Internetwork IP addressing:

IP addresses are written using decimal numbers separated by decimal points. This is called
dotted decimal notation of expressing IP addresses.
The different classes of IP addresses is as below:
Network Maximum
Leading Maximumnetwork
Class Format address hosts/
Bit pattern s
Range nodes

A N.H.H.H 0 0-126 127 16,777,214

B N.N.H.H 10 128-191 16,384 65,534

C N.N.N.H 110 192-223 2,097,152 254

- Network address of all zeros means "This network or segment".

- Network address of all 1s means " all networks", same as hexadecimal of all Fs.
- Network number 127 is reserved for loop-back tests.
- Host (Node) address of all zeros mean "This Host (Node)".
- Host (Node) address of all 1s mean "all Hosts (Nodes) " on the specified network.
2. The range of numbers from 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255 are used for multicast packets. This
is known as Class D address range.
3. Subnetting is nothing but creating networks within a network. Subnetting allows an
organization with a single IP address (Class A /ClassB /ClassC) to have multiple subnetworks, thus
allowing several physical networks within the organization.
4. How to maximize the number of subnets for a given number of hosts:
Let us take a network ID of 168.8.0.0, and find the maximum number of possible subnets and
the corresponding subnet mask that can accommodate at least 500 hosts. The steps involved are
outlined below:
I. Find the Class of the IP address, in this case it is a class B network. Class B
network has the form N.N.H.H. Therefore, we have a total of 16 bits (two octets) for
assigning to internal networks and hosts. The minimum number of host addresses
required is 500. The last octet corresponds to 2^8 = 256 hosts which is still less
than 500 Hosts.. Therefore, you have to borrow one more bit from the third octet to
make it 256*2 = 512 Hosts. This leaves 7 bits in the third octet for assigning subnet
addresses. This is equal to 2^7=128 subnets.
II. Write the 7 bits available for subnetting in third octet in the form 11111110 (last
bit being the Host bit). The decimal equivalent of the first seven bits is
2^7+2^6+2^5+2^4+2^3+2^2+2^1
= 128 + 64 +32 + 16 + 8 + 4 + 2 = 254.
III. Therefore, the subnet mask required is 255.255.254.0.

6. How to maximize the number of hosts for a given number of subnets:

Determining the subnet mask that allows maximum number of hosts:
Let us consider an IP address 196.202.56.0 with four subnets and maximize the number of host
for the given subnets. The steps involved are as below:
 I. The number of subnets required are four. We need to add subnets of all ones and
all zeros to this. This is because all zeros and all ones subnets belong to "this
subnet" and "all subnets" broadcasts and can not be used. Therefore, the total
number of subnets to be reserved is 4+2 = 6.
II. We want to implement maximum possible Hosts. Therefore, we need to minimize
the number of subnets. This minimum number is 6 here. If we reserve 2 bits, it
results in only 2^2=4 subnets which is less than 6. Therefore, we have to reserve
3 bits for implementing subnets, resulting in 2^3=8 subnets. This is now optimized
for maximum number of Hosts (as we have optimized for minimum number of
subnets).
III. Write the 3 bits available for subnetting in fourth octet in the form 11100000
(Five 0s being Host bits). The decimal equivalent is 2^7+2^6+2^5
= 128 + 64 +32 = 224.
IV. Therefore, the subnet mask required is 255.255.255.224.

7. 127.0.0.1 is the local loop back address.

8. In an internetwork, the number of distinct IPs' required are

1. One each per client computer

2. One each per server computer

3. One each per router interface.

For example, your network has 2 servers, 26 clients machines, and 2 router interfaces the total
number of IP addresses required are 30.

9. Finding the number of Hosts and subnets available for a given subnet mask: For example, let
us find the number of hosts and subnets available for an IP 156.233.42.56 with a subnet mask of
7 bits.
a. Class B network has the form N.N.H.H, the default subnet mask is 16 bits long.
There is additional subnet mask of 7 bits long.
b. 7 bits of subnet mask corresponds to (2^7-2)=128-2 = 126 subnets.
c. 9 bits (16-7) of host addresses corresponds to (2^9-2)=512-2 = 510 hosts.
Some times, the subnet mask is specified with the bits available in the default subnet
mask. In this case the bits available in default subnet mask is 16. Therefore, total number
of bits available in the subnet mask are 16+7=23. If you are given a subnet mask of 23
bits long for a class B address, it is understood that it contains the bits from the default
subnet mask as well.
Hence, 126 subnets and 510 hosts are available.
10. The directed broadcast should reach all Hosts on the intended network (or subnet, if sub
netted). For example, the directed broadcast address for an IP network 196.233.24.15
with default subnet mask is 196.233.24.255. This is arrived by putting all 1s for the host
potion of the IP address.
11.
 . Telnet is used for terminal emulation that runs programs remotely. Telnet uses TCP/IP
protocol.

2. Telnet requires a username and password to access.

3. FTP (File Transfer Protocol) is a connection oriented protocol. It uses TCP/IP for file
transfer. Compare this with TFTP (Trivial File Transfer Protocol) that uses UDP
(Connectionless protocol). SNMP uses UDP over IP. Tracert, Ping use ICMP as their base
protocol. FTP is used to transfer files.

4. Both FTP and Telnet are client-server protocols. Note that TCP/IP is a client server
oriented protocol.
13. Maximum hop count supported by RIP is 15.
14. The port numbers used by different programs are as below:
I. FTP : Port #21
II. Telnet: Port #23
III. SMTP: Port #25
IV. SNMP: Port #161
It is important to know that FTP, Telnet, SMTP use TCP; whereas TFTP, SNMP use UDP.
15. SNMP is part of TCP/IP protocol suite. It allows you to monitor and manage a network from a
centralized place by using SNMP Manager software. The systems or devices that provide the
responses are called agents (or MIBs). An SNMP agent is any computer running SNMP agent
software.
MIB stands for Management Information Base. It is part of SNMP agent database. A MIB records
and stores information abut the host it is running on. An SNMP manager can request and collect
information from an agent's MIB. Routers are typical MIB agents. SNMP agent generates "trap"
messages that are then sent to an SNMP management console, which is a trap destination.
17. Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is used to resolve or map a known IP address to a MAC
sub layer address to allow communication on a multi-access medium such as Ethernet. Reverse
ARP (RARP) is used to obtain an IP address using an RARP broadcast. RARP can be used to boot
diskless workstations over a network.
18. The 7 layers of OSI model are:
1. The Application Layer: Application layer is responsible for identifying and establishing
the availability of desired communication partner and verifying sufficient resources exist
for communication. Some of the important application layer protocols are: WWW, SMTP,
FTP, etc.
2. The Presentation Layer: This layer is responsible for presenting the data in standard
formats. This layer is responsible for data compression, decompression, encryption, and
decryption. Some Presentation Layer standards are: JPEG, MPEG, MIDI, PICT, Quick
Time, TIFF.
3. The Session Layer: Session Layer is responsible for co-ordinating communication
between systems/nodes. The following are some of the session layer protocols and
interfaces: a) Network File System (NFS), SQL, RPC (Remote Procedure Call), X-
Windows, ASP, DNA SCP.
 4. The Transport Layer: The Transport Layer is responsible for multiplexing upper-layer
applications, session establishment, and tearing-down of virtual circuits. This layer is
responsible for flow control, to maintain data integrity.
5. The Network Layer: There can be several paths to send a packet from a given source
to a destination. The primary responsibility of Network layer is to send packets from the
source network to the destination network using a pre-determined routing methods.
Routers work at Network layer.
6. The Data Link Layer:
Data Link Layer is layer 2 of OSI reference model. This layer is divided into two sub-
layers:
A. Logical Link Control (LLC) sub-layer.
B. Media Access Control (MAC) sub-layer.
The LLC sub-layer handles error control, flow control, framing, and MAC sub-layer
addressing.
The MAC sub-layer is the lower of the two sub-layers of the Data Link layer. MAC sub-
layer handles access to shared media, such a Token passing or Ethernet.
7. Physical Layer: The actual flow of signals take place through Physical layer. At
Physical layer, the interface between the DTE and DCE is determined. The following are
some of the standard interfaces are defined at Physical layer: EIA/TIA-232, EIA/TIA-
449,V.24,V.35,X.21,G.703,HSSI (High Speed Serial Interface).
19. Repeaters, Bridges, and Routers:
I. Repeaters work at Physical layer (Layer 1),
II. Bridges and simple switches work at Data Link Layer (Layer 2),
III. Routers work at Network Layer (Layer 3) of ISO Reference Model.
20. CSU / DSU is an acronym for Channel Service Unit / Data Service Unit. CSU/DSU is part of
Customer Premise Equipment (CPE). CSU / DSU connect to a Central Office (CO), a telephone
switching company located nearer to the customer.

21. Spanning Tree Protocol (STP) IEEE Specification 802.1d is used to prevent routing loops. In
Cisco Catalyst 5000 series switches, use BDPUs (Bridge Protocol Data Units) to determine the
spanning tree topology. STP uses a Tree Algorithm (STA) to prevent loops, resulting in a stable
network topology.

22. HTTP is the protocol used for accessing the World Wide Web services. HTTP operates over
TCP/IP. TCP/IP is the protocol, which is used by all internet applications such as WWW, FTP,
Telnet etc. IPX/SPX is proprietary protocol stack of Novell NetWare.

23. 1. The term "Segments" is usually associated with Transport layer

2. The term "Packets" is usually associated with Network Layer and
3. The term "Frames" is usually associated with Data Link Layer
24. The port number used by TCP is 6 and that of UDP is 17.
TCP: TCP is a full-duplex, connection-oriented protocol. It incorporates error checking as
well.
UDP (User Datagram Protocol): UDP is a thin protocol. UDP is a connectionless protocol. It doesn't
contact the destination before sending the packet and doesn't care whether the packet is reached
at the destination. UDP uses port number 6.
25. Switching methods:
1. Store-and-Forward switching: Here the LAN switch copies the entire frame into
its buffers and computes the CRC. The frame is discarded if there are any CRC
errors. Giant ( more than 1518 bytes0 and Runt (less than 64 bytes) frames are
also dropped, if found.
2. Cut-Through (Real-Time) switching: Here, the LAN switch copies only the destination
address into its buffers. It immediately looks up the switching table and starts forwarding
the frame. The latency is very less because, the frame is forwarded as soon as the
destination address is resolved.
3. Fragment-Free switching: Here, the switch waits for the collision window before
forwarding the entire frame. The collision window is 64 bytes long.
26. WAN (Wide Area Network) devices extend the reach of LAN (Local Area Network) devices.
WANs typically span over a wide area, such over multiple cities / countries. WANs are connected
over serial lines that operate at lower speeds than LANs. Some of the WAN devices are:
1. Routers: Routers are responsible for routing the packets in an internetwork.
2. Modems: Modems connect to public telephone circuits through dial-up.
3. CSU/DSU: Stands for Channel Service Unit / Data Service Unit. CSU/DSUs are
used for connecting to Central Office of a Telephone switching company and
provides serial WAN connections.
4. Communication Servers: These are used for dial in/out to remote users. Provides
RAS Remote Access Server) functionality.
5. Multiplexers (mux): Multiplexers combine two or more signals before transmitting
on a single channel. Multiplexing can be done by sharing "time" or "frequency".
27. Standard adopted for Ethernet CSMA/CD by IEEE Committee is 802.3. 100BaseT (Fast
Ethernet) uses IEEE803.2u standard which incorporates CSMA/CD protocol.
28. DOD Model maps to OSI model as below:

DoD Model OSI Model

Process/ Application maps Application, Presentation, Session layers (layers

7,6,5).

Host-to-Host ISO's Transport layer (layer 4).

Internet Network layer (layer 3)

Network Access Data Link and Physical Layers (layers 6,7)

29. Routers can make alternate route decisions based on ICMP messages, if appropriate. Routers
send an ICMP message if the destination is unreachable.
30. Port numbers are used by TCP/ UDP to set up sessions with other hosts. The following are the
recommended port numbers:
1. Numbers 0 - 255 are used for public applications.
 2. Numbers 255 - 1023 are assigned to companies so that they can use these port
numbers in their applications.
3. Numbers above 1023 are used by upper layers to set up sessions with other hosts
and by TCP to use as source and destination addresses.

31. Ethernet_II has a type field to identify the upper-layer protocol. 802.3 has only a length field
and can't identify the upper-layer protocol.

32.To find valid hosts given an IP address (say 156.16.3.52) and a subnet mask (sat a 12-bit
subnet). The valid hosts are determined as below:

A 12-bit subnet mask gives us 255.255.255.240; 4094 subnets, each with 14 hosts. (Host
addresses of all zeros and all 1s can't be assigned). The 156.16.3.52 is in the 48 subnet range.
The valid range is through 49 - 62. 63 is a broadcast address.

Here is how you get the subnet range:

1. Find the subnet mask. In this case, default subnet mask for Class B address is
255.255.0.0. There are additional; 12 bits in the subnet mask. Now the subnet mask looks
like:
11111111.11111111.11111111.11110000. This is equal to 255.255.255.240.0.
2. Now, deduct the lowest value octet (Which is non zero), from 256. Here, (256-240)=16.
This is the value that the subnets are incremented. Therefore, you will have hosts with
values from:
156.16.3.1 to 156.16.3.14 (All 0s and all 1s host addresses can not be used)
156.16.3.17 to 156.16.3.30
156.16.3.33 to 156.16.3.46
156.16.3.49 to 156.16.3.62 and so on.
It is important to know that subnets are incrementing here by a factor of 16.
33. The following are some important commands that can be used to edit and review command
history buffer on a Cisco router. It will be useful to practice these commands.
<ctrl> A : Move to the beginning of the command line
<ctrl> E : Move to the end of the command line
<ctrl> F : Move forward one character, same as using "Right Arrow".
<ctrl> B : Move backward one character, same as using "Left Arrow".
<ctrl> P : Repeat Previous command, same as using "Up Arrow".
<ctrl> N : Repeat Next (more recent) command, same as using "Down Arrow".
<esc> B : Moves to beginning of previous word.
<esc> F : Moves to beginning of next word.
<ctrl>R : Creates new command prompt, followed by all the characters typed at the last
one.
34. The following are some frequently used COPY commands:
1. COPY RUNNING-CONFIGURATION STARTUP-CONFIGURATION (alternatively, you can
use an older version of the command, WRITE MEMORY): This command saves the
 current configuration to NVRAM. Alternatively, we can issue the command using
short form: COPY RUNNING STARTUP - Copies configuration from RAM to NVRAM
2. COPY STARTUP RUNNING - This command merges configuration from NVRAM to
RAM.
3. COPY FLASH TFTP - Copies current IOS from router flash memory to TFTP server.
4. COPY TFTP FLASH - Copies image file from TFTP server to flash. This is used to
upgrade the IOS image file to a newer version, or if your IOS image becomes
corrupt.
35. The banner is displayed whenever anyone logs in to your Cisco router. The syntax is
- "banner motd # " . MOTD stands for "Message Of The Day".
# symbol signifies the start of the banner message to the router. You will be prompted for
the message to be displayed. You need to enter "#" symbol at the end of the message,
signifying that the message has ended.
36. Router modes of operation:
1. User EXEC mode (Prompt: Router>):- This is the LOWEST level of access. This allows
examination of router status, see routing tables, and do some diagnostics. However, you
cannot change the router configuration, view the configuration files, or control the router in
any way. The prompt in this mode is "Router>".
2. Privileged (enable) EXEC mode (Prompt: Router#):- This mode allows you to have all
the privileges of EXEC (user) mode plus commands that enable you to view configuration
files, change the router configuration, perform troubleshooting that could potentially
disrupt traffic. The default prompt for this mode is "Router#".When you are working in the
privileged mode (at # prompt), you can get back to user mode by typing "disable" at the
"#" prompt.
3. Global Configuration mode (Prompt: Router (Config)#):-
Global configuration mode allows you to perform tasks that affect the entire router,
such as naming the router, configuration of banner messages, enabling routed protocols,
and generally anything that affects the operation of the entire router.

When you first switch on a router, you enter Setup mode. Setup mode is different
from configuration mode in that setup mode appears when there is no configuration file
present. Upon entering setup mode, you can supply some basic configuration parameters
to Cisco router.
37. You can use "tab" to complete the command that you are typing.
38. SHOW command is extensively used for seeing the status and configuration information of the
router.
Some of the frequently used commands are:
1. SHOW RUNNING-CONFIGURATION -This command displays the router's active
configuration file, passwords, system name, and interface settings, interfaces IP addresses
etc.
2. SHOW INTERFACE - Shows status and configuration information of the local interfaces.
The first line says something like “TokenRing1 is up, line protocol is up”. The first part
“TokenRing1 is up” describes the physical layer components such as electrical cabling and
signaling are OK. The second part “line protocol is up” means that the router is detecting
keep-alive messages. The router may be put into administratively down status, at which
point the line would read, “TokenRing1 is administratively down, line protocol is down.”
 3. SHOW INTERFACE SERIAL 0 - Shows the serial 0 configuration.
4. SHOW INTERFACES - Displays statistics for all interfaces configured on the switch.
5. SHOW PROCESS - Displays a router’s CPU utilization.
6. SHOW CONFIG - Displays information on the startup configuration.
7. SHOW VERSION - Displays information about the system hardware (RAM/ROM),
software version, names of configuration files, and boot-images. This command will also
show the current configuration register value.
39. The Cisco router can be configured from many locations.
1. Console port: During the initial installation, you configure the router from a console
terminal connected to the "Console port" of the router.
2. Virtual Terminals (vty): A virtual terminal (vty) is typically accessed through Telnet. A
router can be accessed through vty after it the initial installation in the network. There are
five virtual terminals, namely, vty0,vty1,vty2,vty3,vty4.
3. Auxiliary Port: you can configure a router through auxiliary port. Typically, a modem is
used to configure the modem through aux port.
4. TFTP Server: Configuration information can be downloaded from a TFTP server over the
network.
5. NMS (Network Management Station): You can also manage router configuration through
NMS such as CiscoWorks or HP OpenView.
40. There are five different types of passwords:
1. ENABLE PASSWORD - A global command that restricts access to privileged exec mode. This
is a non-encrypted password.
2. ENABLE SECRET - Assigns a one-way encryptographic secret password, available in versions
10.3 and up. This secret password is used instead of the enable password when it exists.
3. Virtual Terminal Password (vty password): The virtual terminal password is used for Telnet
sessions into the router. The password can be changed at any time. It can be set up when
you configure the router from the console. There can be five distinct passwords
corresponding to each vty (vty0 to vty4) or there can be a single password for all vtys.
4. Auxiliary Password: Auxiliary password is used to set password to the auxiliary port. This
port is used to access a router through a modem.
5. Console Password: Console password is used to set the console port password.
40. There are five different types of passwords:
1. ENABLE PASSWORD - A global command that restricts access to privileged exec mode. This
is a non-encrypted password.
2. ENABLE SECRET - Assigns a one-way encryptographic secret password, available in versions
10.3 and up. This secret password is used instead of the enable password when it exists.
3. Virtual Terminal Password (vty password): The virtual terminal password is used for Telnet
sessions into the router. The password can be changed at any time. It can be set up when
you configure the router from the console. There can be five distinct passwords
corresponding to each vty (vty0 to vty4) or there can be a single password for all vtys.
4. Auxiliary Password: Auxiliary password is used to set password to the auxiliary port. This
port is used to access a router through a modem.
5. Console Password: Console password is used to set the console port password.
41. Internal memory components of a Cisco router:
 1. ROM (Read Only Memory); Memory containing micro-code for basic functions to start and
maintain the router. ROM is not typically used after the IOS is loaded.

2. RAM/DRAM : stores the running configuration, routing tables, and packet buffers. Some
routers, such as the 2500 series, run IOS from Flash, not RAM.

3. NVRAM (Non-Volatile Ram): Memory that does not lose information when power is lost.
Stores the system’s configuration file and the configuration register. NVRAM uses a battery
to maintain the data when power is turned off.
4. Flash Memory: Stores the compressed IOS (IOS stands for Cisco Internetwork Operating
System) image. Flash memory is either EEPROM or PCMCIA card. Flash memory enables
you to copy multiple versions of IOS software. This allows you to load a new level of the
operating system in every router in your network and then, to upgrade the whole network
to that version at an appropriate time.
42. While a packet travels through an Internetwork, it usually involves multiple hops. Note that
the logical address (IP address) of source (that created the packet) and destination (final intended
destination) remain constant, the hardware (Interface) addresses change with each hop.
43. Default administrative distances some important routing protocols are as below:
Route Source Default Distance
Directly connect Interface 0
Static Route 1
IGRP 100
RIP 120
Unknown 255
An administrative distance of 0 represents highest trustworthiness of the route.
An administrative distance of 255 represents the lowest trustworthiness of the
route.
Routed and Routing protocols:
- Routing protocols job is to maintain routing tables and route packets appropriately.
Examples of routing protocols are RIP, IGRP, EIGRP, OSPF. Routers can support multiple
independent routing protocols and can update and maintain routing tables for each
protocol independently.
- Routed protocols are used to transport user traffic from source node to destination
node. Examples of routed protocols are IP, IPX, AppleTalk.
44. There are three ways a router learns how to forward a packet:
1. Static Routes - Configured by the administrator manually. The administrator must also
update the table manually every time a change to the network takes place. Static routes
are commonly used when routing from a network to a stub (a network with a single route)
network.
The command is
ip route network mask address/interface [distance]
ex: ip route 165.44.34.0 255.255.255.0 165.44.56.5
Here, 165.44.34.0 is the destination network or subnet
 255.255.255.0 is the subnet mask
165.44.56.5 is the default gateway.
2. Default Routes - The default route (gateway of last resort) is used when a route is not
known or is infeasible. The command is
ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 165.44.56.
The default gateway is set to 165.44.56.5
3. Dynamic Routes - In dynamic routing, the routing tables are automatically updated.
Dynamic routing uses broadcasts and multicasts to communicate with other routers.
The commands to enable rip are:
router rip
network <major network number>.
Do w nlo a d cc na pr a c t ic e ex a m fr o m Sim ula t io nEx a m s.c o m

45. To enable the Cisco IOS to forward packets destined for obscure subnets of directly connected
networks onto the best route, you use "ip classless" command.
46. There are broadly three types of routing protocols:
1. Distance Vector (Number of hops) - Distance vector routing determines the direction (vector)
and distance to any link in the internetwork. Typically, the smaller the metric, the better the path.
EX: Examples of distance vector protocols are RIP and IGRP. Distance vector routing is useful for
smaller networks. The limitation is that any route which is greater than 15 hops is considered
unreachable. Distance vector protocols listen to second hand information to learn routing tables
whereas, Link state protocols build routing tables from first hand information. Routers with
distance vector protocols send its entire routing table to each of its adjacent neighbors.
2. Link State Routing: Link State algorithms are also known as Shortest Path First (SPF)
algorithms. SPF generates the exact topology of the entire network for route computation, by
listening to the first hand information. Link State protocols take bandwidth into account using a
cost metric. Link State protocols only send updates when a change occurs, which makes them
more efficient for larger networks. Bandwidth and delay are the most widely used metrics when
using Link-State protocols. EX: OSPF and NLSP.
Benefits of Link State protocols:
1. Allows for a larger scalable network
2. Reduces convergence time
3. Allows “supernetting”
3. Balanced Hybrid - Balanced Hybrid combines some aspects of Link State and Distance Vector
routing protocols. Balanced Hybrid uses distance vectors with more accurate metrics to determine
the best paths to destination networks. EX: EIGRP.
47. Distance vector protocol depends only on Hop count to determine the nearest next hop for
forwarding a packet. One obvious disadvantage is that, if you have a destination connected
through two hops via T1 lines, and if the same destination is also connected through a single hop
through a 64KBPS line, RIP assumes that the link through 64KBPS is the best path!
48. RIP (and IGRP) always summarizes routing information by major network numbers. This is
called classfull routing.
49. Convergence is the term used to describe the state at which all the internetworking
devices, running any specific routing protocol, are having identical information about the
internetwork in their routing tables. The time it takes to arrive at identical information of the
internetwork is called Convergence Time.
50. RIP,RIP2, and IGRP use distance vector algorithms.
RIP2 transmits the subnet mask with each route. This feature allows VLSM (Variable Length
Subnet Masks) by passing the mask along with each route so that the subnet is exactly defined.

Bandwidth, MTU, Reliability, Delay, and Load.

1. Bandwidth: This is represents the maximum throughput of a link.

2. MTU (Maximum Transmission Unit): This is the maximum message length that is
acceptable to all links on the path. The larger MTU means faster transmission of packets.

3. Reliability: This is a measurement of reliability of a network link. It is assigned by the

administrator or can be calculated by using protocol statistics.
4. Delay: This is affected by the band width and queuing delay.
5. Load: Load is based among many things, CPU usage, packets processed per sec.
52. The metric limit for link-state protocols is 65,533
53. Following are the possible solutions for preventing routing loops.
1. Split Horizon - based on the principle that it is not useful to send the information about a
route back in the direction from which the information originally came.
2. Poison Reverse - A router that discovers an inaccessible route sets a table entry
consistent state (infinite metric) while the network converges.
3. Hold-down Timers - Hold down timers prevent regular update messages from reinstating
a route that has gone bad. Here, if a route fails, the router waits a certain amount of time
before accepting any other routing information about that route.
4. Triggered Updates - Normally, new routing tables are sent to neighboring routers at
regular intervals (IP RIP every 30 sec / and IPX RIP every 60 sec). A triggered update is an
update sent immediately in response to some change in the routing table. Triggered
updates along with Hold-down timers can be used effectively to counter routing loops.
54. IP RIP based networks send the complete routing table during update. The default update
interval is 30 seconds. IGRP update packet is sent every 90 seconds by default.
55. For IGRP routing, you need to provide the AS (Autonomous System) number in the
command. Routers need AS number to exchange routing information. Routers belonging to same
AS exchange routing information. OSPF, and IGRP use AS numbers.
56. CDP stands for Cisco Discovery Protocol. This protocol is proprietary of Cisco. CDP runs SNAP
(Sub network Access Protocol) at the Data Link Layer. Two Cisco devices running two different
Network layer protocol can still communicate and learn about each other.
57. Show IP protocol: This command will show information on RIP timers including routing update
timer (30sec default), hold-down timer (default 180sec). It also displays the number of seconds
due for next update (this is fraction of update timer). This command also gives the network
number for which IP RIP is enabled, Gateway, and the default metric.
1. Show IP route: This command will display the IP routing table entries. In addition, it
displays the Gateway of last resort (if one is assigned). It also displays the codes used for
various types of routes. Some of the important codes are:
C: directly connected;
 S: Statically connected
I : IGRP
R : RIP
2. Show IP interface: This command shows you interface-wise information such as IP
address assigned to each interface, whether the interface is up, MTU etc.
3. Debug IP RIP: Debug IP RIP will turn the RIP debugging ON. This will display a continuous
list of routing updates as they are sent and received. This leads to lot of overhead, which is the
reason that you use "undebug ip rip" to turn-off debugging as soon as you finish with debugging.
58. Cisco router boot configuration commands:
1. boot system - This is a global command that allows you to specify the source of the IOS
software image to load. If you configure more than one source, attempts are made to load
the IOS from the first command in the configuration to the last successively. If the first
fails, the second boot command is used.
2. boot system rom - Loads IOS from ROM.
3. boot system flash - Loads the first file from flash memory.
4. boot system tftp <file name> < tftp_address > - Loads IOS with a filename <file
name> from a TFTP server.