Colectors Made

MEDA Training Session on Solar Thermal
Solar System Technology

Market – Clues
Solar collectors installed annually 1999
4.000 In thousands of m2
2.000
1.000
890
500 430 400
25 (1)
China India Japón Europa Corea del Turquía Israel EE. UU.
Sur
Fuente: German Solar Energy Industry Association
• (1) From the total 1.000.000 m2 installed in year 2000 in EE. UU. More than, 95% was
collectors for private swimming pools heating (IAE)
Market – Clues
Total collectors installed in UE (Total Annual growth of total m2
surface installed)
installed in UE
En miles de m2 En % 19%
10.470,0
8.806,4
8.210
7.511,3
6.985,2
9%
8%
7%
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 1997 1998 1999 2000
Fuente: EurObserv´ER
• In year 2000, in the UE there was more than 1 million m2 of solar collectors, related
to the 800.000 m2 installed in 1999
• The total installed surface has growth more than 20%

Market – Clues
Total surface installed by countries in UE during 2000

3.365 En miles de m2
2.460
2.170
543
400 350 244 241 220 167 150 56 10 1,5 1
Alemania Grecia Austria Francia España Italia Dinamarca Países Portugal Suecia Gran Bélgica Finlandia Irlanda Luxemburgo
Bajos Bretaña
• There are great differences between countries

• Germany, Greek, Ostrich are the countries with grater solar collector installed
• Countries like, Ireland, Luxemburg has a minimum surface.
• German industry is one of the larges an representative (in 2000) in the world.
Market – Clues
Growth of installed surface

46,1% 1999-2000
37,6% 37,3%
24,6%
22,4%
13,3%
12,5%
11,4% 9,9%
7,4% 7,1%
4,7%
1,1% 0,0% 0,0%
España
Países Bajos
Alemania
Italia
Dinamarca
Austria
Bélgica
Portugal
Finlandia
Suecia
Gran Bretaña
Grecia
Francia
Irlanda
Luxemburgo
• The total installed surface in Germany, Greek and Ostrich is nearly the 80 % of the total
surface installed in the UE.
• The grater growth during 2000, has occurred in Belgium, Portugal and Italy.
• Growth has also been higher than 20 % in Germany and Greek.
• Ireland an Luxemburg has not presented any growth
• Spain has just growth 9,9 %
Market – Clues
M2 of collectors by 1.000 habitant's

1999 • Ostrich with 268 m2 by 1.000 habitants and
Austria
Greek with 236 m2, are the countries with
Grecia
Dinamarca higher level of equipment of solar collectors

Alemania
• In this ranking, Germany is in the forth
Suecia
position in EU, (in 2001 goes to 2º position)
Portugal
Países Bajos
• Germany, Italy and Spain presents a high
Finlandia
Francia growth , due to the low actual ratio, compared

España with other countries and weather (radiation
Italia
conditions).
Bélgica
Gran Bretaña
Luxemburgo
Irlanda
0 50 100 150 200 250
Market – Clues
• The investment cost and the pay back time is one of the main factors to understand the
penetration of solar thermal energy.
Investment cost for solar systems

30 0,25
25
Cost by kWh en US $
0,20
Payback in years
20
0,15
15
10 0,10
5 0,05
0 0
Países Bajos
US California
Nueva Zelanda
Alemania
Reino Unido
US Nueva York
Dinamarca
Luxemburgo
Finlandia
Portugal
Italia
Suecia
España
Suiza
Grecia
Canadá
México
Turquía
Noruega
Irlanda
Francia
Japón
Fuente: IEA CADDET
? The investment cost is perceived as lower in the countries where the electricity
cost in greater (Mexico, Turkey, Norway, Sweden).
? The low electricity cost could be a factor to understand why some countries with
favourable climate conditions do not have a god solar market (as EE.UU, Italy,
Portugal , Spain,… )
Market – Clues
• In 2000, En el 2000, 36.000 m2 of solar thermal collectors was installed in Spain what represents
a accumulated increase of about 60.000 m2 from 1998 ( IDAE)
• With this data the total amount of surface installed until 2000 is about 400.000 m2
M2 instalados por CC. AA.

? Andalucía has been the
TOTAL
35.667
1.829 community with higher
303
176 number el collectors
396562 5.456
1.376 18.740 m2
1.342 832 18
? The wrester increase ,
3.288
2.237 after Andalucia, has been
21.582
18.740 Cataluña, Valencia
319 566
604 ? Madrid, La Rioja,
37
Cantabria y Galicia did not
9.785
148 773 suffer increase in year
2000 compared with
1999 2000
2.651 preceding years.
304
Fuente: IDAE
Market – Clues
Solar thermal energy.

Total surface installed until year 2000 (Miles de m2)
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
1980
1977
1978
1979
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
• At the end of year 2000, the total surface installed (solar thermal collector) was
about: 400.000 m2
• From 1998, it can be seen a reactivation of the ,market, with inter annual growths of
11% in 1998, 6% in 1999 y 10% in 2000
Market – Clues
The Spanish experience (even the bad one), is very big....,

Situacion mercado solar en España
35000
30000
25000
20000
m2
15000
10000
5000
0
1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994
The only thing you can’

t get for free is the experience.
People do not learn from the past ...

... Are obliged to repeat it.
Market – Clues
¿ But... do this market exist ... or there is a interest?
There are some clues about the market, not only interest in some
of the actors (administration, social,… ) There is a need to
quantified this market.
Hotels: xxx ? (nº of beds, category,… ).

Collective buildings: xxx ?
Other building: xxx ?
Other possible interested:
Residences
Sport centres.
Industry (alimentary, transform,… )
....
Where they are, what they consume, at what price, at what time,…
Market – Clues
Service sector consumption

distribution (idea - Spain) Hospitales Educación
8% 4% Restaurante y
Comercio Alojamiento
23% 31%
Oficinas
34%
Distribution of average
Otros Calefaccion /
consumption of energy
Cocinas 3% climatización (electricity and others) in
27% 31%
hotels (idea - spain
Iluminación Agua caliente

15% sanitaria
24%
Market – Clues
Distribution of average
consumption of energy
(electricity and others) in
homes - residential (idea - spain
Aire
Iluminación acondicionado
Cocina 8% 0,2%
10%
Calefacción
Electrodomes. 45%
16%
Agua caliente
21%
Market – Clues
There is a market....
Lets know about the technology...

1892
Mature technology ??
1902
PRINCIPLES
• Basic ideas to remember:

– Exchange of energy models:
• Conduction (Fourier lay: (flow through a material media with out
translation of mat). q = k/e* ? T)
• Convection (Newton lay, convection is influenced by mass transport

and energy : Q = h* (TS – Tinf)
• Radiation. ( Emission of energy by electromagnetic waves).

– Considerations:
Spectra R
Absorption, Reflex ion , Transmission
E=A+R+T E
or
A
1=? +? +?
T
PRINCIPLES
• Radiation. (Cont).
– Radiation laws:
» Prevost law (over 0 º K all body emits wherever theirs
nature, size,… ).
» Plank law. Black body emittanc depend on wave length and Temp.
» Wein law. The wave lent of max. emit. is invers. dependent to Temp.
» Stfan-Boltzman. The emission power of a body depends on Temp.
W=? T4
» Kirchoff law. All body absorb the radiation in the length he emits
» Lmabert law. The radiation is emitted in all direction in same
intensity.
PRINCIPLES / Solar Cinematic
• SUN .
– 1.350.000 km of diameter.
– 2,2 . 10 27 Tm
– 300.000 times the Earth
– Liberates energy in the interior at 40 . 10 6 º K
– Energy that reaches us come from a convective zone (photosphere) at aprox 5.000 º K
– Spectre of radiations that reaches Earth is same as a black body of : 5.762 º K
– Solar spectre compared with black body at 6000 º K
• Solar Constant: the amount of energy from the Sun over a m2

perpendicular. To the radiation exterior to the atmosphere in unit of time.
Changes over times between: 1310 W/m2 and 1400 W/m2
• Movement of earth around sun.
• Solar Radiation. Due to the atmosphere filter, the radiations suffers

interactions.
– At high atmosphere, UV is eliminated. Dissociation and recombination,....
Convert it in lower length waves.
– 1 / 3 of radiation sensed back to space due to reflection, diffusion, refraction.
– Partial absorption effects at certain wave lengths due to existing elements as:
Water vapour, Oxygen, Smoke, Dust,…
– Other part is diffused , in all directions, by dust and clouds (origin of: blue sky)
– We receive,… . 1.000 W/m2 CLOUDS
ABSORTIÓN REFLEXIÓN
BY OZONO
ATMÓSPHER
DISPERSION
DIFUSIÓN
MÚLTIPEL SIMPLE
DIFUSION
ABSORTIÓN AT
ATMÓSPHER
CLOUDS
DISPERSION
SURFACE
• Celeste Sphere. Even that we move around the sun and other bodies,
our sensations is opposite.
• Some names:
– Latitude. Angle of the vertical of a point and the Equatorial slide.
– Solar Declination . Angle between the earth – sun line and the Equatorial slide.
(depends on the day).
– Inclination. Angle between the collector surface and the horizontal at that point.
– Azimuth. Angle between the horizontal projection of the perpendicular to the collector
surface and the line that goes through it and the geographical south (meridian)
– Incidence. Angle between the solar radiation (lien sun collector) and the perpendicular
to the collector surface (depends on hour, day, collector tilt)
– Solar high. Angle between the solar radiation and the horizontal surface (depends on
hour and latitude)
PRINCIPLES / Radiation Tables
• Global Solar Radiation ( Egypt Annual Average) kW/m2/day.
< 5,4
5,4 – 5,6
5,6 – 5,8
5,8 – 6,0
6,0 – 6,2
6,2 – 6,4
6,4 – 6,6
6,6 – 6,8
6,8 – 7,1
> 7,1
PRINCIPLES / Other climatic data
– Ambient data. (in ºF= Tf) to convert: Tc = (5/9)*(Tf-32)

Warmest Average dew Average
Month Average high Average low ever Coldest ever point precipitation
JAN. 65 49 86 32 42 0.2
FEB. 68 50 93 32 41 0.2
MARCH 73 54 99 37 44 0.1
APRIL 82 59 109 45 46 0.1

MAY 89 64 111 54 51 0
JUNE 93 70 113 59 58 0
JULY 93 72 108 63 64 0
AUG. 92 72 106 66 65 0
SEPT. 90 69 111 61 62 0
OCT. 85 65 102 32 58 0
NOV. 75 58 95 36 51 0.1
DEC. 67 51 83 32 45 0.2
– Cold water. (To be considered, if no data available consider

SOLAR TERMAL COLLECTORS
• Principles – solar energy

Solar energy as a source of energy is based on:
- High energy quality. - Non fixed production (aleatory.)
- Low ecological impact - Dispersed arrival to earth
- Non exhausted in human scale. - Non easily storage.
WIND
INDIRECT WAVES
SOLAR E. HIDRÁULIC
DIRECT
SOLAR E.
TERMICAL FOTONIC
USE USE
ACTIV CAPTATIÓN SOLAR

PASIV FOTOQUÍMIC CELLS
ESTRUCTURAL SOLAR LOW MEDIUM HIGH

USE TERMOSIPHON TEMPERATUR TEMPERATUR TEMPERATUR
• Principles.
Solar thermal collector is the main element in a installation. Transform
the incident radiation in thermal energy.
Solar radiation
100 %
Losses through cover Reflectance losses

10 % 8% Losses through box
12 %
82 % Hot water outlet

Could water inlet
Energy usable
70 %
• Principles – How it works.

1.- Water inside, no flow
Ei (coming from Sun) ? Collector heats
Collector suffer Energy losses : Ep by radiation, convection, conduction.
After certain moment: Ei = Ep , in this moment Temp. = Test. (stagnation).
2.- Water inside, begins to move.

Ei (coming from Sun) ? Part transformed to useful energy (Eu) y to Losses (Ep ).
In a wile, it reach a equilibrium: Ei = Eu + Ep*
This new Ep* is lower. Part of it is use to heat the fluid ? working temper. Lower Tdin
under this conditions: Tdin < Test
Efficiency: ? = Ei / Eu = 1 –(Ep / Eu ), as lower the working tem. higher the efficiency.
Efficiency depends on:
- Insulation (lower the losses ? higher useful energy, (high influence with high temp.)
- Reflectance losses.
- Orientation of the collector.
SOLAR TERMAL COLLECTORS - Flat plate collectors - elements
• Flat plate collectors – glazed.
Constitutive elements.
- Selective surface
- Collector tubes grid
- Transparent cover
- Insulation
- Box
Transparent cover
Grid tubes
Selective surface
Insulation
Box
SOLAR TERMAL COLLECTORS - Flat plate collectors – elements
• Elements to consider:
– Bottom layer, size, shape,...
– Selective treatment.
– Uses and applications
– Economy.
– Thermodynamics.
– Bottom layer, size, shape,...
– There a different models, … think what are the conditions…
ALTURA - ANCHURA SUPERFICIE - CAUDAL
4,5 700
4 600
3,5
500
Anchura (m)
Caudal (l/h)
3
2,5 400
2 300
1,5
200
1
0,5 100
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Altura (m) Superficie (m2)
SUPERFICIE - CAPACIDAD CAPACIDAD - CAUDAL
10 700
600
8
Capacidad (l)
500
Caudal (l/h)
6 400
4 300
200
2
100
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 0 2 4 6 8 10
Superficie (m2) Capacidad (l)

Selective surfaces, can be divided by the way the mechanism

they produce the spectral selective
• Intrinsic material. (Ag, Cu, Al, Mo, Au, Pt,..)

• Semiconductors
• Tandems (Selective Reflec /Black Absor.) (Select Absor / Whit Reflec)
• Composites - Cermets (metallic particles imbibed in a dielectric
matrix. Type: Cu/SiO2, Mo/Al2O3 ... ) The structure of double cermets

layer are the ones that present the best efficiency in the radiation – heat
converting.
They are made as:
1) One metal substratum of very high infrared reflectivity (as Cu, Al, Mo,… )
2) One solar absorbent layer, made up by by tow cermets sub layers with high
metallic homogeneous concentration, but with different value. The higher
concentration cermets is situated between the substrate and the lower
concentration cermets
3) A antireflective sheet in the top, made by a transparent dielectric.
With this type of structure was made one of the collectors selective surface used
actually:
• Al2O3/Mo-Al2O3(low concent.)/Mo-Al2O3(high concent.)/Cu,
Nearly perfect at 20 º C
Selective surfaces (cont.)

• Interference filters (they are based in the interference phenomena
of waves), They are produce by different layer with different reflective
index.
• Optical capture layers (they are bases ion the microstructures

made in the surface, where the incident radiation suffers a multiple

reflections (scattering effects) before they are reflected
• Antireflection layers (they are based on the idea of obtaining a

decrease the reflecting amount of radiation that will increase their
efficiency.
• Others: Paintings, … not real selective…

Selective surfaces production methods

Chemical methods
- Chemical reaction in dissolution.
> Electro deposition of metallic cations in a cathode or
anodic dissolution.
> Hydrolysis of organometallic components in dissolution

> Oxidation of metals with oxidation agents.
- Chemical deposition in vapour phase (CVD).
Physical Methods.
- Physical vapor deposition (PVD)
- Sputtering- Cathode deposition.
Absortancia Tª máx. Observacio
Selective surfaces (cont.) MATERIALES ? Emitancia ? ? /? estable (ºC) nes
Negro de Cromo 0.87-0.93 0.1 ?9

limitada a altas
Enamel Alkyd 0.9 0.9 ?1 temperaturas
Pintura acrílica
negra 0.92-0.97 0.84-0.90 ?1
Pintura inorgánica
negra 0.89-0.96 0.86-0.93 ?1
Pintura silicona Soporte de
negra 0.86-0.94 0.83-0.89 ?1 silicona

Pintura PbS / emitancia para
silicona 0.94 0.4 2.5 350 espesores
Pintura Flat-Black 0.95-0.98 0.89-0.97 ?1

Estable a altas
Enamel Cerámico 0.9 0.5 1.8 temperaturas
Negro de Cinc 0.9 0.1 9

Oxido de cobre
sobre aluminio 0.93 0.11 8.5 200
Negro de cobre Atacado por la
sobre cobre 0.85-0.90 0.08-0.12 07-nov 450 humedad
Negro de cromo Estable a altas
sobre níquel 0.92-0.94 0.07-0.12 ago-13 450 temperaturas
Negro de níquel puede
sobre níquel 0.93 0.06 15 450 afectarle a
Ni-Zn-S sobre
níquel 0.96 0.97 14 280
Negro de hierro
sobre acero 0.90 0.10 9
Selective surfaces (cont.)

Recubrimiento selectivo Sustrato ? ? Environ.
Black Crome Coper, steel 0,91-0,96 0,07-0,16 Bad
Black Coper Coper, Níquel, Aluminium 0,81-0,93 0,11-0,17 Midel
Black Níquel Níquel, Steel, Aluminium 0,89-0,96 0,07-0,17 God
Aluminium Oxides Aluminium 0,9 0,1-0,4 God
Iron Oxide Steel 0,85 0,08 Low
Conclusion: Always remember and care:

- Influence of selective treatment could influence - Base material &
in 10 % of total efficiency. technology
- Shape and geometry to ensue no more than 3
- Adequate material & use
mm pressure drop (mainly in thermo siphons)
- Consider the effective transmission (welding, - Shape & Economy
double layer,… ) - Degradation y
- Differences between collector can be big when environmental aspects
there is low radiations.
Transparent cover
Glass is transparent in the wave lengths of sun emission ( 0,3 – 2,0 ? m), but is opaque to
the ones greater than 4,0 ? m. In the figure the solar radiation distribution
Wave length Asociated Energy

Region (? m) (W/m 2) % from total
Ultraviolet ? < 0,38 95 7,02
Visible 0,38 < ? < 0,78 640 47,3
Infrared ? > 0,78 618 45,68
Total 1.353 100
Transparent cover
Transparent cover should full fill:

- High transmission coefficient - ? - in the solar band (0,3 – 3 micrometers).
- Low transmission coefficient for wave lengths ? > 3 micrometers
(emission of absorber strips).
- Low thermal conductivity.
- Low dilatation coefficient.

- Interior face should have a high reflection coefficient. (for ? > 3 ? m)
- Good mechanical properties. (support: wind, snow, stones,… ).
- For glasses:
- Tempered (with compromise solutions in % Fe vs ?).
- Bordered polished (against any fissure).
For plastics:
-Care about: UV degradations, - Dilatation coefficient (higher)
-Bad thermal resistance - Lower conductivity.
Material Coef. de Tmax (ºC) Resistencia en

absorción intemperie
Policarbonatos 0,73-0,84 100-130 Pobre-media
Poliesteres 0,8-0,87 140 Media-buena
Polietilenos 0,9 50 Pobre
Polivinil fluoruros 0,92-0,94 110-160 Buena-excelente
Fibra de vidrio 0,77-0,97 90 Buena
reforzada
Acrílicos 0,8-0,9 70-135 Media-buena
Box and Insulation

– Size, shape,...
– Materials and working conditions
– Uses and applications
– Economy.
– Thermodynamics.
Insulation should full fill: Temperature resistant. Should be able to reach

140 º C.
- No vapour emission , eve worst if this vapour could damage health or
deposit on the glass.
- Dilatation coefficient similar with other components of the collector.
- If it has a water absorption proprieties, should be considered

imperviousness and losses.
Material Conductividad Temp. Max. Observaciones

térmica (W/mK) utilización (ºC)
Lana de vidrio 0,05 150 Sensible a la humedad
Lana de roca 0,05 150 Sensible a la humedad
Poliestireno 0,042 85 Moldeado

Poliuretano 0,027 110 Espuma
Box - Chassis should full fill:

- Mechanical residence to the fixation (attachment) elements.
- Corrosion resistance.
- Resistance to temperature variations
- If part of materials are sensible to water , avoid use geometry that hold it.
Other considerations for durability and friability of the collector:

- Avoid the entrance of water in the interior of the box.
- Degradation of selective surface (paints, fluxes,… )
- Corrosion of the surface. (galvanic, bites, structural efforts, biological, water
boiling ,..
- Breaking of cover (or degradation).
- Insulation degradation.
- Degradation of joints materials.
A collector should be adequate to:
•What the society demands (social adequacy)
•What technology can supply (technical adequacy)
•Economical viable (economical adequacy)
For this reason should be considered:

•Users needs.
•Type of complementary uses
•Weather of area.
•Technological solutions (always there are more than one… ...)
•Cost of those solutions.
Some examples about European capitals, their characteristics, uses,… :

18,00
16,00
14,00
12,00
Temp. Aire
10,00
8,00
6,00
4,00
2,00
0,00
0,00 0,50 1,00 1,50 2,00 2,50 3,00 3,50 4,00 4,50 5,00
Insolac. (kWh/m2)
SOLAR TERMAL COLLECTORS - Efficiency
Performance / Efficiency.
To know the behave of a collector in changing conditions ? determine the
instant performance in a specific situation (meteo and technical data
fixed).
Need for efficiency (? ), Absorbed energy and thermal losses.
- Energy absorbed by the selective surface: Ii . ? . ?
- Incident radiation (Ii) - as add of direct, diffuse and reflected-

- Thermal losses, measured by a coefficient (global losses
coefficient) Ul.
- Ul ? Represents all losses ( isolation, walls,.). (W/m2 º C)
Thermal losses at a ambient temperature Ta and the collector at
average Temperature of Tm is : Ul (Tm – Ta)
Useful energy extracted from a collector can by written as:
Eu = FR A [Ii (? ? ) - Ul (Tm - Ta )] (Bliss ecua.)
FR ?Efficiency factor of exchange fluid / surface

Performance / Efficiency. Working test

Under controlled and measured conditions in a test facility, all the
parameters can be measured in order to have a clear output of the energy
produced by the collector.
This results can be plotted: ? vs (Tm – Ti) / Ii
The instant efficiency of a collector can be written as
Eu T ? Ta
? ? ? FR ? ?? ? ?n ? FR ?U l ? m
A ? Ii Ii
Considering Ul and FR fixed, the equation can be plotted: ? vs (Tm – Ti) / Ii
as a line, with slope: – FR Ul and origin ordinate FR (? ? )

Some times it can also be plotted or represented as a function of the inlet
temperate or the out let temperate of the fluid. This equations are similar but
– careful – with different meaning about slope and origin ordinate.
Performance / Efficiency. Working test

The main characteristics of a collector are related with the surface, and the
covers (glass, unglazed,… )
? A-. Una cubierta y superficie negra

B.- Dos cubiertas y superficie negra

C.- Una cubierta y superficie selectiva
D.- Dos cubiertas y superficie selectiva
A C B D
Tm ? Ta
Ii
SOLAR TERMAL COLLECTORS – Orientation / Inclination
Orientation
With the general rule that the collector should be oriented to ensure the
maximum energy capture, this brings that they should face SOUTH in the
North hemisphere and North in the South hemisphere.
This should be considered as a general rule and deviation of 20 º, and
depending the applications and water demand shape.
Inclination
The rule is intent to have perpendicular incident of the radiation.
Depending on uses could consider.
Use of instalation Inclination
Regular use all year (Latitud) ? 10º
Prefent use during summer: pools, hotels,... (Latitud-10) ? 10º
Preferent use in winter (Latitud+10) ? 10º
SOLAR TERMAL COLLECTORS – Orientation / Inclination
Consideration about the changes and the degree of freedom we should have
in order to valorise the changes… .
60 70 %
75 %
50
80 %
40 85 %
90 %
30
95 %
100 %
20 98 %
10
0 90 75 60 45 30 15 0 15 30 45 60 75 90
West Soth East
Example: Pool orientation from South (lat. 38 º)
Consider the possibilities and measure al the solution,…

SOLAR TERMAL COLLECTORS – Shades and distances.
Shades.
General rule: a obstacle should not cover more than 10 % of the installation
in the most adverse day of the year. (normally midday winter solstice).
Distance.
General consideration, to ensure the above rule for the worst circumstances
(21 December) we have:
ho ? (90º ? Latitud ) ? 23.5º

The distance between rows is:
z z sen(? )
d ? d1 ? d 2 ? ? ? l ?( ? cos(? ))
tg( h0 ) tg(? ) tg( h0 )
Rayos
solares
d2 d1
? h0
SOLAR TERMAL COLLECTORS – elements
a consumo
Secundario a
Primario a acumulador
intercambiador solar
S1
Acumulador
solar
Colectores solares
Intercambiador
S2
Primario a •Vaso de expansión agua de red
colectores Secundario a
intercambiador
EQUIPO DE
CONTROL
S1 S2
Installations
Installations
Installations
SOLAR TERMAL COLLECTORS – Systems.
Small systems.
The low temperature installations can be classified depending in the of
transfer system or by the way the movement of the fluids is achieve.
Depending in the transfer system:
- Direct systems
- Indirect systems.
Depending on the movement of the fluid:

- Natural circulation “Termosiphons”,
- Forced.
Direct systems:
This is the solutions that give higher efficiency.
Care about some inconveniences:
- Quality of the water should be analysed and
considered carefully.
- The hydraulic circuit should be made with materials

not contaminate water.
- Risk of water vaporising ?element to evacuate
vapour.
- Circuit works at grid pressure. ?not all the
elements support it.
- Cant use any additive or anti-freezing.
- Incrusts could appear.
- High probability to have corrosion. New water ?
vapour ?oxygen ?corrosion.
Indirect systems:
Depending on the movement: natural circulation / forced circulation
Natural circulation “Thermosiphon”.
Only have one condition: the storage system should
be places higher than the collectors.
The movement of the fluid is done by difference of

temperature.
For a god natural circulation systems should
consider:
- Reduction to maximum the pressure drops.
- Careful with very excessive diameter in tubes, losses cold
decrease efficiency.
- To avoid inversion during nights or cold periods, the
distance from lower storage area and collectors, but avoiding
long circuits.
- Avoid the appear of air bags.
- Include expansion vessel & relief valve.
- Maintain the system under pressure.
Natural circulation “Termosiphons” regulation and efficiency:

- The flow depends of temperate difference ?automatic regulated.
- In a god designed system the ? T inside collector Is around 10 ºC and flow
decrease as T goes higher.
- Even with this the control ahs inconvenient, if the system could reach high
temperatures in there is low use ?relation between surface and tank capacity
should be higher than 80 l/m2. (otherwise vapour ?incrustation ?corrosion ?
damage).
- Type of exchanger in this type: serpentine (care about air...) or double
envelope (care about the inefficiency of part of the tank)
- Careful with direct natural circulation (termosiphon) consider : pressure,
incrustations, corrosion, freeze,...
Forced circulation systems.

Installations with certain importance is necessary to consider force
circulation. The use o a pump to move the fluids presents advantages ?avoid
the disadvantages of natural circulation, but some inconveniences:
- Need of electric energy.
- Regulate the pump

- If grid pressure is not adequate ?second pump to
ensure pressure.
- It’s convenient to install a “no return” valve to
avoid the “termosiphon effect in the night.
- There can be different configuration depending
where is the exchanger (none, inside, outside).
Always have clear criteria about when to use direct

transference or indirect and natural circulation vs
forced.
SOLAR TERMAL COLLECTORS – Regulation and Control
REGULATION and CONTROL

The main objective y the optimisation of the efficiency of the system, operating
valves and pumps. This avoid high temperatures and some damages.
A bad regulated installation, not only can come into trouble but also can
dissipate energy to the ambient.
Two proprieties define the control type: the temperature of the collector and
the flow circulating inside.
The efficiency of a collector depends on the average temperature ?as higher

lower is the efficiency. An increase of 10 ºC in the temperature the efficiency
can decrease in 8 - 10 %
The return temperature should be kept as lower as can be adapting it to the real
target consume.
We will overview some type of regulations and characteristics.

REGULATION by Thermostat.
Is the simplest regulation. Thermostat detect the set value of temperate and
in this moment the pump is stopped
1.-Colector
2.-Intercambiador-acumulador
1
3.-Circulador
4.-Termoestato
T 4
Only to be used in swimming pools.

It can work with out radiation if tank temp. is higher than temperature set.
Thermostat should be always placed al nearest to collector.
REGULATION by Differential thermostat of temperatures.

Is the most common. Systems compare temperature in the outlet of collector
with the lower part of the tank. When the difference is greater than a adjusted
value, the pump is connected.
1.-Colector
3.-Circulador
4.-Regulador de T diferencial
5.-Sonda panel
T 5
6.-Sonda acumulador
3 R
2
4 6
T
- Interested for installation no greater that 30 m2

- When distance between collectors and tank is not big (volume in collectors
greater than the one in the pipes)
REGULATION by Differential thermostat of temperatures (cont).

- In installations with high volume. (or volume in collector >= pipes)
- Installation where the temperature of collector is lower than 80 ºC
- Recommended adjusts.
- Adjusted ? T should be the one that avoid losses of heat coming from
the tank ?Collector temperature should be around 8 - 10 ºC higher than

tank when pump begging working.
Reasons:
- Losses in pipes (1 - 3 º C).
- Sensor tolerance (1 - 2 ºC)
- ? T in the exchanger should be at least : 3 - 4 º C
- Installation should work when solar energy used is greater
that the consumption of the pump ?? T = 3 ºC.
- Pump should permit pulse working.
- Flow in collectors should never be greater than 100 l/m2
REGULATION by Differential Thermostat and three steps valve.

The thermostat mounted on top of the collector activate circulation pump, the
control system is activated until the adjusted temperate is reached, in this
moment the by-pass valve allow water to pas through the exchanger.
1.-Colector
3.-Circulador
4.-Regulador de temperatura diferencial
5.-Sonda salida
7 6.-Sonda depósito
7.-Termostato de conexionado
1 T
8.-Válvula de conmutación
5
T
R
4 2
3 6
8
M
REGULATION by Differential Thermostat and three steps (by-pass) valve.

Recommended when:
- Small and medium installation ( 50 m2)
- Big distance between collectors and tank.
- Collectors with low volume of fluid.
Point to consider:
- Easy regulation
- Pipe losses only due to collector , not tank.
- Working with low ? T in collectors ?higher efficiency of collectors.
- No ideal with partial load of systems.
- Pump can work inefficiency with high temp. of tank.
Settings:
- Adjustments should be done in minimum useful temp. (15-30 ºC)
- Difernc. Temp. regulator should change the by-pass valve between 6-8 ºC
(sensor tolerance (1-2 ºC) + exchange necessity (3 - 4 º C)
REGULATION by Differential Thermostat and progressive mixer valve.

The thermostat mounted on top of the collector activate circulation pump, the
control system is activated until the adjusted temperate is reached, in this
moment the by-pass valve allow water to pas through the exchanger in a
progressive way allowing constant flow in collectors.
1.-Colector
3.-Circulador
7
5.-Sonda salida
T 6.-Sonda depósito
1
7.-Termostato de conexionado
5 8.-Válvula mezcladora
T
R
4 2
3 6
8
REGULATION by Differential Thermostat and progressive mixer valve.

Recommended when:
- Medium and large installation ( 50 - 300 m2)
- Installation with high temperature in tank.
- Installations with large distances between collectors and tank.

Point to consider:
- Pipe losses only due to collector , not tank.
- God working with partial load of systems but not optimal.
- Pump can work inefficiency with high temp. of tank.
Settings:
- Adjustments should be done in minimum useful temp. (15-30 ºC)
REGULATION by Differential Thermostat and progressive by-pass valve.

The differential thermostat mounted compare outlet of collectors with bottom of tank.
When first is greater than second in a prefixed value then open by-pass valve. The
circulator begins to work with a minimum flow. If temperature in collector do not
decrease the valve is open more,... Continue this way maintaining the prefix ? T
1.-Colector
3.-Circulador
5.-Sonda salida
5 6.-Sonda depósito
T
7.-Válvula de by-pass
1
8.-Válvula de manual
R 4
2
3 6
7
M
REGULATION by Differential Thermostat and progressive by-pass valve.

Recommended when:
- Medium and large installation ( 50 - 200 m2)
- Installation with high temperature in tank.
- Installations with short distances between collectors and tank.

Point to consider:
- Pips loss heat at the start of the regulation.
- Difficult to determine the minimum flow.
- God working with partial and full load of system.
- Pump work with less stops.
Settings:
CIRCUITS with two tanks.

The main objective of tanks are accumulation energy, for that:
- Losses should be as low as possible ?adequate insulation.
- Preserve the energy as longer possible.
- Avoid mix of hot water and cold.
- The thermal conditions should be as near as possible to use.
All this must be achieved with:

? Adequate design and adequate election .
For a adequate stratification tanks should be designed to minimise the fluid

flow inside (upper high, lower cold). With more than one tank the objective is the same
, maintain each one at a different level of temperature.
The systems presented is adequate when we work with partial heating or when we
have a complementary system (electric or similar) in the tank of high temperature.
How it works:
1.-Colector
2.-Acumulador de alta
temperatura
The high temperature tank (2) is only
3.-Acumulador de baja
temperatura
charged when the output temperature
4.-Bomba de circulación
1 5.-Sonda de salida is grater that certain fixed quantity that
6.-Sonda acumulador
7.-Regulador de temperatura the accumulation temperature (5 - 7
8.-Válvula de conmutación
7 2
ºC).
5 6
T R
T When this situation occurs the valve
close the by-pass and open the
4
exchanger circuit.
8
This config. allows that with a decrease

3
of radiation only the low temperature
tank will exchange energy.
1.-Colectores
2.-Intercambiador externo CIRCUITS with more than two tanks
3.-Acumulador 1ª prioridad
Generally systems with more than two tanks
6.-Bomba are separated from collectors by a
1 7-9.-Reguladores de temperatura
diferencial exchanger. Different tanks have different
8-10.-Válvulas de conmutación temperatures.
9 3
R - They will be heated by their level.
T
First the cooler.
3
T
- If temperature in the exchanger is
8
lower than the tank with higher
T
energy level, the by-pass will be
maintained. It will remain until
2
4 situation changes.
9 R
6
T - Used in heating and medium /
large DWS installation...
10
5
OTHER installations:
T
DHW + electric heater

3
R 1.-Colector
2
2.-Regulador de
4 temperatura diferencial
6 T
7 3.-Bomba
T
4.-Válvula de retención
5
5.-Intercambiador
T
6.-Bomba
1 5 7.-Piscina
6
2
4 R Swimming pool
3
T
1.-Colector
2.-Acumulador
3.-Regulador de temperatura
diferencial
4.-Bomba
5.-Calentador eléctrico
6.-Resistencias eléctricas
7.-Termostato de regulación
SOLAR TERMAL COLLECTORS – Storage and Tanks..
GENERAL considerations.
Bought: energy demand and solar radiation oscillate in the time. ? we need to
storage the solar energy to met demand in the right moment. This is the bigger issue
in a System.
A storage systems should compliment with:

- High heat capacity.

- Reduced volume.
- Utilisation temperature matching uses.
- Fast response to demand.
- God integration possibilities.
- Low cost.
- Safety and durability.
All this can be dome y different ways:
- Sensible heat, latent heat, chemical reaction,...
Storage in water: is economical, easy to work with, high heating capacity, used by
the user....
Normally to chose a storage tank it should be considered:
- Material resistance until de temp. use. (90º)
- Expansion of fluid (5 º- 99 º)
- Insulation .
- Stratification (shape of storage)
- Placement of inlet and outlets.
- Corrosion and degradation prevention.
- Placement and charges in the place erection
- Security.
- Cost.
Materials and characteristics.:

- Stainless.
Is one of most use. Low price. Need corrosion protection (anode protection,
vitrified, “epoxi” painting, galvanised -in hot- even that no overpasses 65 º)
- Stainless steel.
Is the best material , No corrosion, support high temperatures, High price.

- Glass fibre.
Or plastic, could be material in future, now have temperature problems and
structural problems passing 60- 70 º.
- Aluminium concrete.
Aluminium is good price but corrosion problems. Concrete is adequate in
large installations, but construction should be done with care.
Corrosion problems:
- Excess temperature ? degradation of material ? thickness of galvanise , other
treatments,... or: use minimum 70 / 80 l /m2 to reduce the max. Temp. Also use sacrifice
anode.
Shape:
Dimension should be able to provide the user the demand for one or two days.
The normal shape is a cylinder (because physical reasons and easy construction) The
vertical dimension is greater than the horizontal. Normally the relation between them
usually is 1/3.
Normal position should be vertical , even that could use horizontal ones, but with some
losses.
From the top the water goes to user and water coming from collectors go inside from the
bottom.
A.C.S.
T
1
T1>T2>T3
T
2
DEL
COLECTOR
AL T AGUA
COLECTOR FRIA
3
Inlets and outlets.

The experience shows that some losses of efficiency comes from the existence of
preferment routes for the fluid, motivated -mainly- because the bad design of inlets and
outlets.
Some way to increase the global circulation in the tanks and in particular areas is
through the introduction of helical deflectors that obliges the fluid to not goo directly
from inlet to out let.
Insulation.
Other problem encounter is that the efficiency decrease due to the excessive losses due
to inadequate insulation or reverse flow during night.
Consideration:
- Equivalent insulation of minimum: 50 mm of glass wool. Greater if possible
- Consider insulation with 60 º in the DHW, ambient temp. 10 ºC and max. Decrease of
temp. of water should be 3 ºC.
Placement. Care the primary and secondary circuits

Dimension.
This factor is crucial in the design of the solar systems. The volume of the tack is a main
factor and should be considered stratification and outlet mix (if exist).
The volume is function of:
- Surface of collector. Experience and calculus has reach that optimum
capacity is around 70 litres per m2 of collector. (margin goes from 60 -100).
- Ebullition temperature. To have water at high temp. Is important to have

tanks with lower volumes, so it will be near the temp, of use. That's around 75l.
- Gap between caption and demand.
? If the gap don`t exist (coincidence as in the reposition of water for
a industrial heater,...) the specific volume con be 35 / 50 l/ m2 .
? If gap is not greater than 24 h. (hotels, houses,...) the volume
normally goes from 60 / 90 l/ m2 .
? If gap stay between 24 h and 72 h (as in industrial process) the
volume recommended is around 75 / 150 l/ m2 .
? If gap is greater that 72 h (DHW in a week end house) volumes
should be calculated with the balance of losses and gains.
SOLAR TERMAL COLLECTORS – Hydraulic system
Connection of collectors.
For Solar installations of mid temperature the collectors could be connected
parallel or series or in mix systems.
Series connection.
This connection produces high temperature but the efficiency decreases
a little, de than each collector is working at higher temperature than

preceding.
Salida
Entrada
Parallel connection.
The is the most common connection. Each collector receives the same
water that comes through a pipe parallel to the collectors.
As the work under lower temp. That the equivalent series connection, this
configuration is more efficient than other.
Salida
Entrada
This configuration gives each collector similar efficiency to the collectors. Each
manufacture will give you advice of maximum number to set in parallel. (normally
between 5- 8)
This type needs a bigger section on the pipes. The flow trough the systems is
bigger.
Other need is a equilibrated distribution of flow. This can be obtained by: mix
valves (costly) or bay design by inverse return. (The way of any rout for the water
is the same)
When working in forced way, as the inlet and outlet is in diagonal...the way the
collector works in not ideal. Pressure in sides is not equal, (fig) and the same in
considered form the collectors. High speed in tubes near edges ? decrease
pressure and the flow can reverse.... And the real situation is the right side fig.
Theoretical situation Real situation

This is known as Mc Gregor efect.
Should be considered
- It must be ensured that the hydraulic rout is the same for all elements ?
same pressure.
- By all the collectors the flow should be the minimum that ensure the
adequate exchange in the absorber.

- Design should avoid air bags.
- Design should facilitate the ensemble and un-ensemble of collectors.
- Design should avoid double routs where air bubbles could hide.
As general rules are difficult to applied the following diagrams could help to
optimise designs.
In “thermosiphon” or direct applications.
B is preferable than A the

water flow to the top.
A B
D is preferable than C. Water

flow parallel and works at
lower temp,
If you need higher tem, then
C is preferable.
D
C
In “thermosiphon” or direct applications.
F is preferable than E the

water flow better to the
top.
E F
Forced Installations
H is preferable than G the

installation is in parallel. G
should be for higher temp,
H
G
Forced Installations - cont.
J is preferable than I, even

that both are equilibrated, I
could suffer from Mc.
Gregor effect.
I J
L is preferable than K,
even that both are
parallel, K will work
probably with higher
temp, and efficiency will
K L
decrease.
Other things to be considered in the hydraulic systems.

- Connection elements.
- Supports a fasten elements, bolts,...
- Additives for the fluid. (Stability, Toxicity, Viscosity, Dilatation,
Specific heat,...
- Galvanic corrosion.
- Freeze protection.
- Ebullition protection.
- Materials used in the circuit.
Pipes (vision vs: Corrosion, Incrustation, Stagnation
Dilatations, battering stroke (Ariete).
- Accessories.
Expansion tank. Security valves, Purge valve, Anti-return
valve. Gate valve, Butterfly valve, Ball valve. Thermometer,..
SOLAR TERMAL COLLECTORS –
a consumo
Secundario a
Primario a acumulador
intercambiador solar
S1
Acumulador
solar
Colectores solares
Intercambiador
S2
Primario a •Vaso de expansión agua de red
colectores Secundario a
intercambiador
EQUIPO DE
CONTROL
S1 S2
Installations
Installations
Installations
5. SYSTEM DESIGN
5.1 SYSTEM SPECIFICATIONS
•Estimation of the needs
•Calculation of the different parameters

•Specification of the different components
•Layout principles
5.1.1 Estimation of the needs
• 5.1.1.1. Consumption volumes by usage
• 5.1.1.2. Consumption profile
• 5.1.1.3. Temperatures distribution

5.1.1.1 Consumption volumes by usage
• Real Consumption of the building: very few establishments now their real and
detailed DHW demands
• Estimated consumption of the building: in most of the situations can be

considered estimations:
– Direct estimation from the real cold water consumption.

– Estimation through the energy expend at the production of the DHW.
– Estimation through the total places or services of the building
– Estimation on housing: per use of the domestic devices.
Direct estimation from the real cold water consumption
23-35% of the total cold water is designated to the DHW production

Litros / Día A.F
A.C.S 35%
25%
Instalación
Estimation through the energy expend at the production of the DHW:
Litres/day DHW = (CMC x PCI x N) / (? T x days.month)

• Where CMC = Monthly Fuel Consumption

• Where PCI = Lower calorific power of the fuel used
• N = Theoretic Efficiency of the heat generator
• ? T = Average temperature gradient of the month considered (Tª water heated –
Tª cold water)
– Use the August fuel bill (it has no expenses in space heating) for the estimation of the
real fuel used annually for DHW production (estimate it remains stable all the year)
Sistema Generador de Rendimiento teórico del
ACS generador de calor
Caldera de gas unifamiliar 0,7
Combustible Poder Calorífico Inferior (PCI) Caldera central de gas 0,75 - 0,80
Propano 10900 kcal/kg 12,67 kWh/kg Caldera central de gasóleo 0,50 - 0,80
Gasóleo C 8700 kcal/L 10,12 kWh/L Termos eléctricos de ACS 0,9
Gas Natural 9340 kcal/m3 10,86 kWh/m3 Bomba de calor 2
Electricidad 860 kcal/kWh 1,00 kW/kW
Estimation through the total places or services of the building
• Estimate the total consumption of the building regarding its use and category
Establecimiento Consumo
Viviendas 60 L / pax y día
Hoteles
4* 100 L / pax y día
Hospitales 80 L / día y cama
Residencias 80 L / pax y día
Vestuarios / duchas 20-30 L / servicio
Lavandería 25 L / kg ropa
Restaurante 25 L/pax y día
Banquetes y bodas 2000 L / día
Servicios de comidas 1 al día, 4 L / pax y día
2 al día, 6 L / pax y día
Estimation on housing, per use of the domestic devices
• General estimation on housing: per use of domestic devices

Consumo
Aparato Temperatura ºC
L/día
Fregadero 20 60
Lavabo 6 40
Ducha 40 (35) 40 (45)
Bidé 6 40
Bañera 128 (110) 40 (45)
• Estimation per size of the conventional installation: DHW consume 1 to 3 times

the storage volume at the conventional installation.
Habitaciones 3 4
Personas 3a5 4a7
Fregadero 46 57
Lavabo 18 23
Ducha 46 46
Bidé 6 11
Bañera 125 250
Total 241 387
5.1.1.2. Consumption profile
DISTRIBUTION OF THE DHW CONSUMPTION
• Monthly Consumption: Dependency on the real occupancy of the building

– Installations with constant occupancy: geriatric residences, schools,
hospitals, public swimming pools, collective housing.
– Installations with variable occupancy: Hotels, apartments, etc.
RESIDENCIA DE ANCIANOS HOTEL CATEGORÍA 4*
Ocup Ocup
120,0 25 120,0 30
T cold
T fría
T amb
100,0 T amb 100,0 25
20
% Ocupación
80,0 80,0 20
% Ocupación
15
Tª (ºC)
Tª (ºC)
60,0 60,0 15
10
40,0 40,0 10
20,0 5
20,0 5
0,0 0 0,0 0
Ene Feb Mar Abr May Jun Jul Ago Sep Oct Nov Dic Jan Feb Mar Abr May Jun Jul Ago Sep Oct Nov Dic
•
ºC
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
0:02
1:07
1:55
2:43
3:32
4:20
5:08
5:57
6:45
7:33
8:22
use, etc.
9:10
9:58
10:47
11:35
12:23
13:12
14:00
14:49
15:37
16:25
17:14
18:02
18:50
5.1.1.2. Consumption profile
19:39
20:20 Temperaturas Instalación Tipo Residencia de Ancianos
20:59
21:47
22:36
23:24
0:12
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
Consumo (Litros)
T7 red corr.
T9 a consumo
T9 a consumo
T8 salida solar
ºC
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
15-8-02 0:00
15-8-02 0:49
15-8-02 1:37
15-8-02 2:25
15-8-02 3:14
15-8-02 4:02
15-8-02 4:50
15-8-02 5:39
15-8-02 6:27
15-8-02 7:15
15-8-02 8:04
15-8-02 8:52
15-8-02 9:40
15-8-02 10:29
15-8-02 11:17
15-8-02 12:05
15-8-02 12:54
15-8-02 13:42
15-8-02 14:30
DISTRIBUTION OF THE DHW CONSUMPTION
15-8-02 15:19
15-8-02 16:07
15-8-02 16:55
15-8-02 17:44
15-8-02 18:32
15-8-02 19:20
Daily consumption: Profile dependent of the kind of establishment
15-8-02 20:09
Temperaturas Instalación Tipo Residencia Hospitalaria
15-8-02 20:57
15-8-02 21:45
15-8-02 22:34
15-8-02 23:22
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Consumo (/10L)
T7 red
T8 solar
T9 salida
Consumo
– Dependent on the kind of occupancy: beach tourism, bussisness, residential
5.1.1.3. Temperatures Distribution
AMBIENCE AND COLD WATER TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION
• Ambience Temperature: Dependent on the location

– Strong variations through the day.

– Freezing risk zones.
• Cold Water Temperature: Dependent on the kind of supply

– Urban net, wells, tanks, natural sources, etc.
– Very stable daily values.
– Annual variations following the ambience temperature tendency.
Datos de Túnez Datos de Valladolid (España)
T cold T fría
30 25
T amb
T amb
25 20
% Ocupación
20
% Ocupación
15
15
10
10
5
5
0
0 Ene Feb Mar Abr May Jun Jul Ago Sep Oct Nov Dic
Jan Feb Mar Abr May Jun Jul Ago Sep Oct Nov Dic
5.1.2. Calculation of the different parameters
• 5.1.2.1. Calculation methods
• 5.1.2.2. Collector area
• 5.1.2.3. Storage tank
• 5.1.2.4. Back-up equipment

5.1.2.1. Calculation methods
Sizing the Solar Energy Installation

– Is done through the DHW consumption data and the geographic location of
the installation considered.
– Necessity of accurate climate date of the location.
– Different precision levels on the calculation, depending on the available data.
• Tabulated Calculation method of solar installations.
• Complete sizing system based on worksheet designed by MADE.
TABULATED SOLAR CALCULATION

Based on generic locations. Useful as an estimation for near locations with similar
climes.
• Not possible to detail the monthly occupancy of the installation.

• Is possible to get a fast estimation of the solar installation needed, its cost and
the savings that can generate.
Consumo Número de colectores solares necesarios / Aporte solar (termias/día)
Establecimiento Consumo ACS (l/día) Pamplona Madrid Sevilla Coruña Barcelona
Viviendas 60 L / pax y día 200 1 12.243 1 1.553 1 1.575 1 1.248 1 1.549
Hoteles 500 3 3.580 2 3.336 2 3.439 4 4.520 3 4.357
4* 100 L / pax y día 1.000 6 7.160 4 6.563 4 6.679 7 8.287 5 7.746
3* 80 L / pax y día 2.500 15 17.889 11 17.776 11 17.942 18 20.986 13 19.904
5.000 31 36.376 22 35.552 22 35.885 36 41.972 26 39.808
Hospitales 80 L / día y cama 10.000 61 72.752 44 71.104 43 70.773 72 83.944 53 80.693
Residencias 80 L / pax y día 15.000 92 109.129 67 108.296 65 107.654 109 127.530 79 121.039
Vestuarios / duchas 20-30 L / servicio 20.000 122 145.505 89 142.207 86 141.546 145 170.040 106 161.385
25.000 153 181.881 111 177.759 108 176.932 181 212.550 132 201.731
61,6 64,8 71,6 76,7 74,8
Sustitución media anual (%)
TIPE INSTALLATIONS
• Based on generic installations calculated for different locations

• Not possible to detail the monthly occupancy of the installation.
• Is possible to choose from several possible installations according to the wished

solar substitution.
•
• Commercially fast and effective.
COMPLETE SIZING SYSTEM BASED ON WORKSHEET DESIGNED BY MADE
• Considers the real data of the establishment studied:

– Average monthly occupancy, Stated DHW temperature, local climate data, ...
• Brings an economic and technical study adjusted to real data.
• Based on the real performance of the solar collector.

– Not based on theoretical or non-representative assay curves of the collector.
• Calculation method fitted for MADE solar collectors.
CONSUMO ACS PREF 0

Nº Habitaciones: 1 OCU ACS T. ACS ACS T. PISC USO l/día SR
Personas / habitación: 100 ENERO 100,0% 45 1 28,0 NO 0
FEBRERO 100,0% 45 1 28,0 NO 0
USUARIOS 100 MARZO 100,0% 45 1 28,0 NO 0

CONSUMO 95 l/día ABRIL 100,0% 45 1 28,0 NO 0
9.500 l/día MAYO 100,0% 45 1 28,0 NO 0
JUNIO 100,0% 45 1 28,0 NO 0
PISCINA ( TIPO: Cub=0, Descub=1) JULIO 100,0% 45 1 28,0 NO 0
Tª recinto piscina 30 ºC AGOSTO 100,0% 45 1 28,0 NO 0
SUPERFICIE 0 m2 SEPTIEMBRE 100,0% 45 1 28,0 NO 0
V. VIENTO 5 km/h OCTUBRE 100,0% 45 1 28,0 NO 0
TIPO PISCINA 0 NOVIEMBRE 100,0% 45 1 28,0 NO 0
HR recinto piscina 65 % DICIEMBRE 100,0% 45 1 28,0 NO 0
COMBUSTIBLE CALEFACCION PISCINA

(Marcar con X) Termias / mes
Gasóleo C 17,20 superficie x Kg x (Tamb - Ta) x 24 h x (días/mes) / 1000 ene 2340
X G.L.P. 12,08 superficie x Kg x Zm feb 2350
gas Natural 6,91 Planta edificio 100 m2 mar 1890
Electricidad 16,80 Ancho 10 m abr 1900
Bomba de calor 8,14 Largo 10 m may 1700
Fuel 4,35 Altura planta 2,5 m jun 1400
nº plantas 0 m jul 700
COLECTORES Superficie a calefactar 0 m2 ago 500
8 Superficie exterior edificio 200 m2 sep 1500
SUPERFICIE 100,8 m2 Kg (Valladolid) #¡DIV/0! oct 1800
COLECTORES 48 S/V #¡DIV/0! nov 2210
INCLINACION 40º Coeficiente minoración 0,8 dic 2340
(30, 40, 50) (si no salen resultados lógicos en el Kg del edificio)
Tª interior de la vivienda: 20 Datos sacados del Programa
VOLUMEN ACUMULACION Tª de impulsión del Suelo Radiante (ºC): 40 de Isofotón
7.000 l Tª de retorno del Suelo Radiante (ºC): 30
7.056 (70 l / m2)
ACS 8.064 (80 l / m2)
3.833 (Tª máxima) ACUMULACION ELEGIDA
0 l ACS (l/m2) 69,4

SR 3.528 (35 l / m2) SR (l/m2) 0,0
TOTAL (l/m2) 69,4
ESTUDIO TECNICO-ECONOMICO BASICO DE INSTALACION SOLAR
Ref.: Plan de Fomento

(1) DATOS DEL CLIENTE:
Nombre: MUTUA DE PREVISION SOCIAL DE FASA RENAULT

Persona contacto: MARCELINO LORENZO HERNANDEZ ESTUDIO DE VIABILIDAD:
Domicilio:Pº FILIPINOS Establecimiento: RESIDENCIA EL CASTILLO (5) Coste total de la instalación: 6.550.000 Pesetas
Localidad:VALLADOLID Teléfono: 983 - 30 52 44 (6) Energía convencional utilizada: G.L.P.
Provincia: VALLADOLID Fax: 0 (7) Coste de energía convencional utilizada: 12,08 ptas./ termia
(8) Ahorro anual: 831.718 Pesetas
(2) HIPOTESIS DE CALCULO:
Número de unidades de consumo: 100 unidades Superficie piscina: 0 m2 (9) Coste de mantenimiento: 124.758 Pesetas
Consumo diario de cada unidad: 95 litros / día Volumen piscina: 0 m3 (10) Plazo de amortización simple: 7,9 Años años
Consumo total máximo diario: 9.500 litros / día Temp. requerida: 28 º C Subvención estimada: 35.000 ptas/m2
Temperatura requerida ACS: 45 ºC Tipo de piscina: Cubierta (11) Cuantía Subvención estimada: 3.528.000 Pesetas
(12) Plazo de amortización simple: 4,3 Años
(3) RESULTADO DEL CALCULO DE LA INSTALACIÓN: (14) Consumo combustible convencional: 14.074 kg
Número de colectores solares: 48 unidades Superficie colectora: 100,8 m2
(15) Consumo combustible convencional: 1.297.734 Pesetas
Inclinación de los colectores: 40 º Volumen acumulador: 7.000 litros
Orientación de los colectores solares: Sur 60<M/A<100: 94 50>V/A>120: 69,4
Superficie libre para la instalación: 288 m2 0,8<V/M<1,2: 0,7 (Si A<diseño)
Demanda A CS
(4) (A) (B) (C) (D) (E) (F) (G) (H) (I)
Ocup Consumo T fría T amb Radiación Demanda Aporte solar útil Rend T salida 12.000 Aporte ACS
Mes (%) ACS (l/día) ( ºC ) ( ºC ) (t/m2mes) (termias) (termias) (%) ( ºC )
Ene 100,0 9.500 9 4,5 50,3 10.602 2.803 26% 0,55 18,5
10.000
Feb 100,0 9.500 9 6,3 103,2 9.576 5.310 55% 0,51 29,0 8.000
Mar 100,0 9.500 11 10,1 120,6 10.013 6.231 62% 0,51 32,2
Abr 100,0 9.500 13 12,5 127,6 9.120 6.391 70% 0,50 35,4 6.000
May 100,0 9.500 15 15,5 135,7 8.835 6.640 75% 0,49 37,5
Jun 100,0 9.500 17 20,4 146,3 7.980 7.134 89% 0,48 42,0 4.000
Jul 100,0 9.500 19 23,4 169,1 7.657 7.657 100% 0,45 45,0
Ago 100,0 9.500 19 22,8 171,4 7.657 7.657 100% 0,44 45,0
2.000
Sep 100,0 9.500 17 19,6 135,4 7.980 6.985 88% 0,51 41,5 0
Oct 100,0 9.500 15 14,2 113,4 8.835 5.995 68% 0,52 35,4
Nov 100,0 9.500 13 8,9 69,3 9.120 3.742 41% 0,54 26,1
Dic 100,0 9.500 11 5,2 39,4 10.013 2.280 23% 0,57 18,7
Tot 100,0 3.467.500 14 14 1.382 107.388 68.825 64% 0,49 ---
5.1.2.2. Collector area
• The collector area necessary is given by the calculation method used.

• Space availability on the cover :
– Approximation: 6 x Collector area
– Calculated nbr. of collectors vs collectors that can be placed
– Access to the collector field

– Alternative locations
– Distribution of the rows of collectors
– Location of downing and piping circulation
• Orientation of the collectors
– Variations from the South by ± 20º affect less than a 5% to the solar capture
• Inclination of the collectors
– Possibilities of an Integration the building, environment, etc. Vs optimum inclination.
Comparative perfomance (%) South =10%
100
95
90
85
80
75
70
OESTE S45W SUR S45E ESTE

5.1.2.3. Storage Tank
• Estimations for solar energy :

– Consumption peak at the central hours of the day: Between 60 – 70 L/m2 of

total collector area.
– Consumption peak near to the central hours of the day : Between 70 – 80

L/m2 of total collector area: usual situation.
– Consumption peak near far from the central hours of the day : Between 80-
120 L/m2 of total collector area.
5.1.2.3. Storage Tank
Consumption peak at central hours of the day

Consumption peak near to central hours of the day
Consumption peak far from central hours of the day
Litros
Horas
5.1.2.4. Back-up equipment
• The connection of the solar energy system to the Back-up system is done in
series, through an hydraulic by-pass. ALdepósito de energía
Solar
Normalmente
Cerrada
Al depósito de energía
Convencional
• The solar energy installation is not thought to replace the conventional

back-up installation; it just replaces conventional energy expenses:
– Lower use of the conventional installation.

– Lower malfunction index of the conventional installation.
– Lower dependency of the economic balance on the variations of fuel costs.
5.1.3. Specification of the different components
• 5.1.3.1. Pumps
• 5.1.3.2. Expansion Chambers
• 5.1.3.3. Pipes
• 5.1.3.4. Safety equipment

5.1.3.1 Specification of the different components. Pumps
PUMPS
•Solar installations ? Centrifugal pumps

•Multiple speeds pumps? Flow rate adjust
•Corrosion resistant.
•Stand temperatures around 100º C.

•Maximum performance: flow rate of the pump 1/2-3/4 of its maximum posibilities.
•The higher the flow rate? bigger power consumption
P=C?p
•Pump graph: Flow rate-Charge losses
5.1.3.1 Specification of the different components. Pumps
• Use antielectrolitical unions at aspiration and impulsion connections of the pump.

• Mixing copper and cast iron components at the circuit might cause rust problems.
Particles of copper cause rust on cast iron. This happens when ht e fluid transports them
to a tank unprotected with “epoxi” paint or in case of mixing copper and iron piping.
• Pumps must be installed at the lower zone of the circuit so thatthey work with the higher
charge.
Brida de unión
Manguito antielectrolísis
Válvula de bola
5.1.3.2. Specification of the different components. Pipes.
PIPES
Maximum speed (recomended) of the fluid: 1,3 m/s.
Charge losses per lineal pipe meter < 40 water column mm
Rough aproximation
D = j C0,35
D = diameter in cm.
C = flow rate in m3/h.
j = 2,2 for metallic piping and 2,4 for plastic piping
PIPES
Maximum flow rates recomended per diameter of the piping:

l/h Diameter
870 22 3/4"
1.740 28 1"
3.250 35 1 1/4"
5.380 42 1 1/2"
10.730 54 2"
16.340 63 2 1/2"
31.170 80 3"
56.830 100 4"
PIPING
• Copper Piping:
-Welded joints.
-Screwed joints.
-Metallic joints.
8 9 10
• PVC Piping:
-Glued joints.
-Hermetic washer joints.
Piping must include dilators to compensate contractionsand dilatations.

5.1.3.3. Specification of the different components. Expansion System.
EXPANSION CHAMBERS
The basic lines to size the expansion chamber:

Total fluid Volume inside the circuit, in litres.

Minimum working temperature.
Maximum temperature that the system may reach on working conditions.
Max and min service pressures.
Minimum (cold): 1,5 kg/cm²
Maximum (warm): max pressure of the system
The expansion volume will be, at least equal to a 4,3% of the total volume of
the primary circuit liquid.
EXPANSION CHAMBERS
CALCULATION
V E ? K ? ?VT ? N ?VC ?
– K is a function of the geometric heigh (HG) from the higher point of the field
of collectors and the expansion vessel.
HG (m) 0 2 4 8 12 16 24
K 0,2 0,22 0,24 0,27 0,31 0,35 0,41
– VT: Total volume of the pipe of the circuit collectors-heat exanger.

– VC: Specific volume of the collector.
– N: Number de colectors.
SAFETY EQUIPMENT
EXPANSION CHAMBERS
Function: Absorb variations of the pressure when the
temperature of the heat-carrier fluid changes.
SECURITY VALVES
LOCATION:
Primary circuit: Collector rows and Válvula de seguridad
expansion chambers
Secondary circuit: Storage tank
ANTIFREEZING PROTECTION
If Tcollectors< 3 ºC ? PUMP1º ON + PUMP2º ON. Extract
heat from the Storage tank.
5.1.4. Layout principles
DHW: External Heat Exchanger+1 Storage Tank

•DHW: External Heat Exchanger+2

Storage Tank
DHW with Interacumulator+Indoor Swimming pool

DHW Interacumulador+Space Heating

DHW with Individual Storage

DHW Direct System

Indoor Swimming Pool

5.2 Construction. management and maintenance
•5.2.1. Installation rules

•5.2.2. Starting Up
•5.2.3. Periodic Maintenance

Plan
5.2.1. Installation rules
PROJECT REPLANNING
• Previous stage of every solar installation.
• Special care on:

– Orientation of the building.

– Integration of the collectors.
– Space on the machine room.
– Downings (piping and cables) from the roof.
– Accesses to the building.
• Will search for:

– Rectangular distributions of the collector field.
– Integration of the downings by means of covers that dissimulate it.
– Using marquee structures that minimize the visual impact of the collectors.
STRUCTURE THAT SUSTAINS THE COLLECTORS
• Special care on the leveling of the structure that fastens them.

• Can be carried out:
– Concrete basing.
– Auxiliary metallic structures.

– Concrete blocks.
– Etc.
• Will keep minimum distances between:
– Collector rows.
– Collector rows and the perimeter of the roof.
in order to minimize the shadowing and allow the realization of runways to over
cross the piping and do the maintenance operations.
PRIMARY CIRCUIT
• The piping between collectors must run parallel and neat.

• Derivations done perpendicular and on the same plane that the genera pipe.
• Connections will be done on straight zones of pipe in order to minimize
pressure losses of the circuit.

• Pipes will be fixed to sure elements of the installation: structure, concrete
basement, etc.
• Isolation perfectly ended, spatially in the curves, joints, valves. Use brackets to
ensure its fitting.
• General pipes will be done parallel to the field of collectors or following the
perimeter of the roof.
• Near to access zones the pipes will be protected to avoid damages in the
isolation.
• Underground piping: registry boxes that also will be used for the pipe dilatation
and draining valves. Will be protected with PVC pipe.
• Is important to take care on the confectioning of the wall-crossing to enter the
main pipes to the machine room.
SECUNDARY CIRCUIT
• Must be done an exhaustive plannification of its trace because of the usual

small dimensions of the machine room, the usual bigger pipe diameter and the
existence of electrical wires.
• Will follow the same advises than for the primary circuit.
• Will use the roof and the pillars to hold the pipes, leaving the ground for the free
movement of the people. It also keeps the room in a better order and
cleanliness.
SOLAR STORAGE TANKS
• They must be placed well-arranged and allowing access all around them and
the pipe connections will also be ordered (parallel arranged).
• When necessary, the standing surface will be levelled with concrete plates.
• The isolation of the tank will be done so that it still shows the sheet of
characteristics of the tank.
• The security valves outlet will be conducted by means of PVC piping.
• The cutting valves will be places so that its operation is easy.
• Electrolitycal protection anodes must be installed.

• Storage tank with anti-electrolysis systems like magnesium consumable anodes.
• Produced because of the contact between one metallic component and other one with a
higher electrolitycal activity, that would have a higher oxidation.
• A galvanic current will happen through theelectrolite, which would protect the cathode.
PUMPS
• Installed with preference in vertical disposition, held to vertical standings done

for that purpose.
• When necessary, will be installed in horizontal pipes, with the motor axis on the
same plane, standing on bedplates so that the pipe does not stand its weight.
• When is needed the installation of more that one pump on the circuit, must be
used a symmetric trace.
• Pumps must be placed between two valves, so they can be easily removed.
• Retention valves situated next to the cut valve of the pump (up-stream) to avoid
that the pump stands the pressure of the water column over the pump.
• Install a manometer between suction and impulsion of the pump to read the
differential pressure (leads to the flow rate of the circuit with the diagram of the
pump).
Utilización d e una bancada fijada al suelo.
Fijación a la pared con una estructura soporte.
Soportada directamente por la tubería. Esto solo se podrá

realizar cuando se utilice una sola bomba y su peso no sea excesivo.
EXPANSION VESSEL
• Generally will be installed vertically. Will not be isolated, not even its piping.
• If is located on the collector field, must be protected from the atmospheric
• conditions with a hat or installing it under the collectors, ...
• The security valve that they always must carry, must be conduced to the
nearest drainage.
EXPANSION VESSEL
Válvula de seguridad
Vasos de expansión cerrados conectados

en serie
CONECTION TO THE BACK-UP EQUIPMENT
• The by-pass will be done in a straight and accessible piece of pipe.

• To avoid the confusion of the piping, always use a parallel distribution of the
pipes.
• The cold water pipe will host the energy meter or flow meter. It will be
installed on straight portions so that the read is not altered by the
turbulences that the curves generate.
• The flow meter will be by-passed so that the operation is no stopped, in case
it has to be removed.
CONECTION TO THE BACK-UP EQUIPMENT

By-pass del caudalímetro en la entrada de agua fría al acumulador solar

ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT
• Special care will be taken. The electrical trace will be installed above the piping.
• There will not be done electrical connections if possible as well as torsion or
curve of the cables.
• Use steel tubes conveniently sustained to pillars or the ceiling.

• For all the connections and joins must use normalized channels and registry
boxes.
• The electrical board connection will be done carefully, identifying all the
sounders and the flow meter.
• The electrical board and the remote-control board will be placed closest to the
heat exchanger, in order to minimize the length of cables.
• The sounder covers will be placed in crosscurrent to the flow.
• The sounders must be fixed to their covers and with looseness not higher than
2mm, regarding its possible extraction when fitting the cable of the sounder.
ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT
Ejemplos de equipos de telecontrol
Ejemplos de contadores de energía

ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT
Ejemplos de montaje de las vainas y las sondas de temperatura

MOUNTAGE ENDING
• The final image of the installation must be considered.

• Will be regarded the following subjects:
• Cleaning: The field of collectors and the machine room.
• Image: Useful to give a copy of the Layout principle to the customer and a
description of the system. Spatially the control devices. Also a contact card. Is
very useful to locate a copy of these information in the electrical board door.
• Maintenance service: Specify the conditions of the covering of the contract and
a copy of the operation handbook of the installation.

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MEDA Training Session on Solar Thermal

Solar System Technology

Solar collectors installed annually 1999

Fuente: German Solar Energy Industry Association

1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 1997 1998 1999 2000

• The total installed surface has growth more than 20%

Total surface installed by countries in UE during 2000

• There are great differences between countries

Growth of installed surface

M2 of collectors by 1.000 habitant's

Dinamarca higher level of equipment of solar collectors

Francia growth , due to the low actual ratio, compared

0 50 100 150 200 250

Investment cost for solar systems

M2 instalados por CC. AA.

Solar thermal energy.

The Spanish experience (even the bad one), is very big....,

The only thing you can’

People do not learn from the past ...

¿ But... do this market exist ... or there is a interest?

Hotels: xxx ? (nº of beds, category,… ).

Service sector consumption

Iluminación Agua caliente

Lets know about the technology...

• Basic ideas to remember:

• Convection (Newton lay, convection is influenced by mass transport

• Radiation. ( Emission of energy by electromagnetic waves).

• Solar Constant: the amount of energy from the Sun over a m2

• Solar Radiation. Due to the atmosphere filter, the radiations suffers

• Global Solar Radiation ( Egypt Annual Average) kW/m2/day.

– Ambient data. (in ºF= Tf) to convert: Tc = (5/9)*(Tf-32)

APRIL 82 59 109 45 46 0.1

– Cold water. (To be considered, if no data available consider

• Principles – solar energy

ACTIV CAPTATIÓN SOLAR

ESTRUCTURAL SOLAR LOW MEDIUM HIGH

Losses through cover Reflectance losses

82 % Hot water outlet

• Principles – How it works.

2.- Water inside, begins to move.

• Flat plate collectors – glazed.

SUPERFICIE - CAPACIDAD CAPACIDAD - CAUDAL

Superficie (m2) Capacidad (l)

Selective surfaces, can be divided by the way the mechanism

• Intrinsic material. (Ag, Cu, Al, Mo, Au, Pt,..)

matrix. Type: Cu/SiO2, Mo/Al2O3 ... ) The structure of double cermets

Selective surfaces (cont.)

• Optical capture layers (they are bases ion the microstructures

made in the surface, where the incident radiation suffers a multiple

• Antireflection layers (they are based on the idea of obtaining a

• Others: Paintings, … not real selective…

Selective surfaces production methods

> Hydrolysis of organometallic components in dissolution

- Chemical deposition in vapour phase (CVD).

Negro de Cromo 0.87-0.93 0.1 ?9

negra 0.86-0.94 0.83-0.89 ?1 silicona

Pintura Flat-Black 0.95-0.98 0.89-0.97 ?1

Negro de Cinc 0.9 0.1 9

Selective surfaces (cont.)

Iron Oxide Steel 0,85 0,08 Low

Conclusion: Always remember and care:

Wave length Asociated Energy

Transparent cover should full fill: