagger, 2009; Little, Lloyd, & Kiewa,
2003). Thus, women’s interest in pursuing more physical activity may be
explained by their increased sense of self-efficacy and enjoyment of the
activities fostered within the supportive socio-contextual environment of the
festival.
Results from the follow-up survey distributed six months after the fes-
tival, showed that the women were still highly active and confident about
their abilities. They perceived themselves to be fit, able to master physical
activities, and competent in the physical activities in which they currently
participated. This would indicate that the confidence they had gained during
the festival had been maintained and perhaps further developed through
their self-directed participation (Brassington et al., 2002). Respondents also
still reported a high level of interest in, intent to, and planning of, leisure-time
physical activity (Chatzisarantis & Hagger, 2009). However, they were not
looking to increase levels of participation which may reflect the ever-present
constraints (e.g., family and work obligations) that impact on women’s ability
to find the time as well as the sense of freedom to participate in their chosen
activities (Bialeschki, 1999). Importantly, almost one third of respondents
stated that the festival experience had directly influenced their on-going
participation in physical activity (Chatzisarantis & Hagger, 2009; Deci &
Ryan, 1985). Thus, this study has added to our understanding of women’s
persistence in physical activity by highlighting the importance of the ac-
tivity context as a site for facilitating self-efficacy and enjoyment through

autonomy-supportive leadership (Chatzisarantis & Hagger, 2009; Ryan &
Deci, 2000).
However, the study was not without limitations. First, the sample size
was small which limited the ability to compare women with different de-
mographic characteristics as well as to generalize the findings to all women.
The purposive sample was also to some extent one of convenience, and its
composition was atypical of the population and therefore may potentially be
biased (Henderson, 1991). For example, the sample was largely composed
of Caucasian women who could and wanted to use the festival program.
Thus, the diverse cultures of New Zealand and/or women who could not or
did not want to participate were not represented in the sample, limiting the
generalizability of the findings. A final limitation related to the reliance on
self-reported physical activity experiences and behavior and the possibility
that responses during interviews and in the follow-up surveys may have
reflected some social acceptability bias among the women. Future research
could address these issues by investigating the relative accessibility and
impact of large-scale community physical activity interventions for various
sub-groups (e.g., women with young children and women from diverse
cultures). Potential also exists to investigate these relationships in a lon-
gitudinal study of women’s physical activity participation and persistence.
In conclusion, this study has provided insight for researchers involved in
establishing the key determinants of women’s persistence in physical activity
and practitioners involved in the design and delivery of physical activity
programs for women.
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Keeping Women Active

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Keeping Women Active: An Examination

KATHLEEN M. LLOYD, PhD

DONNA E. LITTLE, PhD

Physical inactivity in women is a worldwide problem that has not

KEYWORDS leadership, motivation, persistence, self-efficacy,

to enhanced adherence rates in comparison with aerobic or strength-based

Self-Efficacy, Women, and Physical Activity

Intrinsic Motivation, Women, and Physical Activity

Leadership and Women’s Self-Efficacy and Motivation

The Contours Active Women’s Festival

1. How did women describe their experiences of self-efficacy, intrinsic mo-

tivation and leadership during CAWF?

In 2004, the researchers conducted an evaluation of CAWF on behalf of

Data Collection and Analysis

of interruption. Most of the women chose to meet with researchers in their

verbatim. All respondents were advised that pseudonyms would be used to

Activities the women had chosen included: fencing, archery, triathlon,

TABLE 1 Demographic Characteristics of CAWF Interview Participants

Simone 45 Separated 1 Full-time

buzz. I’ve go those options now if I choose to continue.’’ As a nervous first

Jill’s experience in particular showed how the sessions, structured specifically

The relationship between the women-only sessions, elimination of self-doubt,

Other activities such as abseiling and fencing, were described as ‘‘awe-

Thus, enjoyment was enhanced through supportive environments where

The motivation to pursue activities and re-capture feelings of success was

For Julie, active follow-up from her archery instructor to encourage

surfing. I thoroughly enjoyed it so I’m looking at doing that.’’ The follow-up

Women’s reflections on CAWF. Overall, 47.1% of respondents felt that

This study set out to explore women’s experiences of self-efficacy, intrinsic

the CAWF leaders (regardless of gender) provided activity sessions where

women (Little, Lloyd, & Kiewa, 2003).

tivity context as a site for facilitating self-efficacy and enjoyment through

Henderson, K. 1991. Dimensions of choice: A qualitative approach to recreation,

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