CITIES OF VESUVIUS: POMPEII AND

HERCULANEUM

Written Sources:
Pliny the Younger ( c. AD 6 1 - 112 )
Noted for his scientific accuracy of observations and logically of arguments,
especially when discussing natural phenomena, suppositious and mythological
explanations are notably absent.

Strabo (64 BC – AD 21 )
Greek geographer is a useful source for geographical setting and historical
background of Pompeii.

Lucius Annaeus Seneca (4 BC – 65 AD)

The Roman philosopher and statesman, also provides us with information of the
earthquake of AD 62.

Juvenal & Martial

Mention the physical attributes of Vesuvian Region.

Epigraphic Sources:
Graffiti, election slogans, tombstones, advertisements, coins, inscriptions on everday
objects such as measuring devices in shops, marble basins, inscriptions on major
public monuments.

Archaeological Sources:
Human remain, which range from Forelli plaster casts and now resin casts found at
Pompeii to skeletons of residence found huddled on the beach at Herculaneum.

Physical Environment of Pompeii

 Pompeii was built on a volcanic plateau covering an area of 60 hectares.
 Well-placed between the river Sarnus in the south and the fertile slopes of
Mount Vesuvius in the North.
 It connected the seaside area with the fertile agriculture region of the inland.

Stages of Occupation of Pompeii

  The indigenous inhabitants of the area were an Italic tribe called the Oscans.
It is believed that the Ocans gave Pompeii its name in approximately the
eighth century BC.
 Pompeii became rapidly became an important port and road junction and
thus became the focus of outside powers such as the Greeks and Etruscans.
 After them it was held by the Etruscans and the Pelasgians,a dn later still by
the Samnites who wer driven out by the Romans.
1. Oscans
2. Etruscans
3. Pelagians
4. Samnites
5. Romans

Stages of Occupation of Herculaneum

 Thought to have been settled by the Oscans
 Dionysus of Halicarnassus, tells that the town was founded by Herakles
(Roman Hercules), the Greek hero, who was the patron of the town from the
earliest of times.
 Herculaneum was a minor suburban town where people settled to avoid the
hustle and bustle of the Greek port.
 Influenced by the Etruscans, the Samnites and then came under Roman
control.

The Eruption of AD 79
 The Eruption took place in the 24th August AD 79, within 18 hours both cities
had been covered.
 The eruption had not occurred for thousand of years and was an unknown
phenomenon.
 Strabo the Greek geographer, had realized the danger but having climed
Vesuvius’s slopes declared it spent force.
 The region of Campainia was an unstable volcanic area prone to earth
tremors.

Phases of the Eruption

1. Explosion thrust a great cloud of ash, pumice and gases 20 kilometer into the
air.
2. Pumice fall out over Pompeii began with pebbles called lapilli.
3. Hours later there was a ground surge, which is a turbulent cloud of volcanic
ash and hot gases, which hugged the ground and raced towards Pompeii at an
estimated speed of 100/km per hour.
4. It was immediately followed by a pyrocrastic flow, a hot dry avalanche of
pumice, ash and gases flowing at incredibly hugh speeds down the slopes of
the volcano towards Pompeii to a depth of about four meters.
 5. Pyrocrastic flow and surges are indentified in the geologic strata as thin black
layer. Vesuvius is unique as there were six layers in the strata which means
there were 6 pyrocrastic flows.

An Eye Witness Account

 Pliny the younger, seventeen years old, was staying at Misenum (30
kilometers) with his uncle Pliny the Elder, the admiral of the fleet when the
eruption occurred.
 He wrote this description to his friend Tacitus ( a Roman historian) about 25
years after the even.
 There appears to be exaggeration in Pliny’s letter eg. Making his uncle look
heroic.
 Pliny fails to mention the day but he mentions the date, ninth day before the
Kalends of September (24 August).

The Event

 The event takes place on the 24th of August

 Pliny noted the first signs of the eruption is a pine shaped cloud.
 Pliny the Elder changed his plans as he received a letter from Rectina, a
woman imploring him to save her.
 Pliny gives us information about :
- places that were effected (stabie)
- the description of the first stages of the eruption (the cloud)
 After sometime Pliny described the cloud rushing down the sides of the
mountain and covered everything around it including the sea, this id known
today as a pyroclastic flow.
 Pliny stated that several earth tremors were felt at the time of the Eruption and
were followed by a very violent shaking of the earth.
 He noted the falling ash in thick sheets and his village had been evacuated.

Social Structure:
Citizens (cives)
Freedmen (Liberti)
Slaves (servi)

Senators
 Served the empror in offices throughout the empire.
 Gained wealth from large estates.
 Position was hereditary.
 Distinguished by their clothing (toga with a stripe of purple) in Pompeii.
 They wore a pallium.

Equestrians (Equites)
 Served the empror in being commanders of the fire service, grain supply and
military offices. Pliny the elder was a commander of the fleet.
 Gained wealth from public offices, trade and banking.
 Position was hereditary.
 Wore a toga with purple stripe and gold finger ring.

Freed men (Liberti)

 Were slaves who were given their freedom.
 Gained wealth from trade, banking, manufacturing and landownership.
 Cannot become senators.

Slaves
 Preformed most of the work in agriculture and manufacturing , upper class
Romans drew most of their wealth from exploiting slave labor.
  Romans saw the ownership of slaves as an expression of power.
 Slaves were those who had been defeated in the war or were free citizens who
had solve themselves to pay debts.
 They worked and lived on the owners on the premises and were themselves
considered as property. Slave owners could be both men & women.
 Slaves had no legal rights. They could not take action against an owner for
mistreatment and they were not allowed their own family. Their marriages
were not legitimate. Their children became the property of the owner and were
considered part of the household.
 The owner had complete control over the life an death of the slave. Once a
slave is freed they had to buy their children from the owner
 Slaves were looked down upon in ancient society even if a freedman gained
great wealth, his servile origin was never forgotten.
 Slaves were sold and traded in business transactions. Evidence of these
transactions have been found recorded on wax tablets preserved for the
eruption.
 Slaves assumed the positions such as pedagogue, water carriers, treasurers,
gold smiths, chamberlain, read, secretary, wet nurses, caterers, midwife, door
keeper, baker masseuse, doctor, cupbearer, musician, and gardener.
 The work of a slave varied, an example of work done is found at Pompeii in
the house of Gauius Rufus has a small statue of two slaves carrying a sedan
chair through the streets.
 Certain areas of the house were hidden from general view. In the richest
houses, servile areas were reserved strictly for lower status activities such as
cooking and washing. Usually these are accessible down long narrow
corridors. In richer households the design of the slave’s living quarters was
contrasted harshly decorated with black and white stripes, these were linked
with toilets and hallways.
 The treatment of slaves varied from household, position and location.

Women
 The typical role of a women in Roman society was to perform tasks such a s
running the house hold, bringing up the children and controlling finances.
 The women in Pompeii appear to have had more freedom than their counter
parts in Rome.
 Although women could not vote, they made public declarations supporting
particular candidates for election. They showed support for candidates with
slogans on walls of shops and houses.
 Women worked as tavern owners, clothes trade, vegetable sellers, weavers,
doctors and money lenders.
 Pompeii was a place where women could own property, do business, pay for
construction, hold honorific and cultic office and go about in public life.
 Girls from privileged backgrounds were taught to read and write, either at
school or by slave tutors in their own home. Lower class women who were of
 craftsmen and traders would run the business while the husband took care of
other aspects of the business.
 Women could own property and were to free to administer it to themselves
 Some women worked independently in their homes making and mending
clothes.
 Female slaves preformed ma wide range of duties depending in the needs of
their owners. Some worked as household slaves, cooking and cleaning, or as
nanny or wet nurses (nutrices).
 Freedwomen who often come from the east, sold luxury items or exotic
merchandise, such as dyes and perfumes as well as clothes & food.
 Legally prostitution was treated as a business like any other. Prostitutes were
required to register with the aediles. There were different types of prostitutes
in Roman society, there were slaves, freedwomen an foreigners.

EUMACHIA
 A Latin inscription from the first century AD tells us that ‘ the
vestibule, the covered gallery and porticoes made with her own
money and dedicated in her own name and the name of her son
Marcus Numistrius Fronto, in honor of the goddess CoNCORD &
Augustan Piety.
 The inscription indicated that Eumachia was using her building
program as a means of bolstering (to support) her son’s political
candidature. Here we have a example of a rich woman who had an
important public role in the priesthood of Venus, using her wealth and
social status for political purposes.
 The statue of Eumachia found in the collegium building of the fullers,
Pompeii. She wears a tunic and stola. The long palla draped over her
head represents her respectability and role as a priestess. Inscription
under statue: to Eumachia, daughter of Lucius, public priestess:
the fullers (set this up).
  We know from the information on Eumachia that the priestess was
held in high esteem in Roman society.

Patron – client Relationship

 Families and individuals within the upper strata also acted as patrons to those
lower in the social order.
 It was the responsibility of the client to support his patron at political elections
and do any favors that might be required. In return, the patron might assist his
client in legal matter or give him a small gift or a free meal.
 It was a feature of Roman life that each morning, clients would flock to their
patron’s house to pay their respects (salutio).
 By the first century AD tradition required that virtually every man of wealth
and high status maintain clients who were prepared to serve him all hours of
the day.
 The client was expected to arrive at the patron’s house for the morning salutio
and in return will receive the sportula (food, clothing, money and other
favours). He also had to accompany his patron to the forum, support his
political goals and vote for him.
 Clients were generally plebians ( common people, low in wealth and status)
the poor citizens of low birth and former slaves. However , some plebians
acquired wealth through trade and became partons in their own rights.
 The patron- client relationship between patricians and plebian classes was
important to the Roman way of life because each needed the other.
Public and Private Buildings
Baths

Apodyterium – changing rooms

Palaestra – open exercise area
Natatio – main pool
Pila and trigon – ball games
Tepidarium – warm water room
Caldarium – hot water room
Frigid Laconicum - sauna
arium – cold water pool
Thermae – baths

Heating and Baths – Hypocaust System

 Baths were heated to a high temperature by a hypocaust system located

under the marble floor. The baths is raised on a pile of bricks and tiles.
These piles of bricks were part of the hypocaust system which heated the
floors of the baths.
 A furnace heated the water for the baths and the hot air from this circulated
around the pillars of the tiles and up through the hollow tiles in the wall, in
this way the water, walls and floors were all hot
  The hypocaust is a system whereby a furnace, fueled by wood located
beneath the bathhouses, heated boilers that sent hot water in pipes to the
baths. Pipes or flues under the floor were supported on stacks of tiles
forming pillars, also directed the steam from the furnaces. The hot air
circulated underneath the floor heating it up.

Baths in Pompeii

Forum Baths
 The forum baths are the smallest, but the most elegant of the thermae,
despite their small size , they contain everything necessary for the full
bathing ritual, dressing rooms, hot , tepid and cold rooms, exercise fields
and toilets.
 These baths were also divided into separate facilities for men and women.
They were the only baths still functioning in Pompeii after the earthquake
of 62 AD.
Central Baths
 At the intersection of two Pompeian main streets Via Stabiana and Via Di
Nola. Most recent version of baths (thermae) in Pompeii.
 Constructed immediately after the earthquake of AD 62 and was not
complete at the time of the 79 AD eruption.
 Bigger than all the other baths, they occupy the area of an entire insula
(block) and are equipped with a large gymnasium, numerous baths and a
room intended exclusively as a sudatorium (sweating room) designed to
be more spacious compared with previous ones,a nd due to large windows
which opened out are much lighter.
 At the time of the eruption the construction of the baths complex was still
incomplete – the swimming pool was unfinished and the gymnasium was
not yet started.
Stabian
 These baths are the oldest baths in Pompeii, being first built around the
4th century BC and restored and enlarged several time. These were not
restored by the time Mt Vesuvius erupted in 79 AD.
 Building contains a large gymnasium with columns on three sides, a
changing room, tepidarium, frigidarium and bath tubs. The oldest section
contains various small rooms and an open air swimming pool, a side
room for changing and oiling.
 Female sections is simpler and less decorated. A pool occupies the
western side of the baths.
 The rooms are adorned with stuccos of fine workmanship and the most
beautiful of Pompeian art.
 Looters had raided these baths in the years following the disaster.

Baths in Herculaneum

The Forum Baths

 The forum baths are the oldest baths in Herculaneum, they were about
100 years old when destroyed.
  Their position between two main streets made them conveniently close
to public buildings and forums.
 They had separate sections for men and women. They had public toilets
and magnificent mosaics of sea creatures.
 The forum baths were built between the period of 30 and 30 and 10 BC
and follow the standard Roman design of baths.
 Five skeletons were discovered in the men’s dressing room; four mena
and a woman.
Suburban Baths
 On the southern part of the waterfront, outside the city wall of
Herculaneum the magnificent suburban baths were constructed. Bathers
only needed to go down a flight of steps to reach the small beach and
the ocean.
 The entrance is through a long corridor which leads first to the dressing
room (apodyterium), then finally to the hot water room, then the
lukewarm room (tepidarium) with its vaulted ceiling and then finally to
the hot water room (caldarium)
 In the dressing- room there are paintings of erotic scenes.
 Suburban baths apprear to have operated as an exclusive for the
wealthy. It also contained a private dinning room inside the baths in the
vestibule, the water flows into a fountain from a statue of Apollo.

Basilicas

Pompeii
 This was the home of the court of justice and the centre of the town’s
economic life, and thus one of the busiest civic places.
 The basilicas were used for commercial business as well as legal transactions.
 At the back of the basilica was the tribunal, a raised platform on which judges
would sit so that they were separated from the other people in the building.
 Built during 190 -120 BC, the earthquake of 62 AD destroyed it, if it had not
been rebuilt 79AD.
 The main entrance to the basilica was from the forum and a chalcidicum (un-
roofed vestibule) with five doorways. At the entrance there were five ionic
columns.
 It was built in the Hellenistic (Greek) style with ionic and Corinthian columns.
 A statue of August was placed at the tribunal.
Herculaneum
 The basilica of Herculaneum was either damaged or entirely destroyed by the
62 AD earthquake and was rebuilt by Marcus Noius Balbus. Statues of himself
and his family adorn the walls.

Forum

Pompeii
 The forum, centre of Pompeian life, was located in the South- west it consisted
of a large, rectangular, open space, as well as the important buildings that
surrounded it, such as temples, commercial areas and civic buildings. Together
 they operated as a complex where the most important social, financial,
political and business activities took place.
 In the middle of the western side of the forum archaeologist discovered the
suggestum, the platform on which oratators stood when they spoke to the
crowd.
 On a typical day the forum would have been crowded with people buying or
selling goods, concluding business agreements, visiting temples, listening to
political speeches, hearing news from Rome, making legal transaction and
governing the town.
 It is also in the public space of the forum that the Romans unified religion and
state. It was dominated by temples dedicated to various Roman gods and the
cult of the emperor as a god.
 The forum was a large rectangular space measuring 137 meters by 47 meters
surrounded by public buildings where political, administrative, legal,
commercial, religious and social activities took place.
 The forum was the central core around which the city was arranged and it was
built where two roads met.
Herculaneum
 Part of the forum in Herculaneum has been located underneath the modern
town of Resina, but yet not excavated, however the adjoining basilica has been
uncovered.

Palaestra

Herculaneum
 The palaestra in Herculaneum was a large sporting complex that occupied a
whole block. It had large, open grounds, a cross-shaped swimming pool
measuring almost 50 meters long, and a smaller, deeper pool as well.
 In the palaestra stood a grand statue of the town’s patron her, Hercules.
Surrounding the open grounds were temples to Hermes and Hygeia, meeting
rooms and a spacious upper gallery.
Pompeii
 The large palaestra was a large open space surrounded on three sides by a
colonnade and had a swiiming pool in the middle. The open area was used for
gymnastics.

The Odeon

 The Odeon, or small theatre, was constructed around 80 - 75 BC. It was used
for musical, mime and poetry performances. It had seating for about 100
people.
 Unlike the large theatre, it had a permanent roof made of wood. This would
have improved the acoustics.
 An inscription tells us that the construction of the Odeon was paid by the
duumviri.

Amphitheatre
  Gladitorial shows took place in the Pompeian amphitheatre, one of the first
buildings constructed after the town became a Roman colony in 80 BC.
 Oldest remaining gladiatorial amphitheatre in the world.
 Built entirely of stone, in a shape of an oval.
 The front seats were raised several meters above the sand and separated from
it by a wall of polished stone. This was a safety feature as the wall stopped
beasts or desperate victims from climbing into the crowd.
 The building had no roof, but a velarium (awning) be put up to provide shade
for the audience.
 Built in 70 BC. Seats were numbered and local dignitaries sat at the front.
 A serious riot occurred in this amphitheatre in AD 59 between the Pompeians
and Nuceria, the emperor Nero declared it closed for 10 years.

Macellum

 The macellum or food market, stands in the north east corner of the forum, it
was built aa covered market that selled food.
 Internal square measuring 37 x 27 meters had in the centre, a rotunda (round
room) with twelve columns covered by a capola (a dome like structure that
sits on top of the roof) containing a fish pond.
 The macellum had three entrances , the main one accessing off the forum. This
entrance was divided into two passage ways by a aedicule (a small temple) set
in the centre, containing a statue of a member of the imperial family.
 Specialized in the selling of fish, meat and possibly vegetables and fruits,
lamb, beef, veal, pork and poultry – for sale in the macellum.
 In the centre was a large covered market called the tholos bounded by twelve
columns.
 A section that may have been used for sacrificial banquets or as an auction
room and money changes booth.

Streets

Pompeii
 The main streets inside the towns were a continuation of the main roads that
connected Pompeii and Rome as well as the surrounding towns such as
Herculaneum, Nola and Stabiae.
 The main strrets of the town lead to the forum.
 The streets of Pompeii were paved with large slabs of volcanic stone. The road
was raised slightly in the middle so that water could run off to the edges.
Narrow footpaths were laid above the road level on either side. The fronts of
buildings adjoined the foot paths.
 Stepping stones were placed along streets, especially in front of homes of the
wealthy, to allow pedestrians to cross without getting their fleet and clothing
dirty.
 Street surfaces display ruts, caused by continous scrapping of metal- rimmed
wheel on Roman carts.
 Documani: main external roads, ran from east to east
 Cardini: minor roads, ran from north to south
  Formed a grid like pattern, which is a distinctive feature of Greek town
planning.

Herculaneum
 When compared with streets in Pompeii, there are fewer traces of traffic in
Herculaneum, there are no marks worn into the road by traffic because
Herculaneum was smaller and less populated than Pompeii.

Private Houses
Roman Housing

 The quality of a family’s housing depended on its financial situation.

 The roman house functioned as a microcosm (smaller scale) of the public
world of business, politics, and civic duty. It was the space in which the
wealth, power and hospitality of the dominus(wealthy Roman) was on
display to impress visitors.
 Houses in Pompeii and Herculaneum came right up to the foot path with
doorways that led directly into the main rooms of the house.
 The most elaborate houses were quite plain on the outside ,often simply
painted red or white, however front doors were large and indicate wealth
and status of the owner.
 The grandest houses were often situated on the most import commercial
streets. Rich owners exploited the location by including shops on the street
side of their properties.

The atrium
 the atrium, a covered forecourt in which public nad private activities
took place at different times. In the centre of the forecourt was a
shallow pool called the impluvium for collecting rainwater, which
came in through the compluvium, a hole in the roof that also produced
light.

Bedrooms
 Bedrooms were usually located near the atrium. Also close to the
entrance was a room sometimes used to study or formal meeting
room. This wood be closed off by a curtain or wooden partition.

Dinning Rooms
 Often there were several dinning rooms in a Roman house, which
would be used to accommodate a dinner party with a large number of
guest.
 Wealthy Romans followed the Greek customs of reclining or lying on
their sides to eat and talk at formal meals.
 Couches were set out in a U-shape around a low central table.
  In winter dinning rooms were heated by iron, bronze or terracotta
braziers. In summer meals were often eaten out doors in the coolness
provided by trees and fountains.

The Peristyle garden

 A hallway next to the dinning room led to the peristyle (open
courtyard or garden area surrounded by a portico), which usually
featured a garden.
 Features include: floor mosaics, wall paintings, beautifully crafted
furnishings, statues, fountains and pools of running waters.
 Some Pompeian gardens were elaborated and contained fruit tree,
trellises, flowers, statues, ponds and fountains.

Toilets and Sewage

 Common practise was to use chamberpots in their homes. However,
many private houses had toilets, most were single-seaters or double
seaters. Some toilets were located upstairs, most were on the ground
floor in the kitchen. This was so that they could dispose off rubbish in
them as well.
Kitchen
 Very few houses had kitchens. The kitchens and pantry were usually
located furthest from the entrance, but with convienient access to
street sides. They contained a bench with a hearth (fire place) for
cooking and a sink with a drain pipe that fled in to the drain of the
adjoining toilet.

Private Baths
 Excavations revealed that from the second century BC onwards some
of the houses of the very wealthy in Pompeii had private baths.
 However, wealthy Romans not only bathed at home at home, but also
went to the public baths for social interaction.

House of Julia Felix: Pompeii

 Julia Felix was a wealthy heiress, daughter of Spurius Felix and owner of a
large establishment that was made up of two insulae joined together.
 The property one of the largest in Pompeii with orchards and garden
occupying most of the space. It is fameous for its magnificent artist
decoration and attractive garden
 The house of Julia Felix provides us with information about various aspects of
Pompeian life such as the muli- purpose nature of hosuing, artistic decoration,
commercial activities, religion, the role of women and the use of water
features in gardens.
 The house contained private quarters, bathing establishments, vegetable
garden and an orchard. The exclusive private baths contained a tepidarium
(warm room), frigidarium (cold room), Laconium (sweeting room) and a
callidarium (hot room). They had an outdoor pool, toilets and a food and drink
bar.
 The frescos painted on walls throughout the house, depict scenes of everyday
Pompeian life and luxury items enjoyed by the household
 The garden contained a small shrine to the Egyptian goddess Isis and an open
air dinning room, because of this shrine Julia Felix may have been involved in
the worship of this religion.
 Despite her large estate, her wealthy and luxurious lifestyle and experience in
running a business, there is no evidence to suggest that Julia Felix took an
active role in the economic life of Pompeii.

Villa of Papyri: Herculaneum

 In 1735 Karl Webber a Swiss archaeologist , uncovered a circular marble

floor. It was the beginning of the many years of excavation of the Villa of
Papyri.
 A small room was discovered that was infact an ancient library. On
shelves around the room was approximately 2000 blackened carbonized
cylindrical papyrus scrolls.
 This villa provided one of the best examples of the luxurious lifestyle
enjoyed by the wealthy citizens of the day.
 The magnificent of the villa is reflected in the water features, the pool and
the fountains. The impluvium in the atrium displays the ornate use of
statues and water works.
 A copy of the head of Doryphorus the lance bearer adapted as a herm.
 A copy of the head of Amazon, also a herm
 A portrait bust in bronze of Scipio Africanus
 ‘The Resting Herms’, a bronze sculptured perhaps by Lysippos.
 A specialist from the Vatican invented a contraption that was succefully in
unwinding the scrolls and not destroying them. All the scrolls were written
by Philodemus.
 In 2002 emergency restoration was carried out huge pumps drawing water
from the Villa and surrounding area (3.65 under sea level).
 Guzzo (superintendent) believes that conservation of this villa takes
precedence over excavation.
 Wallace Hadrill agrees with Guzzo and says we have to preserve what
we’ve got.

Temple of Apollo( Pompeii)

Description
 Constructed in a italic style, with a flight of steps leading upto a high
base.
 At the far end of the temple wall, were painted scenes from the Iliad.
 Statues of Apollo and Diana face opposite each other while statues of
Venus and Hermaphrodius were placed in bases of the entrance
portico.
Discovery
 Discovered in the 18th century.
Constructed
  Constructed by the Samnites.
Used for
 A place of worship for the god Apollo.

Temple of Isis (Pompeii)

Description
 Beautifully painted, on a raised platform and facing east to illuminate
its interior from the rising sun. Inside, the open cella held the
instruments and symbols sacred to the cult and was used during the
ceremonial rituals. The sacred water from the Nile was kept in an
underground passage.
Constructed
 It dates the pre-Roman age and was almost entirely rebuilt after the
earthquake of 62 AD.
Used for
 Dedicated to the worship of Isis, a goddess from the Egyptian trait, it
was a cult that was quickly spreading through out the
Roman Empire. The cult of Isis was very popular in Pompeii

Religion
Private religion
 The Roman goddess Vesta was worshipped with three other deities.
The lares were household deities associated with the home. they had
their own shrine, ina cupboard. Any food dropped at a meal was
offered to the lares. It was believed that they bought fertility to the
fields and protected the family.
 The genius was the god of the male line decent. The god was
worshiped on the birthday of ther paterfamilias. Sometimes the genius
was represented as a snake.
 The Penates were the gods of the lader (pantry) or food store, Their
statuettes were placed on the table at meal times.
 Every home had their own shrine or laraium where the whole family
carried out daily worship. Prominent families kept was masks images
of portraits of their ancestors, and their family duty was to honor
these.
 A imprint of a cross in al wall in a n apartment in Herculaneum is
evidence for a Christian cult. The new religion was certainly gaining
followers. Meetings were kept secret as the religion was illegal.

Public religion
 Roman religion is not based on faith or believes, but rather on ritual.
 Romans did not have a personal relationship with their gods.
 They were polytheistic; that is they worshopped many gods, based to
a large extended on the twelve Olyimpian Greek gods.
 The Romans saw their gods as spirits at work in every aspect of life.
Religion was considered to be important to the extent were it was
included in their social and political life.
  worship took the form of offering, sacrifices, festivals, games and
rituals.
 Telling the will of the gods by omens such as reading entrails.
 Every aspect of life was controlled by religion. It was all times
necessary to carry out the proper rites so that the peace of the gods
(or divine order) should be preserved.
 The gods were the patrons and the people were the patrons and other
people were the clients.

Roman Dieties
 As well as the household deities some of the goals who were worshipped by
the people of Pompeii and Herculaneum were Jupite, Juno, Bacchus, Apollo,
Cybele, Diana, Prippus, Eros, Minerva, Venus, Mars, Vesta, Neptune,
Mercury and Vulcan.
 Hercules was a god at Herculaneum he was the town’s founder
 Hercules was famous for his famous journeys.
 Apollo was the god of light
 Venus the goddess of love is shown to be nude and lying down in a sea shell.
 Venus was regarded extremely high and became a patron goddess.

Omens
 The Romans believed in good and bad omens.
 An auspice originally was a means of divination by bird watching.

Imperial cults
 in the east, political rulers were thought of as a descendants of gods.
 This idea was abhorrent to the Roman, but they conquered the east infiltrated
their system.
 Romans worshipped their emperors as gods.

Cult of Isis – Foreign Cults

 The cult of Egyptian goddess Isis appealed to women slaves.
 The temple if Isis was situated near the theatre of Pompeii. It was built on a
high platform and enclosed with a sacred area.
 Isis was seen as a mother goddess who promoted fertility , healed the sick and
offered her followers immorality.
 Isis was an Egyptian godess but was introduces by Greeks in around 100 BC.

Other Foreign Cults

 Another cult was the worship of the Thracian fertility god Sabazius who was
equated with Dionysos/ Bacchus. In 1945 a shrine to this god was unearthed.
The shrine consisted of a simple stone altar with two terracotta vases that
probably contained offerings.
 In the house of Four Styles an ivory statuette of the Hindu goddess Lakshmi
was unearthed. She was the goddess of beauty, fertility and wealth.
Influences of Greek and Egyptian Cultures

Greek Influences

Architecture
 Layout of Pompeian streets
 Odeon (drama theatre, Greek construction)
 Ionic columns
 Baths gymnasium
Culture
 Colonization and occupation of Campania
 Herculaneum was named after Greek Hercules
 Clothing, pallium preferred by people of Pompeii
 Greek philosophy (Epicuraneanism)
Religion
 Similar deities e.g Dionysus

Egyptian Influences

Religion
 Worship of the Egyptian Goddess Isis
Art
 Roman painting of the Nile, connection with Egypt.
Culture
 Both Romans and Egyptian worse fashion wigs to depict their status and
wealth.

Local Government

Structure of Government in Pompeii

Duumviri x 2
 Literally “two men”. They operated as co-mayors of Pompeii and could
only serve for one year. Election took place each year in the spring. They
were also in charge of justice.
 Chief officals responsible for law, administration and residency of the
ordo decurionum (city council). Every five years they organized a census
and revised the list of people eligible for the ordo decutrionum.
 They were elected by the contium (people’s assembly of male citizens),
they were two people only.
Aediles x 2
 Served for one year
 Took care of streets, public buildings, temples, markets and organization
of games, maintained public order.
 Assisted by one scribe, four public slaves, a town-crier, a flute player and
a priest who read entrails of animals (harupex).
  They could only hold the office for one year; they are elected by the
commitium (people’s assembly of male citizens).

Decuriones x 100
 Had to be wealthy
 Have considerable status
 Be prepared to spend money on the town
 Be a member of the ordo decuriones
 Chosen from eligibility list (adlecto)
 Membership of the ordo was for life, the list was reorganized every fifve
years.
 Responsibilities: city councilor senate, city finance, religious authority
and oversee public business.

Local Government
 Pompeii had a constitution
 The city was divided into (vici) wards and there were voting districts
 Pompeii was basically governed by a group of wealthy aristocrats.
 Imperial government did not interfere unless things went very wrong.
 As well as the magistrates there were influential trade guilds eg. Fullers,
bankers and religious associations.
 Only male citizens could vote and citizenship was not open to all. Elected
administered the city, assisted by the ordo decurionum, a council of about 100
mainly ex-magistrates.
 Elections were held in March; pairs of elected magistrates took offices in July
and served for one year.
 Whilst in office, magistrates were expected to administer public finance
judiciously, but they were also expected to spend their own money on such
things as processions and games and the constitution and maintenance of
buildings and public amenities.
 Politics and religion were an integral parts of citizenship in Roman society and
many who were magistrates also held priesthoods. The Augustales were
priests involved in emperor worship, this cult began when Augustus was
deified in AD 14, although he had been worshiped in Pompeii while he was
still living.
 Even the wealthiest women could not enter politics or hold political office,
but at Pompeii they could lead prominent public lives as priestesses of the cult
of Venus or Ceres. Mamia and Eumachia were priestesses of the cult of
Venus.
 Woman could not vote but never the less wrote political slogans endorsing
candidates including their relatives.
 Herculaneum was a Roman municipium, governed by elected officals and a
town council, but not much evidence has come to light about the political
system or those involved in it. Inscriptions and statues suggest the several
families were prominent there, particularly proconsul Marcus Nonius Balbus.

Political buildings
  In Pompeii, The city council met in a lavishly decorated curia chamber on the
southern side of the forum adjacent to the comitium (people’s assembly) in
the southern – eastern corner. The comitium was a roofless building where
town meetings were held during which citizens could question the members of
the government.
 The basilica was the largest seat of the judiciary and law courts, as well as a
centre for business activities. It was one of the finest buildings- if not the
finest, in both towns. Basilicas usually followed a standard plan: a long
rectangular central hall, flanked either by a colonnade aisle and an apse at one
end.

The Economy

Trade

 Situated near the bay of Naples – trade was a vital aspect of society.
 Even within the society, some women independently worked in their homes
making and mending clothes to earn a little money.
 Evidence from graffiti suggests that Pompeii had a large population of
foreigners involved in trade.
 Freedwomen frequently sold luxury items or exotic merchandise, such as
dyes, perfumes, clothes and food.

Commerce

 600 excavated of privately owned shops, workshops, bars, taverns and

inns.
 Markets around the forum
 Epigraphic evidence of guilds of tradesmen and retailers
 Twenty or so maritime houses containing objects charachterised by port
area and building lined with jars.
 The basilica, fronting into the forum was only a law court but an exchange
where businessmen or speculators met clients and signed contracts.

Industries

Markets

 On both sides of the Pompeian forum were markets which were the
property of the city, administered by two aediles who made sure that the
market market ran smoothly , goods were measured by price acuratly,
quality was maintained, city regulations were upheld.
 The macellum , on the north-eastern side of the forum, was a busy market
specializing in the sale of fish and meat possibly fish and vegetables.

Hotels
  Visiting traders could find a bed for the night in one of the many hotels to
the port or the city.
 A hotel near the forum could sleep fifty people, four to a room, while two
just inside Herculaneum and Stabian gates had dinning roomd, bedrooms,
stables, a water trough and garage for wagons. It appears the owners also
provided their guests with entertainment with upstairs room accessed by a
side door for discreet entry of local women.

The Wine & Oil Industries

 Wine and olives were a principle source of income for people in the
Vesuvian region. Vine yards and olive groves could only be owned by
wealthy landowners because of the cost of the long wait between planting
and the first harvest and the cost of wine and olive presses.
 Generally wine does not appear to have been stored in large quantities in
taverns and bars but brought from the farms and villas. These villas had
rooms for pressing grapes, for fermentation and storage.
 Most of the oil pressing was done on the estates even though oil presses
were found in Pompeian houses and the forum granary. It is believed that
there may have been an olive market near or in the forum. Granary oil was
used for cooking, perfumes and body oiling in baths.

The Manufacture of Garum

 Pompeii was known for its garum, fish sauce which was one of the main
condiments used for flavoring Roman cuisine.
 Prominent manufacturers may have obtained their fish more directly .
 Garum was a potent mix, made from ‘the guts of fish and other parts that
otherwise would be considered refuse.

Clothes Manufacture & Treatment

 Wool was the basis of one of the most important industries in Pompeii, the
washing and dyeing of wool and the manufacture of cloth. Associated with
this was laudering, bleaching and recolouring of clothes. Both these activities
were carried out in workshops at the fullonicae or laundries.
 The raw wool was first sent to an officina lanifiricarae where it was degreased
by boiling in leaden boilers. It was taken to the spinners and weavers, in
private homes or officinae textoriae.
 The cloth was next sent to the officinae tincloriae for dyeing, often in bright
colours such as purple or saffron.
 The finished product was distributed to clth merchants.
 Human urine was used for its ammonia content. Male passer bys were urged to
supply their urine by filling the jugs hanging outside.

Bakeries (Pistrina)

 Thirty or so bakeries have been identified in Pompeii

  Bread was basic foodstuff. Because of the poor quality of the the flour , the
bread was very hard and due to the lack of yeast, deteriorated quickly.
 Bakeries did not own their own refining of the grain in lava stone mills,
usually three or four set in a paved courtyard with a table for kneading the
dough and a brick oven.
 Ovens were heated by burning vine sticks and once hot enough were cleaned
out for baking the small round loaves of bread. These were dispatched to
various small shops and stalls in surrounding streets. A few bakeries had an
area for selling their own break, but most did not.

Occupations:
 Artist,Metal-workers, carpenters, silversmiths, goldsmiths, wheelwrights,
tanners, tinkers, ironmongers, marble-workers, stone masons, gem cutters,
glass makers, bakers, farmers, inn keepers, tavern owners, shop owners,
prostitutes, slaves, fullers, merchants, politicians, priest, priestesses.

Beliefs and Burials

Burial practices

 The Romans believed that the dead went to the underworld (hades), on the
journey there the body had to be ferried over the river Styx, the boundary
between this world and hades. The ferryman Charon had to be paid for his
services , a coin was placed in the mouth, this custom came from the Greeks.
 During the first and second century AD, the dead were cremated (disposed by
burning) , the ashes gathered and put in urns depending on the wealth and
status of the person, the urn was placed inside a columbarium (underground
vault where urns were placed in holes in the wall) or buried in individual
tombs in the necropolis (cemetery “city of the end”).
 The burial spot was marked by a symbol of tombstone. A coin was placed in
the urn to pay for the soul’s passage to the underworld; few people practiced
inhumation at this time.
 Burials were considered so important that the emperors even provided funeral
allowances to poor people so that they could be properly buried.
 Lowere class people joined burial collegium to ensure that they would be
buried with proper funeral rituals.
 For the purpose of health and hygine, Roman law forbade anyone to be buried
inside the city walls.

Funeral processions

 The conclamatio was the practise of loudly calling the dead person by name to
recall the dead or reawaken the body’s powers. When there was no response,
the body was said to be conclamatio (beyond recall).
 The body would then be prepared for burial. Professional undertakers
(libitinarii) preformed many of the same duties that modern undertakers do.
 They hired dancers, clowns and mummers, who joked and mimmiced the
dead.
  The body was burned on its pyre at the family burial spot. A close relative lit
the torch and offering of garments and spices were thrown onto the pyre. The
ash was cooled with wine, gathered and placed in an urn which would then be
placed in the tomb.
 The relatives of the dead remained in a state of impurity until burial had taken
place. After nine days the period of mourning ended with an offering of food
and wine at the tomb.

Everyday Life
Food and Dining

 One of the Roman’s faviourite leisure activities was holding lavish, may
coursed banquets and feasts.
 Poorer people ate in taverns that also served as brothels and gamming houses.
 Romans ate 3 meals a day. Breakfast and lunch were meals but dinner or cena
was the most important meal of the day. Begging at around 4 pm and lasting
for many hours into the night.
 Poorer classes ate modest meals consisting of black bread, vegetables and
cheap wine.
 Gustatio : the first course, like our entrée course.
 Primae mensae: the main course or fercula, that is dishes that are carried. This
part of the meal included: meat, fish, poultry and dessert secundae Mensae.
Wine was served at these meals; the Romans mixed it with honey and called
mulsum.
 Food types: dates, figs, prunes, almonds, chestnuts, walnuts, olives, myrtle
berry, pomegrantes, bread, meats include pork, beef, lamb, goat, rabbit, salted
meats, cured ham, seafood includes fish, oyster clam, squid, octopus and
prawns. Poultry includes pigeon, duck, cranes, geese and chicken. Fruits
include figd, grapes, quinces, plums, pears, blackberries. Vegetables include
turnips, tuffles, olives, beetroot, celery, mushrooms, asparagus, marrow,
cucumber, cabbage, leeks, radishes, lettuce, artichokes and carrots. Herbs and
spices include cumin, mint, caramon, parsley, coriander, pepper, bay leaf, dill,
thyme, ginger, honey was used as a sweetner and meats often roated with
honey.
 Garum: the Romans liked to flavour their food with a thick, salty sish sauce
called garum. This was made of a fermented mixture of small fish such as
sprats and anchovies with the entrails (guts) of larger fish such as mackerel.

Dinner parties

 Dinner parties required a great deal of preparation. This was done by a lrge
number of slaves and meals were prepared in unhygienic kitchens, cooken on
charcoal stoves, on iron grilling plates an in bronze and lead cooking pots and
pans.
 Dinner parties usually began around 4pm and lasted for many hours into the
night. Having spent time before hand at the baths guests would start arriving
after mid-afternoon, carrying their own toothpick and napkin. As they stepped
 into the dinning room, guests made sure their right foot entered first, otherwise
it would be considered unlucky.

The Trinclinium (dinning room)

 Some Roman houses had more than one dinning room (trinclinium). In
summer guests dinned ina dinning room opening onto the peristyle. In winter
the dinning room was enclosed to give protection from the weather.
 The dinning rooms were lavishly furnished and decorated with inlaid
furniture, beautiful floor mosaics, frescos and wall paintings. The tableware
was often made of silver, gold or electrum. The Roman word for dinning room
(trinclinium) came from the Greek word Triklinos meaning ‘bed for three’,
and refers to the way in which Romans ate, reclining on couches around a
small centre table.
 The guests lay on their left elbow. The plate was held with the left hand and
the right had was free to reach and hold food.
 The main aim of these feasts was to gain or maintain a reputable social
position. Entertainment was provided and took form of dice games, board
games, performances by acrobats, musicians and dancers and literary
discussions. After the meal, the serious drinking began.

Water Supply

 Originally, Pompeii received its water from the river Sarno and from wells
and rain collecting cisterns for their water supply. An aqueduct was built
when the needs of the city increased.
 Water from the channel flowed into a main tank or water tower (castellum
aquae) , it was shared into 3 ain pipes that fed different areas of the city.
The sloping terrain aided the water pressure that dispersed the water to
various tanks all over Pompeii.
 Many private homes in Pompeii were connected directly to this source of
fresh running water.
 One of the 3 pipes supplied the 42 public fountains found all over the ity.
Poorer people gained water from the fountains.
 The water flowed through lead pipes but the people of the time were
unaware of the hazards.
 Catellum plumbeum which were lead pillar that acted as pressure taps and
ensured equal water pressure throughout the town.
 The fountains (Nymphaeum) were quadrangular stone basins often
decorated with gargoyles.

Sanitation: Toilets and sewage

 The common practice from Romans was to use a chamber pot in their
homes. The floor of the toilet was sloped downwards so that urine and
faeces could be washed away from a bucket. Seats were made of wood and
were placed on top pf an open drain. Some toilets were located upstairs
 some were downstairs usually in the kitchen so rubbish could be disposed
in them as well.
 In a public latrine people sat side by side on benches above the flowing
channel. There was no toilet paper only a sponge on a stick.
 The town was noisy, smelly, and generally unhygienic with rubbish in the
streets.

Health

 In Roman society it was said that the rich got sick from eating and the poor
got sick from not eating.
 Afflictions that are minor problems today were life threatening to the ancient
Romans.
 The cause of diease was not understood and remedies were primitive.
 People turned to magic charms, healing herbs, prayers and religion for cures.
 Most Roman bodies reveal a high level of lead content. They used lead in
cooking pots and their water was flushed through lead pipes. The people were
poisoning themselves, the high lead content may have caused infertility and
contributed toa high rate of infant mortality.
 Dr Estelle Lazer concluded that the Pompeians were healthy in their
childhood. She conducted a research on dental health and found that:

- gum disease and tooth decay on a number of teeth.

- Many teeth had calcified plaque. It is likely the Pompeians had bad
breath.
- Many of the teeth were worn flat as a result of eating bread that
contained minute fragmwnts of grindstone used to mill flour. This may
have caused painful infections.

Clothing

 Indoors Roman men or boys wore the tunic this was a loose woolen shirt, with
short sleeves held up by a girdle at the waist. But when a man was in public he
put on his toga which was a long heavy white cloak wrapped around the body.
The togas of men who held important offices were marked by a broad purple
stripe on the boarder.
 When a boy was old enough to wear a toga there was a special ceremony held.
 The Romans wore shoes and boots, in the house they often worse sandals.
Work men had caps and hats but wealthy went bareheaded.
 Women wore three garments. Inner tunic then a longer outer covering and a
cloak or mantle much like a toga.

Leisure Activities

 Judging by the number of graffiti relating to gambling, drinking, sex,celebrity

gladiators and actors, as well as the number of buildings associated with sport,
 entertainment and relaxation, people in Pompeii enjoyed their time and
‘pleasure came easy’.

Visiting the baths or thermae

 Visiting a municipal or privately owned baths (thermae) was a social occasion

as well as an ‘opportunity to satisfy not only the wellbeing of the body but
also the sprit’.
 As well as enjoying the benefits of the warm, hot or cold baths, visitors could
practice physical exercise and play sport, indulge in the range of therapies
such as a message and oiling, stroll in the gardens, listen to music and poetry
recitals and read in the library, graffiti suggests that sexual activities may have
taken place in the baths.

Attending the Theatre

 The great theatre had a seating capacity of 5000 for the performance of
comedies, tragedies and farces (a comedy in which the humor depends on
a ridiculous and unlikely situation).
 Small or covered theatres or Odeon for concerts, lectures and poetry
recitals.
 Spacious open foyer where spectators could stroll between performances.
Later, this believed to have become the site of the gladiator’s barracks.
 The horse-shoe shaped auditorium was divided into three horizontal areas
(cavea) with the section nearedt the stage reserved for dignitaries and the
highest section probably occupied by women.
 A coloured awning (velarium) was sometimes stretched across the
auditorium for shade, and perfumed showers of water (sparsiones) were
often sprayed from a tank located at the theatre to cool the audience.
 There were generally no female actors (males played female roles) women
did seem to take part in mimes and pantomimes (singers and musicians, no
words)
 Theatres were certainly noisy. Audiences, particularly at performances of
comic farces and pantomimes, were excitable and often impatient.

Amphitheatre

 This great gladiatorial venue could hold 20,000 people. It was built in the
south-east of the city to take advantage of the embankment that ran along the
back of the fortification and wall and avoid congestion.
 The spectacle began with a procession (pompa) featuring a variety of
musicians and all the participants dressed in ornate garments. The morning
session was often devotes to venationes (animal hunts). The venatores and
bestiarii would fight against wild exotic animal or animals would be pitted
against animal.
 Gladiators warmed up in front of the crowd and they subjected themselves to a
weapon check.
Ancient Wonders : Modern Problems

Important Dates

1995 – Vesuvian National park officially opened

1997 –Pompeii, Herculaneum, Stabiae and the Villa at Oplontis declared World
Heritage sites.
1997 –Italian parliament passes law stating that Pompeii and Herculaneum receive
all money collected from entry fees.
1996 –Excavations at Villa of Papyri.
1998 –Excavation halted at Villa of Papyri.
2004 –Conserved and restored sections of Villa of Papyri open to public.

The Custodian and Management of the Site

 Although Pompeii and Herculaneum are the property of the republic of Italy,
there is a general feeling amoungst visitors that these sites are so important
that they belong to everyone.
 The popularity of Pompeii and Herculaneum has ensured that the Italians
have become the custodian of a global human heritage.

Positive Steps Towards the Protection of the Sites

 The current superintendent of Pompeii is Professor Pietro Giovanni Guzzo.

Professor Guzzo has implemented a number of changes designed to protect and
conserve the fragile nature of the sites.
 One of professor Guzzo’s first action was to declare a moratorium (a halt in
excavation) on any new excavations; only conservation and restoration activities
are allowed.

Other positive steps towards the protection of the site:

 1995 – Vesuvian National park officially opened to protect the natural,

cultural and historical heritage of the area.
 World Monuments Watch contributed $ US600 000 over there years to fund
a general assessment and state of the site and to draft detailed plans for
restoration work. These are now bwing implemented.
 1997 –Pompeii, Herculaneum, Stabiae and the Villa at Oplontis declared
World Heritage sites by UNESCO.
 1997 –Italian parliament passes law stating that Pompeii and Herculaneum
receive all money collected from entry fees.
 2003 –two international philanthropic organizations, the World’s Monuments
Fund and the Kress Foundation, sponsored a meeting that brought together
archaelogists, conservators, archiatects and ot her specialists in Pomepii to
discuss conservation of the site that will be implemented over the next decade.

Problems that affect the site

  Theft (looting of mosaics and other valuables)
 Sun (heat causes cracking)
 Rain (moisture cause decay)
 Animals (pigeons, dogs)
 Plants (weeds wreck frescos and walls)
 Tourists (touching, damaging and stealing the artifacts)

The Anglo – American Project in Pompeii (AAPP) In Pompeii

The Anglo- American Project in Pompeii (AAPP) is an international team

working in inslua VI, on the House of the Surgeon, for example. The entire insula
is being studied as well as conserved.

The investigation process involved:

- removal of soil
- screening for artifacts and ecofacts
- sorting and recording of finds
- drawing of plans and sections
- creating a complete photographic record
- using infrared camera to explore the cesspit
- analysis of shreds

A team of international scholars then analysed and studied the finds. Artefacts and
ecofacts, such as red slip bowls, lamps, pitchers, coins, vessels, animal bones, fish
bones and scales, were identified and analysed.

Re-contextualising Works of Art

 An initiative at Herculaneum is the insertation of copies and casts of original
paintings and sculpture held in Naples Museum at the sites of their original
discoveries. This has greatly enhanced the appearance of buildings such as the
house of the Deer.
The display of Human Remains

The ancient Romans believed that for the soul to rest peacefully in the afterlife, the
bosy had to be given a proper burial. The people that were killed in the eruption were
not buried by their loved ones or community. There are some people who feel that it
is disrespectful to have the victims of the 79AD eruption on display , either on site or
in a museum.

 Is it respectful to display human remains at Pompeii and Herculaneum, or in a

museum ?
 Is it less disrespectful to have the casts of the human victims displayed ?
 Should the skeletons be given ‘proper’ burial ?
 What sort of burial would be considered proper? An ancient Roman ? Italian
Christian ? non-denominational ? which type of ritual should be preformed ?
 if the skeletons were to be buried, where should they be buried? In the ancient
cemeteries where they died ?