Manager - Someone who coordinates and oversees the work of other people so that

organizational goals can be accomplished

First-line Managers - The lowest level of management, manage the work of

nonmanagerial employees who typically are involved with producing the
organization's products or servicing the organization's customers. They may also be
called Shift Managers,District Managers, DepartmentManagers,
OfficeManagers, or even Foreperson

Middle Managers - Include all levels of management between the first level and the
top level of the organization. These managers manage the work of first-line managers
and may have titles such as Regional Manager, Project Leader, Plant Manager,
or Division Manager

Top Managers – People, who are responsible for making organization-wide decisions
and establishing the plans and goals that affect the entire organization. These
individuals typically have titles such as Executive Vice President, President,
Managing Director, Chief Operating Officer, Chief Executive Officer, or
Chairperson

Efficiency - Getting the most output from the least amount of inputs

Effectiveness - Often described as "doing the right things"—that is, doing those
work activities that will help the organization reach its goals

Management Functions - Managers perform certain activities as they efficiently

and effectively coordinate the work of others

Planning - Define goals, establish strategies for achieving those goals, and develop
plans to integrate and coordinate activities

Organizing - Arranging and structuring work to accomplish the organization's goals

Leading - A job to work with and through people to accomplish organizational goals

Controlling – After Planning, Organizing and Leading, ensuring that goals are being
met and that work is being completed as it should be, managers must monitor and
evaluate performance

Management Roles - Specific categories of managerial behavior

Interpersonal Roles - Roles that involve people and other duties that are
ceremonial and symbolic in nature

Informational Roles - Collecting, receiving, and disseminating information. The

three informational roles are monitor, disseminator, and spokesperson

Decisional Roles - Making decisions or choices. The four decisional roles are
entrepreneur, disturbance handler, resource allocator, and negotiator
Interpersonal Figurehead - Symbolic head; obliged to perform a number of routine
duties of a legal or social nature

Leader - Responsible for the motivation of subordinates; responsible for staffing,

training, and associated Duties

Liaison - Maintains self-developed network of outside contacts and informers who

provide favors and information

Informational Monitor- Seeks and receives wide variety of internal and external
information to develop thorough understanding of organization and environment

Disseminator - Transmits information received from outsiders or from subordinates

to members of the organization

Spokesperson - Transmits information to outsiders on organization's plans, policies,

actions, results, etc.

Decisional Entrepreneur - Searches organization and its environment for

opportunities and initiates "improvement projects" to bring about changes

Disturbance Handler - Responsible for corrective action when organization faces

important unexpected disturbances

Resource Allocator - Responsible for the allocation of organizational resources of all

kinds—making or approvingall significant organizational decisions

Negotiator - Responsible for representing the organization at major negotiations

Technical Skills - The job-specific knowledge and techniques needed to proficiently

perform specific tasks

Human Skills - Involve the ability to work well with other people both individually
and in a group

Conceptual Skills - The skills managers use to think and to conceptualize about
abstract and complex situations

Organization - A deliberate arrangement of people to accomplish some specific

purpose

Division of Labor (Job specialization) - The breakdown of jobs into narrow and
repetitive tasks

Industrial Revolution - During this time, machine power was substituted for human
power, making it more economical to manufacture goods in factories rather than at
home

2 Principles of Management |Dictionary

Scientific Management - The use of scientific methods to define the "one best way"
for a job to be done

General Administrative - Theory described what managers do and what constituted

good management practice

Principles of Management - Fundamental rules of management that could be

taught in schools and applied in all organizational situations

Bureaucracy - A form of organization characterized by division of labor, a clearly

defined hierarchy, detailed rules and regulations, and impersonal relationships

Quantitative Approach - It involves the use of quantitative techniques to improve

decision making. This approach also has been called operations research or
management science.

Organizational Behavior (OB) - The field of study concerned with the actions
(behavior) of people at work

Hawthorne Studies - A series of studies conducted at the Western Electric Company

Works in Cicero, Illinois

System - A set of interrelated and interdependent parts arranged in a manner that

produces a unified whole

Closed Systems – Systems, which are not influenced by and do not interact with
their environment

Open Systems –Systems, which dynamically interact with their environment

Contingency Approach (situationalapproach) – According to it organizations are

different, face different situations (contingencies), and require different ways of
managing

Organization Size - As size increases, so do the problems of coordination

Routineness of Task Technology - To achieve its purpose, an organization uses

technology. Routine technologies require organizational structures, leadership styles,
and control systems that differ from those required by customized or nonroutine
technologies

Environmental Uncertainty - The degree of uncertainty caused by environmental

changes influences the management process. What works best in a stable and
predictable environment may be totally inappropriate in a rapidly changing and
unpredictable environment

3 Principles of Management |Dictionary

Individual Differences - Individuals differ in terms of their desire for growth,
autonomy, tolerance of ambiguity, and expectations. These and other individual
differences are particularly important when managers select motivation techniques,
leadership styles, and job designs

Workforce Diversity - A workforce that's heterogeneous in terms of gender, race,

ethnicity, age, and other characteristics that reflect differences

Entrepreneurship - It's the process of starting new businesses, generally in

response to opportunities

E-business (electronic business) - A comprehensive term describing the way an

organization does its work by using electronic (Internet-based) linkages with its key
constituencies (employees, managers, customers, clients, suppliers, and partners) in
order to efficiently and effectively achieve its goals

Intranet - a Web-based internal communication system accessible only by

organizational employees

Learning Organizations–Organizations that have developed the capacity to

continuously learn, adapt, and change

Knowledge Management – Itinvolves cultivating a learning culture where

organizational members systematically gather knowledge and share it with others in
the organization so as to achieve better performance

Quality Management - A philosophy of management involving continual improve-

ment and responding to customer needs and expectations

Omnipotent View of Management – The view that managers are directly

responsible for an organization’s success or failure

Symbolic View of Management – The view that much of an organization’s success

or failure is due to external forces outside manager’s control

Organizational Culture – The shared values, principles, traditions, and ways of

doing things that influence the way organizational member’s act

Strong Culture – Organizational cultures in which the key values are intensely held
and widely shared

Socialization – The process that helps employees adapt to the organization’s culture

Workplace Spirituality – A culture where organizational values promote a sense of

purpose through meaningful work that takes place in the context of community

External Environment – Those factors and forces outside the organization that
affect the organization’s performance
4 Principles of Management |Dictionary
Specific Environment – Those external forces that have a direct impact on
manager’s decisions and actions and are directly relevant to the achievement of the
organization’s goals

General Environment – Broad external conditions that may affect the organization

Environmental Uncertainty – Thedegree of change and complexity in an

organization’s environment

Environmental Complexity – The number of components in an organization’s

environment and extent of the organization’s knowledge about components

Stakeholders – Any constituencies in the organization’s environment that are

affected by the organization’s decision and actions

Classical View – The view that management’s only social responsibility is to

maximize profits

Socioeconomic View – The view that management’s social responsibility goes

beyond making profits to include protecting and improving society’s welfare

Social Obligation – When a firm engages in social actions because of its obligation
to meet certain economic and legal responsibilities

Social Responsiveness – When a firm engages in social actions in response to some

popular social need

Social Responsibility – A business’s intention, beyond its legal and economic

obligations, to do the right things and act in ways that are good for society

Social Screening – Applying social criteria (screens) to investment decision

Greening of Management – The recognition of close link between an organization’s

decisions and activities and its impact on the natural environment

Values-based Management – An approach to managing in which managers are

guided by the organization’s shared values in their management practices

Ethics – Principles, values, and beliefs that define what is right and wrong behavior

Values – Basic convictions about right and wrong

Ego Strength – A personality measure of the strength of a person’s convictions

Locus of Control – A personality attribute that measures the degree to which people
believe they control their own fate

Code of Ethics – A formal statement of an organization’s primary values and the

ethical rules it expects its employees to follow

5 Principles of Management |Dictionary

Whistle-blower – Individual who raise ethical concerns or issues to others inside or
outside the organization

Social Entrepreneur – An individual or organization who seeks out opportunities to

improve societyusing practical, innovative, and sustainable approaches

Social Impact Management – An approach to managing in which managers

examine the social impacts of their decisions and actions

Planning – Defining the organization’s goals, establishing an overall strategy for

achieving those goals and developing plans for organizational work activities

Goals – Desired outcomes for individuals, groups, or entire organization

Plans – Documents that outline how goals are going to be met

Stated Goals - Official statements of what an organization says, and what it wants
various stakeholders to believe, its goals are

Framing – A way to use language to manage meaning

Real Goals – Goals that an organization actually pursues, as defined by actions of its
members

Strategic Plans – Plans that apply to entire organization, establish the organization’s
overall goals, and seek to position the organization in terms of its environment

Operational Plans – Plans that specify the details of how the overall goals are to be
achieved

Long-term Plans – Plans with a time frame beyond 3 years

Short-term Plans – Plans covering 1 year or less

Specific Plans – Plans that are clearly defined and that leave no room for
interpretation

Directional Plans – Plans that are flexible and that set out general guidelines

Single-use Plan – A one-time plan specifically designed to meet the needs of a

unique situation

Standing Plans – Ongoing plans that provide guidance for activities performed
repeatedly

Traditional Goal Setting – An approach to setting goals in which goals are set at
the top level of the organization and the broken into subgoals for each level of the
organization

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Means-ends Chain – An integrated network of goals in which the accomplishment of
goals at one level serves as the means for achieving the goals, or ends, at the next
level

Management By Objective – A process of setting mutually agreed-upon goals and

using those goals to evaluate employee performance

Mission – The purpose of an organization

Commitment Concept – Plans should extend far enough to meet those

commitments made today

Formal Planning Department – A group of planning specialists whose responsibility

is helping to write organizational plans

Decision – A choice from two or more alternatives

Decision-making Process – A set of eight steps that include identifying a problem,

selecting an alternative, and evaluating the decision’s effectiveness

Problem – A discrepancy between an existing and a desired state of affairs

Decision Criteria – Criteria that define what’s relevant in a decision

Rational Decision Making – Decision-making behavior where choices are consistent

and value-maximizing within specified constraints

Bounded Rationality – Decision-making behavior that’s rational, but limited

(bounded) by an individual’s ability to process information

Satisficing – Accepting solutions that are “good enough”

Escalation of Commitment – An increased commitment to a previous decision

despite evidence that it may have been wrong

Intuitive Decision Making – Making decisions on the basis of experience, feelings,

and accumulated judgment

Structured Problems – Straightforward, familiar, and easily defined problems

Programmed Decision – Repetitive decision that can be handled by a routine

approach

Procedure – A series on interrelated sequential steps that can be used to respond to

a well-structured problem

Rule – An explicit statement that tells managers what they can or cannot do

Policy – A guideline for making decisions

7 Principles of Management |Dictionary

Unstructured Problems – Problems that are new or unusual and for which
information is ambiguous or incomplete

Nonprogrammed Decisions – A unique decisions that requires a custom-made

solution

Certainty – A situation in which a manager can make accurate decisions because all
outcomes are known

Risk – A situation in which the decision maker is able to estimate the likelihood of
certain outcomes

Uncertainty – A situation in which a decision maker has neither certainty nor

reasonable probability estimates available

Business Performance Management (BPM) – IT software that provides key

performance indicators to help managers monitor efficiency of projects and
employees

Directive Style – A decision-making style characterized by low tolerance for

ambiguity and a rational way of thinking

Analytic Style – A decision-making style characterized by a high tolerance for

ambiguity and a rational way of thinking

Conceptual Style – A decision-making style characterized by a high tolerance for

ambiguity and an intuitive way of thinking

Behavioral Style – A decision-making style characterized by a low tolerance for

ambiguity and intuitive way of thinking

Heuristics – Rules of thumb that manages use to simplify decision making

Environmental Scanning – The screening of large amounts of information to

anticipate and interpret changes in the environment

Competitor Intelligence – Environmental scanning activity by which organizations

gather information about competitors

Forecasts – Predictions of outcomes

Quantitative Forecasting – Forecasting that applies a set of mathematical rules to

a series of past data to predict outcomes

Qualitative Forecasting – Forecasting that uses the judgment and opinions of

knowledgeable individual to predict outcomes

Benchmarking – The search for the best practices among competitors or

noncompetitors that lead to their superior performance

8 Principles of Management |Dictionary

Resources – The assets of the organization including financial, physical, human, and
intangible

Budget – A numerical plan for allocating resources to specific activities

Scheduling – Detailing what activities have to be done, the order in which they are
to be completed, who is to do each, and when they are to be completed

Gantt chart – A scheduling a chart developed by henry Gantt that shows actual and
planned output over a period of time

Load chart – A modified Gantt chart that schedules capacity by entire departments
or specific resources

PERT Network – A flowchart diagram showing the sequence of activities needed to

complete a project and the time or cost associated with each

Events – End points that represent the completion of major activities in a PERT
network

Activities – The time or resources needed to progress from one event to another in
PERT network

Slack Time – The amount of time an individual activity can be delayed without
delaying the whole project

Critical Path – The longest sequence of activities in a PERT network

Breakeven Analysis – A technique for identifying the point at which total revenue is
just sufficient to cover total costs

Linear Programming – Amathematical technique that solves resource allocation

problems

Project – A one-time-only set of activities that has a definite beginning and ending
point in time

Project Management – The task of getting a project’s activities done on time, within
budget, and according to specifications

Scenario – A consistent view of what the future is likely to be

Organizing – Arranging and structuring work to accomplish the organization’s goals

Organizational Structure – The formal arrangement of jobs within an organization

Organizational Design – Developing or changing an organization’s structure

Work Specialization – Dividing work activities into separate job tasks

9 Principles of Management |Dictionary

Departmentalization – The basis by which jobs are grouped together

Functional Departmentalization – Grouping jobs by functions performed

Product Departmentalization – Grouping jobs by product line

Geographical Departmentalization – Grouping jobs on the basis of geographical

region

Process Departmentalization – Grouping jobs on the basis of product or customer

flow

Customer Departmentalization – Grouping jobs on the basis of specific and unique

customers who have common needs

Cross-functional Teams – Work teams composed of individuals from various

functional specialties

Chain of command – The line of authority extending from upper organizational

levels to the lowest levels, which clarifies who reports to whom

Authority – The rights inherent in a managerial position to tell people what to do and
to expect them to do it

Responsibility – The obligation to perform any assigned duties

Unity of Command – The management principle that each person should report to
only one manager

Span of Control – The number of employees a manager can efficiently and

effectively manage

Centralization – The degree to which decision making is concentrated at upper

levels of the organization

Decentralization – The degree to which lower-level employees provide input or

actually make decisions

Employee Empowerment – Giving employees more authority (power) to make

decisions

Formalization – How standardized an organization’s jobs are an the extent to which

employee behavior is guided by rules and procedures

Mechanistic Organization – An organizational design that’s rigid and tightly

controlled

Organic Organization – An organizational design that’s highly adaptive and flexible

Unit Production – The production of items in units or small batches

10 Principles of Management |Dictionary
Mass Production – The production of items in large batches

Process Production – The Production of items in continuous processes

Simple Structure – An organizational design with low departmentalization, wide

spans of control, centralized authority, and little formalization

Functional Structure – An organizational design that groups similar or related

occupational specialties together

Divisional Structure – An organizational structure made up of separate,

semiautonomous units or divisions

Team Structure – An organizational structure in which the entire organization is

made up of work groups or teams

Matrix Structure – An organizational structure that assigns specialists from different

functional departments to work on one or more projects

Project Structure –An organizational structure in which employees continuously

work on projects

Boundaryless Organization – Anorganization whose design is not defined by, or

limited to, the horizontal, vertical, and horizontal boundaries imposed by a predefined
structure

Virtual Organization – An organization that consists of a small core of full-time

employees and that hires outside specialists temporarily as needed to work on
projects

Network Organization – An organization that uses employees to do some work

activities and networks of outside suppliers to provide other needed product
components or work processes

Organizational Chart – A visual drawing of an organization’s structure

Learning Organization – An organization that has developed the capacity to

continuously learn, adapt, and change

High-performance Work Practices – Work practices that lead to both high

individual and high organizational performance

Human Resource Management Process – Activities necessary for staffing the

organization and sustaining high employee performance

Labor Union – An organization that represents workers and seeks to protect their
interests through collective bargaining

11 Principles of Management |Dictionary

Affirmative Action – Programs that enhance the organizational status of members
of protected groups

Human Resource Planning – Ensuring that the organization has the right number
and kinds of capable people and at the right times

Job Analysis – An Assessment that define jobs and the behaviors necessary perform
them

Job Description – A written statement that describes a job

Job Specification – A statement of the minimum qualifications that a person must

possess to perform a given job successfully

Recruitment – Locating, Identifying, and attracting capable applications

Decruitment – Reducing an organization’s workforce

Selection – Screening job applicants to ensure that the most appropriate candidates
are hired

Validity – The proven relationship that exists between a selection device and some
relevant job criterion

Reliability – The ability of a selection device to measure the same thing consistently

Work Sampling – A type of job tryout in which applications perform a task or set of
tasks that are central to it

Assessment Centers – Evaluating managerial potential through job simulation

activities

Realistic Job Preview – A preview of a job that provides both positive and negative
information about the job and the company

Orientation – Introducing a new employee to his or her job and the organization

Performance Management System – Establishes performance standards that are

used to evaluate employee performance

Written Essay – Appraising performance through a written description

Critical Incidents – Appraising performance by focusing on the critical job behaviors

Graphic Rating Scales – Appraising performance using a rating scale on a set of

performance factors

Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scales (BARS) – Appraising performance using a

rating scale on examples of actual job behavior

12 Principles of Management |Dictionary

Multiperson Comparisons – Appraising performance by comparing it with other’s
performance

360-degree Feedback – Appraising performance by using feedback from

supervisors, employees, and co-workers

Skill-based Pay – A pay system that rewards employees for the job skills they can
demonstrate

Variable Play – A pay system in which an individual’s compensation is contingent on

performance

Career – A sequence of positions held by a person during his or her lifetime

Downsizing – The planned elimination of jobs in an organization

Sexual Harassment – Any unwanted action or activity of a sexual nature that

explicitly or implicitly affects an individual’s employment, performance, or work
environment

Family-friendly Benefits – Benefits that accommodate employees’ needs for work-

life balance

Organizational Change – Any alteration of people, structure, or technology in an

organization

Change Agent–Someone who acts as a catalyst and assume the responsibility for
managing the change process

Organizational Development (OD) – Techniques or programs to change people

and the nature and quality of interpersonal work relationship

Stress – The adverse reaction people have to excessive pressure placed on them
from extraordinary demands, constraints, or opportunities

Creativity – The ability to combine ideas in a unique way or to make unusual

associations between ideas

Innovation – Taking creative ideas and turning them into useful products or work
methods

Idea Champion – Individuals, who actively and enthusiastically support new ideas,
build support, overcome resistance, and ensure that innovations are implemented

Organizational Change – Any alternation of people, structure, or technology in an

organization

Change Agent – Someone who acts as catalyst and assumes the responsibility for
managing the change process

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Organizational Development (OD) – Techniquesor programs to change people and
the nature and quality of interpersonal work relationship

Stress – Theadversereaction people have to excessive pressure placed on them form

extraordinary demands, constraints, or opportunities

Creativity – The ability to combine ideas a unique way or to make unusual

associations between ideas

Innovation – Taking creative ideas and turning them into useful products or work
methods

Idea Champion – Individuals, who actively and enthusiastically support new ideas,
build support, overcome resistance, and ensure that innovations are implemented

Behavior – How people act

Organizational Behavior – The study of how people act at work

Employee Productivity – A performance measure of both efficiency and

effectiveness

Absenteeism – Thefailure to report to work

Turnover – The Voluntary and involuntary permanent withdrawal from an

organization

Organization Citizenship – Discretionary behavior that is not part of an employee’s

formal requirements, but that promotes the effective functioning of the organization

Job Satisfaction – An employee’s general attitude toward his or her job

Work Place – Any form of intentional behavior that has negativeconsequences for
the organization or individuals within the organization

Attitudes – Evaluate statements – favorable or unfavorable – concerning objects,

people, or events

Cognitive Component – That part of attitude that’s made up of the beliefs, opinions,
knowledge, or information held by a person

Affective Component – That part of an attitude that’s the emotional or feeling part

Behavioral Component – That part of an attitude that refers to an intention to

behave in a certain way

Job Involvement – The degree, to which an employee identifies with his or her job,
actively participates in it, and considers his or her job performance to be important to
self-worth

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Organizational Culture Commitment – An employee’s orientation toward the
organization in terms of his or her loyalty to, identification with, and involvement in
the organization

Perceived Organizational Support – Employee’s general belief that their

organization values their contribution and cares about their well-being

Cognitive Dissonance – Any incompatibility or inconsistency between attitudes or

between and attitudes

Attitude Surveys – Surveys that ask employees how they feel about their jobs, work
groups, supervisors, or the organization

Personality – The unique combination of emotional, thought, and behavioral patterns

that affect how a person reacts and interacts with others

Big–Five – Five-factor model personality

Locus of Control – The degree to which people believe they control their own fate

Machiavellianism – The degree, to which people are pragmatic, maintain emotional

distance, and believe that ends justify means

Self-Esteem – An individual’s degree of like or dislike for himself or herself

Self-Monitoring – An individual’s ability to adjust his or her behavior to external

situation factors

Impression Management – When individuals attempt to control the impression

others form of them

Emotions – Intense feelings that are directed at someone or something

Emotional Intelligence – The ability to notice and to manage emotional cues and
information

Perception – The process of organization and interpreting sensory impressions in

order to give meaning to the environment

Attribution Theory – A theory that explains how we judge people differently

depending on the meaning we attribute to a given behavior

Fundamental Attribution Error – The tendencyto underestimate the influence of

external factors and overestimate the influence of internal factors when judging
other’s behavior

Self-Serving Bias – The tendency for individuals to attribute their own successes to
internal factors while putting the blame for failures on external factors

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Assumed Similarity – The belief that others are like oneself

Stereotyping – Judging a person on the basis of one’s perception of a group to which

he or she belongs

Halo Effect – A general impression of an individual based on a single characteristic

Learning – Any relatively permanent change in the behavior that occurs a result of
experience

Operant Conditioning – A type of learning in which desired voluntary behavior leads

to a reward or prevents a punishment

Social Learning Theory – A learning theory that says people learn through
observation and direct experience

Shaping Behavior – Systematically reinforcing each successive step to move an

individual closer to the desired behavior

Group – Two or more interacting and interdependent individuals who come together
to achieve specific goals

Forming – The first stage group development in which people join the group and then
define the group’s purpose, structure, and leadership

Storming – The second stage of group development, which is characterized by

intragroup conflict

Norming – The third stage of group development, which is characterized by close

relationship and cohesiveness

Performing – The fourth stage of group development when the group is fully
functional

Adjourning – The final stage of group development for temporary groups during
which group members are concerned with wrapping up activities rather than task
performance

Role – Behavior patterns expected of someone occupying a given position in a social

unit

Norms – Standards or expectations that are accepted and shared by a group’s

members

Groupthink – When a group exerts extensive pressure on an individual to align his or

her opinion with other’s opinions

Status – A prestige grading, position, or rank within a group

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Social Loafing – The tendency for individuals to expend less effort when working
collectively than when working individually

Group Cohesiveness – The degree to which members are attracted to one another
and share the group’s goals

Conflict – Perceived incompatible differences that result in interference or opposition

Traditional View of Conflict – The view that all conflict is bad and must be avoided

Human Relations View of Conflict – The view that conflict is a natural and
inevitable outcome in any group

Integrationist View of Conflict – The view that some conflict is necessary for a
group to perform effectively

Functional Conflicts – Conflicts that support a group’s goals and improve its
performance

Dysfunctional Conflicts – Conflicts that prevent a group from achieving its goals

Task Conflict – Conflict over content and goals of the work

Relationship Conflict – Conflict based on interpersonal relationships

Process Conflict – Conflict over how work gets done

Work Teams – Groups whose members work intensely on a specific, common goal
using their positive synergy, individual and mutual accountability, and complementary
skills

Problem-Solving Team – A team from the same department or functional area

that’s involved in efforts to improve work activities or to solve specific problems

Self-Managed Work Team –A Type of work team that operates without a manager
and is responsible for a complex work process or segment

Cross-Functional Team – A work team composed of individual’s form various

specialists

Virtual Team – A type of work team that uses technology to link physically dispersed
members in order to achieve a common goal

Social Network Structure – Thepatterns of informal connections among individuals

within a group

Motivation – The process by which a person’s efforts are energized, directed, and
sustained toward attaining a goal

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Hierarchy of needs theory – Maslow’s theory that there is a hierarchy of five
human needs

Physical Needs – A person’s needs for food, drink, shelter, sexual satisfaction, and
other physical needs

Safety Needs – A person’s needs for security and protection form physical and
emotional harm

Social Needs – A person’s needs for affection, belongingness, acceptance, and

friendship

Esteem Needs – A person’s need for internal factors such as self-respect, autonomy,
and achievement, and external factors such as status, recognition, attention

Self-Actualization Needs – A person’s need to behave what he or she is capable of

becoming

Theory X – The assumption that employees dislike work, are lazy, avoid
responsibility, and must be coerced to perform

Theory Y – The assumption that employees are creative, enjoys work, seek
responsibility, and can exercise self-direction

Two-Factor Theory – The motivation theory that intrinsic factors are related to job
satisfaction and motivation, whereas extrinsic factors are associated with job
dissatisfaction

Hygiene Factors – Factors that eliminate job dissatisfaction, but don’t motivate

Motivators – Factors that increase job satisfaction and motivation

Three-Needs Theory – The motivation theory that says three acquired (not innate)
needs – achievement, power, and affiliation – are major motives in work

Need For Achievement (nAch) – The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set
of standards, and to strive to succeed

Need For Power (nPow) – The need to make others behave in a way that they
would not behaved otherwise

Need For Affiliation (nAFF) – The desire for friendly and close interpersonal
relationships

Goal-Setting Theory – The proposition that specific goals increase performance and
difficult goals, when accepted, result in higher performance than do easy goals

Self-Efficacy – An individual’s belief that he or she is capable of performing a task

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Reinforcement Theory – The theory that behavior is a function of its consequences

Reinforcers –Consequences immediately following a behavior that increase the

probability that the behavior will be repeated

Job Design – The way tasks are combined to form complete jobs

Job Scope – The number of different tasks required in a job and the frequency with
which these tasks are repeated

Job Enlargement – The horizontal expansion of a job by increasing job scope

Job Enrichment – The vertical expansion of a job by adding panning and evaluating
responsibilities

Job Depth – The degree of control employees have over their work

Job Characteristics Model (JCM) – A framework for analyzing and designing jobs
that identifies five primary job characteristics, their interrelationships, and their
impact on outcomes

Skill Variety – The degree to which a job requires a variety of activities so that an
employee can use a number of different skills and talents

Task Identity – The degree to which a job requires completion of a whole and
identifiable piece of work

Task Significance – The degree to which a job has substantial impact on the lives or
work of other people

Autonomy – The degree to which a job provides substantial freedom, independence,

and discretion to the individual in scheduling work and determining the procedures to
be used incarrying it out

Feedback – The degree to which carrying out work activities required by a job in the
individual’s obtaining direct and clear information about his or her performance
effectiveness

Equity Theory – The theory that an employee compares his or her job’s input-
outcomes ratio with that of relevant others and then corrects any inequity

Referents – The person, systems, or selves against which individuals compare

themselves to assess equity

Distributive Justice – Perceived fairness of the amount and allocation of rewards

among individuals

Procedural Justice – Perceived fairness of the process used to determine the

distribution of rewards

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Expectancy Theory – The theory that an individual tends to act in a certain way
based on the expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the
attractiveness of that outcome to the individual

Compressed Workweek – A workweek where employees work long hours per day
but fewer days per week

Flexible Work Hours (Flextime) – A scheduling system in which employees are

required to work a certain number of hours per week, but are free, within limits, to
vary the hours of work

Job Sharing – The practice of having two or more people split a full-time job

Telecommuting – A job approach where employees work at home and are linked to
the workplace by computer and modem

Open-Book Management – A motivational approach in which an organization’s

financial statements (the “books”) are shared with all employees

Employee Recognition Programs – Personal attention and expressing interest,

approval, and appreciation for a job well done

Pay-for-Performance Programs – Variable compensation plans that pay employees

on the basis of some performance measure

Stock Options – Financial instruments that give employees the right to purchase
shares of stock at a set price

20 Principles of Management |Dictionary