Thesis Description of The Operation of The Transfer Current Chopper

NEW SOUTH NALE S
INS TIT UTE 0 F TEe H N 0 LOG Y
SCHOOL OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEEHING
FINAL YEAR PROJECT
NEW CHOPP}~H CONTROL UNIT
STUDENT: Mr. J.A. Dowsett
SUPEHVISOR: Dr. V.S. Ramsden

INTRODUCTION CONTENTS
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION
1-1 OPERATION OF THB TRANS:b"'ER CURItENT CHOPPER 1-1

1-2 M~ EXAMPLE FOR DETERMINING U.F.C. 1-3
1-3 DETERMINING LOSSES 'iVITHIN A CHOPP:ER BY MEANS OP 1-8
CHAPTER TY{O - E(~UATIONS ASSOCIATED WITH THE TRANS FORM Ell

CORE
2-1 OPE~~TION OF THE CHOPPER 2-1

2-2 COIvIIVmTATION PERIOD 2-2
2-3 FLUX CHANGES DURING THE COMMUTATION PERIOD 2-3
2-4 WHAT HAPPENS WHEN THE CORE SATURATES IN THE NEGATIVE
DIRECTION 2-5
2-5 DERIVING EXPRESSIONS FOR t 1 , t 2 , and t3 2-6
2-6 CALCULATION FOR PERIOD t 2 . 2-9
2-7 VARIATION OF t 1 , t 2 , and t , with K AND H 2-14
3
CHAPTER THREE - EQUATIONS ASSOCIATED WTTH THE qAPACITOR

VOLTAGE OVER THE WHOLE PERIOD
3-1 RISE OF CAPACITOR CURRBT\JT FROM ZERO 3-1

3-2 FALl.; OF CAPACITOR CURRENT TO ZERO 3-3
3-3 REVERSAL OF 'CAPACITOR VOLTAGE 3-7
3-4 VOLTAGE AT THE BEGINNING OF THE COMMUTATION PERIOD 3-12
3-5 ALTERNATE METHODS FOR REVERSING THE CAPACI TOR VOIJTAGE 3-13
CRAPTER FOUR - EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
4-1 METHODS IN IMPROVING EFFICIENCY OF THE HING-AROUND

CIRCUIT 4-1
4-2 FALl, OF CAPACITOR CURHENT TO ZEHO 4-9
4-3 RISE O}' CAPACITOR CURRENT FHOM ZERO 4-16
4-4 DISCUSSION OF RESULTS 4-18
CHAPTER FlyE - FINAL DISCU~QION
5-1 DESIGN }EQUATIONS 5-1

5-2 VOLTAGE STABILITY 5-7
5-3 TRANSFER CUHRENT CHOPPER 5-20
5-4 COMPARISON OF CHOPPERS
APPENDIX ONE
I'HOT OGRAPRS OF WAVEFORMS
I tJish to extend to the follovIil1e my th1.:11"1ks for their
co-operation in to Hrite this project.
Dr. '1 .,~. Har:-lSden.
Hrs. Esma H;w..l1cll1
'JDd the 'l'echnical ;Staff of Brickfield lliJ~.

INTRODUCTION
--------
This project concerns itself with the development
of equations which describe the operation of the Transfer
Current Chopper. This chopper was first described in a paper
written by Mr. M. Akamatsu, Mr. M'" Kumano and Mr. A. Kaza.
The description of the operation of this chopper
by Mr. M. Akamatsu and Co. was only basic. Also within
his paper, Mr. M. Akamatsu compared the Transfer Current
Chopper with other choppers. In this comparison Mr.
Akamatsu introduces a new concept, U.F.C. This concept
is a useful concept, and more details about D.F.C. will
be shown in the following chapters.
This project gives detailed information about the
Transfer Current Chopper, describing its operation in
detail. Sufficient information can be gained by reading
this project to enable a person to design a Transfer Current
Chopper. Methods for improving the efficiency of the
chopper above what would be normal are explained.
(Because of the lack of time available it was not
possible to test these methods out fully).
This project is different from most articles which

are written on choppers, in that it gives detailed
equations and information. Mr. M. Akamatau and Co's
article was not sufficient to allow a person to deSign
a Transfer Current Ohopper. The reason for this, being
that Mr. M. Akamatsu and Co. used state equations to
obtain his solution.
By using state equations means that there is a lost
in direct relationships between components and waveforms.
Relationships with occurences can only be gained by using
computers and obtaining curves. Jith this project,
state equations were avoided. By using a ferrite core, a
general assumption can be made, which allowed the chopper
to be modelled by means of lumped components.
Because we are using lumped components in the model,
then it is possible to link occurrences directly with
components. This leads to easy design.
The metho~ used for the development of expressions

for the chopper's current and voltages, consisted of
observing the waveforms and then analysinc: what was
causing these waveforms. This proved difficult at
first, as the core would not saturate in the negative
direction.
Because of the influence of Mr. M. Akamatsu, the
inductance in series with the commutating capacitor was
not large enoup:h. The corrent amount of inductance was
found w~en cha~ter two was written. By having the correct
inductance in series with the capacitor, the chopper's
performance improved greatly. Nowhere in Mr. M. Akamatsu's
article does he give an expression for this inductance.
Throught out the project the I'JlcI'..'Iurray Chopper is
used as a comparison. By using this chopper which is
much simplier in opperation, difficult concepts can be
conveyed.
INTRODUQTION (cont'd)
In all, this project offers some interesting reading,

describing the operation of the Transfer Current Chopper
and the M~Murray Chopper in greater detail and the persons
who developed them.
CHAPTER ONE
In this chapter the operation of the transfer

current chopper is explained. The period of time for
operation is divided into seven intervals. By dividing
the period into small intervals a more detailed
explanation can be obtained.
It is left to chapters 2 and 3 to describe the
operation mathematically and show where the expressions
come from. With design it is important to know how
expressions were obtained. This allows the designer
to estimate whether or not he or she is still working
within the original assumptions.
As well as outlining the operation of the transfer
current T.C. chopper, the three engineers introduce
a new term U.F.C., Utilization Factor of Capacitor
Charge. This constant provides for a way of comparing
the sizes of commutating capacitors needed for different
types of choppers. More will be said about U.F.C. later.
1.1 OPERATION OF THE TRANSFER CURRENT CHOPPER

(see figs. 1.1 to i.6j
INITIAL CONDITIONS
The capacitor has a positive voltage across its
plate which is slightly less than the supply voltage.
Load current Ii is flowing through S.C.R. nCRIt and
N? turns of the transformer. The M.M.F. around the
transformer core is N Ii. This means the core is
saturated in the positive direction. It is assumed
that because of the load inductance the load current
remains constant over the commutation period;S.C.R.
"SCR2" is triggered beginning the commutation process.
PERIOD t1 :
The capacitance current begins to rise and flows
through winding N1 and diode D. The rate of rise being
affected by the inductance L. As the capacitor current
increases, the M.M.F. within the transformer is reduced.
The capacitor current finally increases to a valve where
the M.M.F. within the transformer is zero. During this
period there is a slight reduction in the capacitor
voltage. -
PERIOD t2:
As the windings M.M.F. is zero, the transformer
core is out of saturation. The transformer can be
treated as an ideal transformer. During this period
I1N2 = IcN 1 and since Ii is constant (because of the
loaIT inductance) the capacitor current Ic is constant
also, over this particular period. With constant
capacitor current, the capacitor voltage decreases
at a constant rate. N1 is less than N2 , current flows
through diode D, thus reverse biasing S.C.H. ItCR".
1-1
The capacitor voltage is applied accross the
transformer winding N1 • This vOltage is positive and
forces the flux to alter from ¢m to -¢m. The trans-
former adds the capacitor voltage to the supply voltage
(by means of the winding N ) increasing the output
voltage. This period end§ when the flux reaches -¢m.
PERIOD t3:
The core is now saturated and there is little
change in flux. The N1 winding now forms a short
c.ircui t. Land C form a resonant circuit through
diode D, still reverse biasing S.C.R. "CR". The
capacitor current rises and falls. The capacitor
voltage changes from a positive to negative voltage.
PERIOD t4:
This negative capacitor voltage forces the flux

to change from -¢m to ¢m. Again we have an ideal
transformer, which results in constant capacitor
current. The capacitor voltage decreases at a
constant rate, once more. The current flowing
through diode "D" is reduced to its low value. Just
sufficient to keep the diode ltD" forward biased and
S.C.R. "CR" reversed biased. This process continues
until the flux within the transformer reaches ¢m.
PERIOD t5:
The ideal characteristics of the transformer
disappear. The transformer becomes a short circuit.
S.C.R. nCR" is no longer reversed biased, but rather
it is strongly forward biased by the commutating
capacitor. -
Current flowing through the capacitor flows
directly into the load circuit. Since no current
flows through the diode D, there is a slight reduction
in capacitor current. When the ideal transformer
characteristics of the transformer existed the capacitor
current was slightly greater than the load current.
This extra current was needed for forwarding biasing
diode "D".
The duration of this period is extremely small
and is neglected in chapters 2 and 3.
PERIOD t6:
Constant load current continues flowing through
the S.C.R. nSCR2 11 and the commutating capacitor.
This period continues until the capacitor voltage is
the negative value of the supply voltage.
PERIOD t7:
At this stage the flywheel diode becomes forward
biased and begins to conduct. The capacitor current
is no longer constant, as the condu cting diode forms
a short circuit.
Under these conditions the inductance L, capacitor
C and supply voltage form a resonant circuit. The
capacitor current falls and the magnitude of the
capacitor voltage rises above that of the supnly
voltage. ~hen the capacitor current reaches zero
S.C.R. "SCR2" is switched off. The energy stored
originally in L is dumped in the capacitor.
1-2
ClfC',UT
F\!j \-3
.+
Vs
/ /'"\
/ \
t ,
-.---1 i-~T' .\. ".,
Capacitor Currenl _ '\
FI~ 1-4- \ t
~-------:-t-3--_
t
I~.,.---.--
I ,.I - I
~t~~:-_-___-_-:t ,1~1~c4t~6~_~~1 .!:~---o-I
t -~---..4--------~--- It
5J
__ -
___1 __ >
-Ys
Transformer
-.... " "- ,
\
flux- F'St-6 \
\
o --1--t--lC---
'f./ .
In the next two chapters the operation of the chopper
is examined much more closely. Period t5 is not examined
because it is a short period and assumed to be zero.
u. F. o.
Returning to the idea of U.F.C.
U.F.C. is defined as:
U.F.C. ==
Where I,is the load current (amps)

tcis the commutation period (secs)
C is the commutation capacitor (farads)
A Vc is the net change in the capacitor
voltage over the commutation
period (volts)
From the definition it can be seen that the constant

"U.F.C.lI is the ratio of charge that would have flowed
through the S.C.R. (that is being commutated), divided
by the total charge which flowed through the capacitor.
The maximum value for U.F.O. is 1. This means that
the smallest{<value of capacitance is being used.
1 .2 An example for determining U. F. C.
The chopper used for this example is a McMurray
chopper, which is a close relative of the T.C. chopper.
SCR2.
sCR 1 D
c
Vs
L
LOAD
FLYWHEEL [NOUCl'ANCE
D\ODE
ic
It
FIG 1. 1 IvlcI\TUH.HAY CHOFPEB.

The capacitor C is initially charged to a voltage
Vo. S.C.R.2 i8 triggered, capacitor C and inductor L
form an L-C resonant circuit. The discharge path i8
through the diode and load. 'iilien the capaci tor current
i8 greater than the load current I j , current flows
through the diode D. This means tnat S.C.H.1 is
reversed biased. When the capacitor current falls below
11 S.C.R.1 is no longer reversed biased.
the U.F.C. of this chopper
Before we can determine the U.F.C. of the circuit
we have to obtain an expression for tc (the commutation
period).
the expression for ic(t)
c _---.__ Vo L
+
FIG 1.2 BASIC CIRCUIT
+
Va
5
-L lS
cs
res)
FIG 1.3 LAPLACE TRANSFORM OF THE CIRCUIT
::b. = 1(5) ( 5' + ..L\ h.

5 \ Le) 5
TRANSFORMING INTO TIME DOMAIN (see Page 2-9).
1-4-
for 5 =: ~ (Ol'le. pole of +he e:x.pre ss"t 0 1'1)
JLC
o = _\j~o_ _
2. \.-L x L
JjLC
20 - -j'-I{i
angle when "Lc(wt) =1\ is
~ on5le where the capac\tof current Lc.(t) falls below II is

1'1'- ().)"\! . The.refore the toto\ ans\e over whtc.h Lc.lt) "is
greater than 1\ \5 1\- 2-wt/. The tctQ\ current per\od
"5 21'r j lC sec.ond s) so the time for- the. current to PQSS
throu';Jh an an<Jle of 11' - ?-(»t! ra.dians
is '2.1IJLC (71- 2.wt)

211
tc::; JLC x (1\ - 2. wt./) seconds
tc = 2./LCx (TL - <.uti) sec.e>ncis

2.
: . Sin (w{) = cos( 1l. - 0J\.')

2
= 11.
'Yo C
j L
.". Ie:: 2- jLC C05-

1
{~Jf}
1-5
Expression for the U.F.C. of the chopper:
U.F.C.-==-lltc ) ~ Vc = '2. \j 0 (for most chcp~rs)

C l::l Vc
2IJIc cos-'{lL
2. Vo c
iL}
\/ole
U. EC. ;: .h JL
\Jo c
CO:,-\{ lL !L}
VoJ c
LET Y=-ll fL
VoJc
:. U.F.C. =ycos-ty (please note thQt Akamatsu ~ co. have
define 'the U.F.C. for 1his c.hopper- os 'I C05- 1 Y wntch. \~ wrOf\C\
Z .J
See. ref. \ pO<je 13
le.t " be the mox\um va\ue of Y J for which the. c.hopper \5
des19 n to hond\e. ~1 wou\d be des'H'eab\e to find) for who.t VQ\ue3 of
'A do we ho.ve Q mo'/<.\um. U.F.C .. W'lth Q mQxium \J.f.c.. we have. a
A 0-\ 0-2- 0-3 0-4 0·5 0,6 0'1 o·g 0'9
I\c.o:;\ " 0-(5 0-'2.1 0-38. Q-4f> 0-52. 0-S6 0·56 0·5\ 0-4\ 0
l
1$05-\ '" G-gO 3·65 2·G3 2:\6 \. q \ \·80 \-~O \-q4 2:4(,
TABLE 1-1 U.F.C. Versus A
Th, s chopper- ho.s Q mQx'lmum U. F.e. of 0-56. l'ne. tranSt€r
cu rrent c.hopper- hC\s 0. maXlmum U. r.c. of \ . 1h\s means -that Q
Me Murra.~ chopper wiH t'e9u-l~e. 0.1 led,5 tj a commutotirt<j co pac. \ ror-
J·1q ('/0-56) times lQr~er than the c.cmmu:\:o.tin~ copacltor re.9 u\red
for 1he 1ransfet current chopper
1-6
Using the concept of U.F.C. for the design of a
McMu~ray Chopper.
eh cose. A. -::. 0-6 (smCl\l c:.opa.c.\tQ'(\c.e. ~ \f\ductonc.e needed')
Y con r-O{\5e be:\"wee.'t\. 0 arLd o· 6
ihevo\ue for c) fo\ UFC=\
C :! 10 tc
'2. Yo
::: ,5)¢.40 x \0 .... 6
'2.. x 30
Now the capac\tor needed for the Me. Murray Choppe.r- \5
the loci udonce \lQ~\J€. 0-6 = k)

$0
L
C
L ::: (,5 -82> }l H
1-7
The concept of U.F.C. can make the design of the
McMurray and other choppers an easy matter. Also the
concept of U. F. C. and A can be used in comparing the
losses within a chopper.
1.3 DETERMINING LOSSES #ITHIN A CHOPPER BY MEANS

OF i\
After the capacitor current has fallen below the

load current I j , the capacitor voltage continues
decreasing. Tnis period is the same as for period
t in;~the T.C. chopper. In section 3.2 (Page 3-3)
a~ equation is developed which gives the final capacitor
voltage.
Yc - Vs + IJ~
Some choppers reduce this capacitor voltage before
the next commutation process.
R SCR2 SCR I
+
Vs
L
C
flywhee\ Load
diode
FIG.1.4 MODI,FlED McMURRAY CHOPPER
This reduction of capacitor vOltage is achieved

by the capacitor discharging through resistor R. The
capaci tor vol tage will reduce d0w'nto the supply
voltage. The value of R is such that the circuit
formed by C, Land R is critically dampened.
Hence R =2~
The capacitor voltage is then reversed, ready
for the next commutation. The process of voltage
reversal is assumed to be lossless (makes the maths
easier). It is quite easy to express the losses
of a chopper in terms of ?\
1-8
Maximum losses due to resistor R occur when maximum
load current is being chopped. For all loss calculations,
the load current is the maximum current the chopper can
handle.
Capacitor voltage when S.C.R. "SCR2 rt switches off.
~
Vs
=\ +1&JL
Vs C
- ,+A
The capacitor voltage after decay is:
Vc.::: Ys
Vc :::;
Ys
Energy lossed in the resistor is:
and C can be written in terms of
C :: Ie) tc x 1
2. Ys A ccs-, A
The energy loss is:
x Vs 10 tc
4-
How does the losses within the commutation period
vary as a function of
As ,,-) 0 the value of A?. +2A --?> }'213

"CQS-t"
1-9
The following table lITable 1-2" allows us to see how
A (a design parameter) affects the full load losses of
the chopper.
A 0 O' j 0-2. 0-3 0-4- 0·5 0-6 0-7 0-8 0·'1

~ +2;\ f· 273 1·428 \-606 \.g, 7 2-070 2· 381 2'804 3'395 t 35l G~430
Acos-t"
TABLE 1-2 FULL LOAD LOSSES VERSUS J\
In~the previous design example A was chosen to

be equal to 0.6
fo~ A=0-6 ~ t 2.b ~ 2. .gO'\-

Acos-fA
2·BO+ )C \Is 10 t c
4-
;:! 2·804 X 30.x 1to ~ 40)\ \0- 6

4
::; 1·2.E>'2.x to-2. joules Fef'
commutat'ton
This means that if the chopper was operating at
500 pulses per second, an average of 6.31 watts would
be dissipated in the resistor. With a continuous load
current of 15 amps a resistance of 0.028 ohms is needed
to dissipate 6.31 watts.
1-10
EQUATIONS COVERING THE OPERATION
OF THE TRANSFER CURRENT CHOPPER
>
WHILE THE CAPACITOR CURRENT ic ~ (1 + N)
The equations in this chapter describe the operation

of the chopper only when the capacitor current is greater
than 11(1 + N}. During this period S.C.R. "CR" is
reversed biased.
There is one main assumption made throughout this
chapter, and this is the magnetic characteristics of the
core. Without simplifying the characteristics of the
transformer core these equations would become too complex
to be of any use for design purposes. The magnetic
properties of the core are assumed to be that as shown
in Fig. 2. 1 •
8
Bs
-----------------r------________~H
-Bs
Fig. 2.1 Magpetic Property of Idealized Transformer
When the flux density within the transformer is

greater than Bs and less than - Bs, the relative perm-
eability is unity and there is no magnetic coupling
between the coils.
Nhen the flux density isbetween Bs and - Bs the
transformer is treated as an ideal transformer. This
means that there is no magnetizing current and flux
density only changes because of voltage.
2.1 OPERA.TION OF THE CHOPPER
Initially thyristor nCRtt is supplying current to

an ,inductive load. This current flows through S.C.R.
"CR" and N? turns of the transformer. The M.M.F. around
the core is N2Io and hence the core is saturated in
the positive direction.
2-1
---
Yeo -~.. __
~C ... ----~:-
~-\jCO
Vc.o
2· 3 Waveforo'ts
Fig . d the.
onJU\\ c\rCUIT
,
vVhen S. C.R. "SCR2" is triggered, the capacitor
current rises quickly. The capacitor current ic
continues increasing until N Io = N 1 ic. With the
increasing capacitor current 2 there 1S little change in
the transformer's flux density.
For the capacitor current to increase further
than Io(N 2 /N 1 ) there has to be a large change in the
flux dens1ty of the transformer. Therefore for a
period of time the capacitor current remains constant
and there is zero M.M.F. within the transformer.
vfuile the flux within the transformer is altering
from + ¢m to a minimum of ¢m, where ¢m = Bs x A, (A is
the cross sectional area of the core).
L~ = JoN2-
N,
., LR =' IoN'l.. - 10
N.
n - Nt-Nt
N,
.
Lc = Io(ltn)
and since the load is inductive can assume that 10 is

constant over the commutation period.
Since 10 = constant
then ic = constant over this period.
2.2 COMMUTATION PERIOD
The capacitor has a constant current flowing

through it of 10(1 + n), then the period for the capacitor
voltage to change from Vco to -Vco is easily determined.
2-2
c == 3c-
Vc(t)
d\fc(t) = , dg/,
dt edt
d\fc(t) :;; -l \.C
C
\IC(t) =: -lc t. + K.
c
Vlhen t ~0 lfc It} =Veo
Vclt) = Veo - Lc t
C
For tfc.(t) = -Veo (end of commutation).
t lc - ZVCO
c
t ::. 2.Vco
..
C
Lc.
T = 2 YcoC) which is the period

for commutation
1o(ntl
2.3 FLUX CHANGES DURING COMMUTATION PERIOD
Now that we know the period for the commutation

process, the next step would be to develop equations
concerning the flux within the transformer.
Looking at fig. 2.3, we can see that the flux
changes from ¢mto some valve. The peak change of
flux occurs half way through the period. It would
be desirable to determine what change of flux occurs.
This knowledge will allow us to choose the right
transformer for the chopper.
2-3
C d '\fc(t) = -\.1 C
two basic
equations dt
- N d0 I = Vc (t)
dt
- NI d2.0' =- d 1fc.(t) =- -L c
2
dt dt C
i •
9~¢ == "L.c.
d t.'1 N:c
~ - -Lc. t t K.
dt NtC
-N,de) ::::: Veo for t =-.0
dt
d0 ::: Let -Yeo
dt N.C -Nt -
¢ 0t: +
==
-2N!C - -Ycot
Lc
N,
K2..
for t:::.O ¢-:.¢m
¢ =. i,e. t2. - Ycat. + ¢m

lNfC N.
= To(n+ l) t2. -Ycot T {Om

2.N\C. Nl
when t == c Veo
IoCntl)
11¢ ~ Io(ntl) X C2. vto -Veo C Veo
oj
2N,C It (ntt)2. N\ Toll Tn)

2.. 2.-
- Yeo C _ YcoC
2.N, To(lt n) NI1o{t+n)
1.
~¢ :::. -Vco C
2.N,Io(\t n )
2..
Change in ~B :::::!
-VeaL
flux density 2. N. A ToC' Tn)
2-4
Where A is the cross sectional area of the magnetic
core of the transformer.
To stop the core from saturating in the negative
direction.
~B L 2(5) where 85 _ ~m
.:.-
A
2.4 WHAT HAPPENS WHEN THE CORE SATURATES IN THE

NEGATIVE DIRECTION
'J~-C- - - - -
II B = - (neglecting minus sign)
2N(AIo(ltn)
Looking at this equation, we see by increasing

the voltage, change in flux density will increase.
While decreasing the current 10 increases ~ B.
FOR THE FOLLOWING PAGES OF MATHEMATICS IT IS BETTER
TO DEAL WITH PER UNIT VALUES.
Assume that we have a value of Vo and 10 which
cause the core to reach - ¢m during the commutation
period, although there exists many valves of Vo and
10 which will cause B = 2Bs
The two values are 10 and Vo, and from these we
will define all our other values.
T, == KTo qnd
Using these quantities can define others
To = 2Vco C
Io(nt l)
~ = H To
K
It will take a certain time for the flux to go from

¢m to -¢m, and also from -¢m to ¢m.
2-5
When the transformer reaches -¢m the transformer's
flux no longer has control over the capacitor's voltage.
If it was not for the leakage inductance within the
transformer, the transformer would be a short circuit.
The leakage inductance and the commutating capacitor
forma resonant L-C circuit through diode "D" and S.C.H.
"SCH2" •
Looking at fig. 2.4, we see that the time for the
core to alter from ¢m to -¢m is "t1". The period for
which the core is saturated is "t2" and the period for
the flux to go from -¢m to ¢m is "t3".
2.5 DERIVING EXPRESSIONS FOR~ t2L and t3
To make the initial study simplier, we will assume

that H = 1 and find expressions for t1, t2, and t3 in
terms of K.
The following method for determining these three
periods may appear long but it's the easiest method.
New Expression for flux.
Assume that the core does not saturate in the
negative direction. See Fig. 2.5
At the first origin:
for t= Ti lf1 = ~m
_ .) rJ. +0p
2..
(})m+0p = IT?·
4
..
Shifting the
origin
(r/Jt¢r) -
t for when Cf; = - ¢m
2-6
- ,.... -1-
'-'
I currEnt '3rea1er l'nOr. 10 H::I K "l'

curt-ert <2::rJU\ to 10 H::I K:::.I
',:~ '-flm ,t -lcurrent less than 10 H.:\ K ~ I
3
--;----'~- ~~.-
l . . t<11
Fig 2.-4- VonatlOn of flux

wIth load current
H=-I
F\3 2,-5 WO'leform for derl'l\n<j an

e.xpresSION for f\ ux .
Ip -1-£
:
;1
.1
~
--, \ - - I, (t\'t\)
I
O~----~------~--------~~~
..L
i
, / l,.....r----t.·-z-~----'·"'"il \
I '\
/
/ '
\
\
\
.
I
I
o_L_- ---,...1:;
Resoflonr ca~acltQf' curn~n-t Re.sonant o:Jpc\cli.:;:r Vo\ tG:~c.
Flg.1..-G Curn:nt and Vo\t('\fjC '"Yc,'id,xms
., durll\~ r-csoncmtancc
1.1 -6- } 1L2=. t 2 -~t t T?-
II +G 4 4-
o == 1:- -lit + T\1.{ 2& 1

Roots of this equation are: 4 G-t 1 5
~ 1i
2
{f ~jl. - ~
\ tG
LJ
=.Tl{ft ~}
2 j I+(;
From this equation we can see that the periods are equal.
t 1+ t3 = 2.t, = t {I ±j: ~ ~ }
From Page 2-5 Ll B = 1;42 2Bs
K
:. for H=) 6 ¢ =Qrj;rn

k
f/Jmt0p .:. t
20m K
I+~ =-2
f/Jm. K
~ - ~ -1 = -G-
l
¢K K
G =- K ¢ T\.:. To
2-K K
2-7
Substituting in
Expression for t1 and t3 has been o~tained for

constant voltage.
Note that this equation doesnot exist for K ':?,1\
when K = 1 tltt3:: To
This is easily shown
If R .is small
then R2 is
very small.
then for small R.
then J1=K ~ C- ~) for small K.
2-8
2.6 CALCULATION FOR PERIOD t2
The capacitator and leakage inductance, neglecting

the vOltage drops across the diode "Dff and S.C.R. "SCR2"
form a L-C series resonant circuit with zero input.
Also the resistance of the circuit is assumed to be
zero.
Solving the circuit equations using Laplace trans-
forms:
-'-
CS
T .. Ies)
Initially the capacitor has a voltage E and the

leakage inductance has a current li(n + 1) following
through it.
Expression for i(t):
£ + LIlnt\) = (_I + L5) I(s)

S cs
I (5) =f + LI$n+l)
LS +....L
cs
E + 5 LI , ( n t ,)
L(SZ +tc)
Standard Transform used is:
Roots of the denominator are:
I(s) = E +- 5 L I\(nt$
L(S+j-L)(S-j-L)
2-9 ~LC 'fCC
1(5) 0*
• f
5- djLc
Finding D using partial fractions:
D := t: +51$0+$ where 5 =-ti-

(5+ jr2c)L ftC
= f t d L 1$(\+1) X JLC
2 >< Jj~C xL
• 4. 2. D = -dEW + r,(O+I)
L
- I.(ntq -j E~
So the angle D~ is between zero and -90 0
The current through the inductor and capacitor

rises from I i to a peak value of:
The current then falls back to its original value

ofI,(N+1).
What happens with the Capacitor voltage:
EXPRESSION FOR Vc(t)
Capacitator voltag~ E - 1(s)

5 cs
2-10
Qnd 1(5} = Et SLl\(n+$
(S2+Tc)L
Vc(S) - E - E +SLI,(n+Q
S (52-tCc) LCS
;::; LCES2.-E-tE-SLI$n-t-Y
SLC (S2+-tc)
:;: .LeE 52 - S L 1. \ (\ t t)
+
SLC (52. tc)
= LeE S2 - SLIt C(\ t $

5 LC CS2.t &c )
Roots of the expression are
For S = 0 we have
LC E 52 - SL l$nti) ~ 0
lC.(S2 t tc )
J-
For S=jJCC we have
en t$
\..we E2. - SL It
SLC (:; t JJEc)
1)~ LIES BETWEEN 0 and 90°
** Pl?ase note D* does not mean the conjugate of D but

rather to disassociate it from D which is associated
with the current expression.
2-11
The capacitor vOltage alters from E volts to zero,
then the voltage will decrease to -E
[5+ = tCln-1pt*l) ~}
So the current and vOltage waveforms will look
like those shown in Fig. 2.6.
Getting back to the original problem, Nhat is t2.
For the capacitor current to rise from Ii to Ip and then
back to Ii, the current must through an angle of 2D2\-
2D4-
Expressing t2 in terms of To, Vo, 10 and K.

E is the voltage on the capacitor at the end of period
t1.
Voltage across the capacitor when the core is not
saturated:
Is given by '"\felt> :: Veo -Klo(\-tn)t

c
\0 :::: 2Vco( 2Vco
To(lt n) To
E - Veo - k 2 Vcot\
To
From the expression on page 2-8
2-12
Substituting in for t1.
E = Yo{ \ - ~ 1K(I - JI=K)}

0
=VO[I -\ t )I-K}
~VoR
and I, == K 10
Substituting in
t2., - Z fLCtan-'{vco JEK

It(ntl)
rc}
"L
To be exact
Taking the constant 2 JLC and rearranging it
c =- To To (n +1)
2VcQ
2C~ =- To ~V~+I) 2 If
= To 10(0+1) JC L
Yeo
hence t2.:::; To 10 (f\ + \) rr. ion'S . VCI.l rc J I-$ }

\leo JE L10(f\1-$ J-C K
\ettinq Q ::: \leo rc

J IO(Yltt) JT
2-13
It is possible by choosing Q = 3.2 to have t1 + t2 + t3
To (within 2%) for K <.= \
(See Appendix ':1')
2.7 VARIATION OF t~~ and t3 vVITH K AND H
T, = To)( H II B := HZ 2Bs
K K
We will have saturation of the core when
t A...
~ - 2. L:\'2.
r
¢m K
k:= 2H'2.-K - (
(/)m l-< G
. ., G =- \.(
-~-
2.H2- K
\ -G
\ tG
..
o
f
=1 0
: tl - jH'-H-:..K 1
- T; {H -JH'-~K}
2-14
Determining T3
What is the expression for E?
Capaci tor voltage \Jc It) = V, - It (I t-n) t

C
'Veet) = H Veo - KrOll -to) t

c
ro(n+ ) To =- Vco
2.C
'
E = Veol H -H t jH'L-t<. }
:: Veo{ jHl -K}

From page 2-13 we have:
2. ICC ton-\ { E
1\(\+0)
;C} L
2 jLC tan-\ { Veo J H2-\< }

I()(n4l) \(
A\so h :: ~ ton-I { G. JH~-K1
All these equations hold as long as H2- d K which

is the condition needed for saturation,
2-15
The total time for commutation period is:
2-16
EQUATIONS COVERING THE OPERATION
OF THE TRANSFER CURRENT CHOPPER
OUTSIDE THE COMMUTATION PERIOD
This chapter concerns itself with the capacitor

voltages and currents outside the period which SCR
"CRn is reversed biased. The voltage on the capacitor
varies between the time when SCR "CR" is switched off,
and the time when the capacitor is called upon to
switch off S.C.H. nCR" again.
This period of time is divided into three sections:-
"RISE OF CAPACITOR CURRENT FROM ZERO"
"FALL OF CAPACITOR CURRENT TO ZERO"
"REVERSAL OF CAPACITOR VOLTAGEu.
The understanding of these three stages is important
to the whole understanding of the workings of the chopper.
3.1 RISE OF CAPACITOR CURRENT FROM ZEHO
In the previous chapter it was stated that the

capacitor current rose quickly when S.C.R. t1SCR2 11 is
triggered. The current does rise quickly but at a
finite rate. As the capacitor current increases to
1 (1 + N), there is a reduction in the capacitor's
1
voltage.
'vihen S.C.R. "SCR2" is triggered we have a path
through S. C.R. "SCR2 1f , leakage inductance ilLU and diode
ltD".
This circuit can be reduced to the following:

.Lc
+
E c L We have stored
energy in the capacitor
and no stored energy in
the inductor.
Fig 3.1 BASIC CIRCUIT FOR THE RISE OF CAPACITOR CURRENT
Without using laplace transformers, the capacitor

current and voltage can be easily written. The capacitor
voltage will reduce until the capacitor current reaches
I j (1 + N). The capacitor is the voltage at which
chapter 2 takes over.
~fuat we need to know is the capacitor voltage at
this time and how long does it take to reach this voltage.
3-1
Expressions for capacitor current and voltage:-
'\fc. (l)= EC05(wt)

Lelt) =- E~ SH\(wt)
w = \
JLC
This mode of operation finishes when:-
SJn(wt}:: 1, (\ t n) jL:
E C
wt! = sln~l{ Il~+n)j~ }

Capacitor voltage at this time
E' :::. E COS(w'l/)
This expression can be further reduced by considering

the following:-
LETs,n¢=O
3-2
cos¢ =)1 -;- D'2.
and sInce EI = E caSe wt')
Looking at this expression, we see, as the current

to be chopped increases the voltage at the beginning
of the commutation process decreases.
With this voltage the commutation process begins
and with little losses within the commutating circuit
the capacitor voltage at the end of commutating is -E'.
3.2 FALL OF CAPACITOR CURRENT TO ZERO

( see Fig. 3.2)
Now a second process occurs (we will assume that

the end of commutation the magnitude of the capacitor
voltage is less than the supply voltage) during this
section, the capacitor. current falls from 1 (1 + N) t9
zero. When the capacltor current falls to 1 zero S.C.H.
"SCR2" is placed in its off state. The question is:
What is the capacitor voltage when the S.C.R. "SCR2"
is switched off?
As the core goes back into positive saturation
the ideal transformer characteristics of the transformer
disappear. The diode current ir goes to zero, and the
transformer can be treated as if it is not there.
3-3
So the circuit may be redrawn as follows:-
+
Vs
Diode.
o
Fig. 3.3 HOd THE CIRCUIT WILL LOOK 'dHEN THE CORE
OF THE TRANSFORMER GOES INTO POSITIVE
SATURATION.
The valve for ic(t) when the core has returned

to positive saturation is Ii. The reason for this is
that the flywheel diode is reversed biased and no current
flows through it. This means that the load current
Ii is following through S.C.R. "SCR2" , capacitor "c"
and inductance "L"
Current ic(t) remains constant and hence the voltage
across inductance ilL" is zero. As the capacitor ncn still
has constant current following through it, its voltage
increases linearly. This situation keeps going until
the capacitor voltage is equal to, or slightly greater
than the supply voltage Vs.
When the capacitor voltage is equal to, or slightly
greater than the supply voltage Vs, the flywheel diode
is forward biased. We have no longer constant current.
The current ic(t) will begin to decrease. It can assumed
that the diode voltage is zero and the circuit is further
reduced to the following:-
L
+
SCR 2.
Vs
+
c 'Vc It)
Fig. 3.4 REDUCE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT FOR ~VHEN

Vc(t) IS GREATER THAN Vs
3-4
Transforming this circuit into laplace transforms
assuming zero forward voltage drop across the diode.
+
'ti.
- s + Vs
5
Fig. 3.5 LAPLACE TRANSFORM OF EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
Current expression:~
LI\ ::;- I(S) {LS + ~s,}

== 1(5) I}L
{S2. t LCs
I (5) - I,
(S2.t ft)
This can be directly transformed into:
What is happening to the capacitor voltage:
Vc(s) -= 1(5) + Vs
cs -S
3-5
Transforming this back into the time domain:-
for 5=0 VS/L =- Vs

\iL-
. ~ _ VsC + Y2-
for 5=- t j D ~ J JCC LC L
jLf 4xc)(.li
jL.C fCC
:: <l I. xL
ZJLC
Z0 Iff l:.qOo:=
, • UJe have Iff. c0s(oot-qOO)

Ulh\cn is Ifc. Sinewt)
(omb'lnlf\S the two So\utlons WQ
hove
\fctt)::': Vs T rIff. sin(wt)
¢ for the <urr-ent) tdo\:)"!1 COS (lUt)
s. c~ R~ \\ SC R'- \\ sw\+c.hes or F when the. capa.c't tcr
curren t t c. ('\) 30es to 3e.ro
that \5 UJhen Iccos(wt),:l 0
wt ::: 1</2
t == ¥P
The capacItor voltase at this time lS
Vs T ll~
3-6
So as the load current 111 1 " increases so does the
capacitor final voltage increase. Remember that this
equation holds for the capacitor voltage Et is less
than the supply voltage Vs.
V'Ie still have one more voltage change in the
capacitorts voltage.
3.3 REVERSAL OF CAPACITOR VOLTAGE
At the end of the commutation period the capacitor

is at the reversed vOltage for what it should be for the
next commutation process. One technique that can be
used for reversing the voltage, is using a L.O. circuit.
The problem with this method is although the voltage
is reversed, the magnitude of the volt~ge is reduced
due to losses and the S.C.R.forward voltage drop.
A problem with this circuit is obtaining a model
for the S.C.R. over the period. The model has to be
simple so as to easily fit into the laplace transform.
The model chosen for the SCR is simply just a constant
voltage source termed HVSCR".
rrY'Ym
I L
I
J
c E SCR 3
FIG 3.6
T
BASIC REVERSAL CIRCUIT
mn-n
<1..-1
~9
LS
CST ~
+C2 YSsCR
FIG 3.7 LAPLACE TRANSFORM OF THE CIRCUIT
The expression for this circuit are not obtained

fully but the full expression is not needed. The only
real information from this circuit we want is how long
does it take to complete the reversal of the capacitor
voltage, and what is the voltage of the capacitor at
the end of this period.
Obtaining an expression for ic(t) as this will
tell us when the S.C.R. will switch off.
3-7
v
5
c - YScf{ -= 1(5) { LS
5
+ R. t}
c5
Vc - VSCR =- res) {S2 + sRl- + _,_} L L-C
I(s) = Vc -v SCR
( 52. tSR + _, )L
L LC
Roots of this
expression are
= =..fL
2.L -
+-j\
J LC
-~
4L1..
tOr- 5 ~ - R t ·
2L J
Jl LC
- R'l.
4 r.:-
D = Vc-VscR
2.'( Ij_' -~} L
() ~ LC 4l!-
_ VC - V scR
2JJ!:.-
c
R2
4
0
20 -- Vc - V,CR \ -90
J..h - R2.1-
C
• Current expression is:-
• •
teCt) = Vc - VSCf!.
jt. -RZ-
eX9 (-R.2Lt) Sine ..L -
LC
~ x t)
4~
c 4'"
Now that we have an expression for the capacitor
current we see that the S.C.R. will switch off when
ic(t) = 0
:.t= ~====---
'lr
jtc -4R(,.
The voltage expression for the capacitor is:-
Yc(s) :=. Vc res)

3-8
5 cs
_- ~ Vc (s) = Vc - Vc - 'ISCR
5 CL5 (5'2..+ SR + _'_)
L LC,
= Vee CL52.tRCS+I)-Vc fYscR

CLS (;,Zt SR t ~)
L LC
VC ( S'-CL +Res) t VSCR.
for 5 =0 we have Vscr
for S = -.R t- i )...L - R2.

2L cJ L..C 4~
Best to determine { S'2.CL + SRC}
S'l.CL:: CL { R?. - (_' -E-) - 2.jR I - R2. 1

4~ LC 4L'l. 2l IT W f
SRC. = -R 2 c + fKjj~- ~
2.L LC 4L2.
.. S2CL + SRC = -I
For the denominator we have:
CL {-Ji..
2.L
+t f
cd
--L -
LC 41:
R. 2. } 2J" x).l. -~
4l!-
LC
= 2.CL{.::.L
CL
R~
+4~ - J' Jl.j~
tL LC
- ..B:.}
4~
3-9
2D = VSCR. -Vc
{-J +,R'2.C -J' fK:J_l -~}
4L '2. LC 4'-=
However, this is not in the correct form yet,
Multiplying top and bottom by:
For the denominator
R4C;tl -2R2.c t R~C - R4 C'-

16 t.2- 4L 4L '6 ~
2D ;; (VSCR- YC){-I + j R
2./fj
c
t-
{
R2.C :
4L
J
(YC-VSCR.){I-j R
4J~_B::
c. 4-
1
The voltage across the capacitor when SCR is
Vc(O) = Vc
The real part of D is 1
3-10
at t = 0 we have:
11c(O) = Vc-VscRtVSCR
Obtaining an expression for capacitor voltage when

wt =~. Expression for 2D in the time domain is:
When u:;t= 0 we have 12.D}

COS(ct4- D) which is
the real part of 2D. When wt ':. 11 we have
COS(AtB) :; coSAcosB . . s\nAs\nB

COS('t( -tlf..P) :,:,coS(4D) X-\
For Ul t .. 11' again we have negative real part of

2D •
• " • Capaci tor voltage = (VSC.R- V~ exp ( - R1l') -t VSCR

2L (>.:)
Substituting for ~
. . Capacitor voltage is
3-11
If there is no resistance within the capacitor,
voltage would be reduced by 2Vscr volts.
The last formula can be expressed in the form:
Vf = Yc k - VSCfl(' t K)
where: K:::: exp (-fl' j 4L - R'2.(
R2( )
3.4 VOLTAGE AT THE BEGINNING OF THE COMMUTATION PERIOD
From the last three sections we have seen that the

capacitor voltage varies considerably outside the period
where S.C.R. "CR" is reversed biased.
The most important capacitor voltage is the voltage
E'. That is the voltage on the capacitor when the
capacitor current through S.C.R. "SCR2" has reached
1 1 (1 + N) = E' is the same voltage as Vi denotes and
from Chapter 2 we can see the importance of knowing how
E', Vi will vary with load current.
Obtaining an expression for E',V
For section 3.2 the voltage on the capacitor when
S. C.R. nSCR2" switches off.
E= Vs + IJf-
The capacitor has to hold the capacitor voltage
between the commutation periods. The dielectric of
the capacitor has a finite resistance and hence there
is some leakage. The leakage of the capacitor voltage
can be expressed as a constant "m".
Therefore voltage at beginning of voltage reversal is:
m is loss of capacitor vOltage between

commutating periods.
Before S.C.R. "CRIt is commutated capacitor "C" has
its voltage reversed.
Voltage after reversal.
KmVs +I,Km )z - (ItK)VSLR
3-12
S.C.R. "SCR2" is triggered, the capacitor current
rises and the inductor current falls. The capacitor
vOltage Et when the capacitor current is 11(1 + N) is
given by:
Capacitor Voltage at the beginning of commutation

is:
From the above expression it can be seen that E'

is a function of load current Ii.
3.5 ALTEill~ATE METHODS FOR REVERSING THE CAPACITOR VOLTAGE
From the last sections it has been seen that the

voltage Et,V 1 is a function of load current. It may be
desirable for number of reasons to have different methods
for reversing the voltage on the capacitor.
One disadvantage of the L-C circuit and separate
S.C.R. is if the main commutating circuit falls to
commutates S.C.R. "CR" , the capacitor voltage goes to
zero. With the capacitor voltage at zero no further
commutation can take place and hence a controlled short
circuit.
One way to make sure this does not happen is to have
the capacitor Charge up to the supply voltage. The
method for doing this is shown in Fig.3.
o CR
c
SCR 3
FIG. 38 ALTERNATE METHOD OF REVERSING THE CAPACITOR VOLTAGE
3-13
s. C.R. If SCR3" is triggered. Current will flow,
altering the capacitor voltage to the right polarity.
The capacitor vOltage will finally be the supply
voltage. If the capacitor fails to commutate S.C.R.
"CR u , the capacitor voltage will not remain at zero
volts and further attempts at commutation can be
tried.
There are disadvantages with this system. During
short circuit conditions the supply voltage may fall.
This means that the capacitor may fall and with highe:r
currents commutation becomes increasingly difficult.
Also there is the threat of a possible short circuit
through S. C.R. "SCR2 f1 and S. C.R. "SCR3" occurinr.
These two problems can be overcome by providing
a separate power supply.
SCR2
c SCR 3 Seperate O.C. Supply
FIG. 3.9 ALTERNATE METHOD OF CAPACITOR VOLTAGE

REV j1JRSAJ.l •
Although this method has the disadvantage of having

to provide a second power supply, it has the advantage,
that if the supply voltage has a reasonable source
impedance, the commutating capacitor will have the full
voltage for commutatiYlg. Also by means of sensing
circuits the voltage on the commutating capacitor can
be increased to cope with the higher currents.
The main disadvantage of this system is its low
efficiency. This circuit loss can be lessly calculated.
For the following pages the loss of this circuit is
determined.
The above circuit can be reduced to the following:
+
E E
+
FIG. 3.10 REDUCED EQUIVALENT OF THE CIRCUIT
3-14
.l R
cs
E
+s
E +
5
FIG. 3.11 LAPLACE TRANSFORM OF THE CIRCUIT
Expression for Ic(t):
2E
S
2 SE:: ~C~ ; 1) 1(5)

1(5) = '2 EC
Rest)
2E
ResT ~c)
for 5 =-
-\ -
RC
:. \-c (t ) :: '2. E e::x: p ( - t \
R ,(RC-)
f\no\ CapClC\toi \[o\ta~e \5 £

Power O'1\to the s~&tem is ~i'ien 'o~
JE t1
00 00
x lc(t)d.t = Lc.(t) d:t

o 0
Lc (t)dt J e:cp(.:.L)d.t
00 00
1 o
=
0
2E
R RC
3-15
= ~E[-RCexp(R\)J~
- 2~ tRcexpC-oo) + RCexp(o)}
- 2E RC
R
- 2EC
OQ
:. EJLC(t) dt - 2 El( or (Ktl) E'2.(

o
Where KE is the initial capacitor voltage.
Comparing this technique with the ring-around
(L-O method) and this present method. For the example
assume that the capacitor voltage at the end of commutation
is 1.1E.
Losses with separate D.C. supply.
With the ring-around circuit say the capacitor

voltage at the end of reversal is O.9E.
Energy loss - {(l.1)2 - (Q.qy-}X E~C
:: 0·40 E2 C
2.
3-16
The separate D.C. supply has more than 10 times
the losses of the ring-around system. Normally the
ring-around circuit would be needed during normal conditions
and under short-circuit conditions a separate power
supply would be used to maintain the capacitor voltage,
if desired.
3-17
CHAPTER 4
TIXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
In this chapter experimental evidence is presented

to show that the equations developed in Chapter 2 and 3
are correct. Also a discussion on how to optimumized
the ring-around circuit is carried out.
REVERSAL OF CAPACITOR VOLTAGE
Quite a large amount of work could be done on this

section of the chopper alone. However this reversed-
voltage section was not designed but rather modelled.
To design thi~4section, detailed information about small
inductors (10 henrys) has to be obtained. This
information was not obtained. So the inductor used was
chosen on a trial and error basiS. Out of the coils
tried the one used gave the highest efficiency.
R is the lumped
resistance of
c capacitor C and
inductor L.
FIG. 4.1 BASIC CIRCUIT OF THE RING-AROUND
From the above circuit an equation relating initial

capacitor voltage and final capacitor voltage was
developed. And from this equation we can see how to choose
the components, in order to improve efficiency.
Vf =. Vc K - VSCR ( \ +\\)
where Vc = initial voltage

Vf = final voltage (after reversal)
4. 1
ly1ETHODS IN IMPHOVING EFFICIENCY:
~imply we want K to approach unity. VSCR would
depend upon the type of S.C.R. and the individual S.C.R.
so to reduce VSCR may be a fruitless search. As the
chopper operating voltage increases the term VSCR(1 + K)
will become less important. The value of K plays an
important role at high voltages while at low voltages
the value of VSCR becomes important.
Lets look at K more closely and see how to force
K to unity. The simpliest way is to make R=O, but in
every circuit there is some resistance. The connecting
leads could be large and short. We could increase Land
decrease C, so as to increase K. The value for the
capacitance C is fixed by other conditions within the
chopper. So the alternative is to increase L.
4-1
As the inductance is increased, the series resistance
within the inductor is also increased. The resistance of
the inductor is basically proportional to the number of
turns per unit length and the inductance is proportional
to the square of the number of turns per unit length.
looking at the expression
it may be written as
nQ. K~ C
80 the expression for K is independant of the number

of turns per unit length (on the inductor) but rather
dependant upon the configuration of the inductor (K.?,K 1 ).
But, in trying to maximize K, we have to remember tfiat
the inductance has not all the resistance. The capacitor
also has some series resistance tfRc tl •
It is rather difficult to find a value for nn" such

that 8 is at a minimum. But looking at the expression
we can see some ways to decrease 8.
By making K~ smaller, 8 will also become smaller.

This is achieved by increasing the diameter of the wire
used to wind the inductor. This decreases the resistance
of the inductance.
Decreasing the number of turns has an effect, and
depending on the coil configuration it will have two
different effec~s2 If the coil is lossy then by decreasing
n we decrease n K2 th~s2neducing 8. But if the ~nductors
is not a lossy cOlI n K < Rc then by reducing n , the
denominator is reduced ~nd hence S will increase. If
S increases then K decreases.
From experienced gain in this project values for
K greater than 0.9 prove difficult to obtain. dhile
values ranging of K from 0.8 to 0.9 proved reasonably
easy to obtain. For high values of K the magnitude of
the inductor is important and also the method for winding
is important.
4-2
An inductance of 405.2 uH was chosen for the
ring-a-round circuit. The coil had previously been
wound and consisted of a large diameter wire. It was
felt that this inductor would be satisfactory.
The 405.2 uH inductor had a G of 15 at 1 Hilohertz,
while the capacitor had a value of 10.3 uf and a D of
0.011 at 1 kilohertz.
Determining the resistance within the R-L-C loop
The resistance of the inductor at 1 Kilohertz is:
405x\O-6 XL11 x \0 3 - 2·54-5..0...
Q - wL
F\L
• • '2.,54-'5 - 0·\1 SL
\5
The acceptance of the capacitor at 1 Kilohertz is:
6· 4-1 x. \0- 2.SL
, . Rc - o 0'0\1 - O·17SL
we 6'4-72.)( \0- 2
Adding the two resistances together we have R= 0.34

Any improvement gain by lowering of the inductance
resistance would be overshadowed by the high value of Rc.
Value for K is:
R=O'34 C=\O·3X\O-6 L= 4OSx\O-G
4-3
This value for K agrees favourably with the measured
value.
From the actual ring-around circuit the following
results were obtained. These voltages were taken by
means of an oscilloscope.
Initial Voltage Final Voltage
50.0 42.0
45.0 37.5
40.0 33.25
37.5 31.0
35.0 29.0
32.5 27.0
30.0 24.25
Table 4.1 - TABLE OF CAPACITOR VOLTAGES BEFORE

AND AFTER REVERSAL OF VOLTAGE.
These results are plotted in graph 4-1. The results

agree very well with predicted results. From the gradient
of the graph K=0.89, compared with predicted value of
0.92 (error of less than 3.3%). The measured voltage of
VSCR is 1.25 which is a reasonable voltage.
Four photographs (C.-1, C-2, C - 3, and 0-4) of the
commutating circuit waveforms were taken. From these
photographs it can be seen that the capacitor voltage
rises and falls slightly towards the end of the conduction
of S.C.R. "SCR3".
This variation of capacitor voltage was not predicted
by the work done in section 3-3. It was assumed that
the S.C.R. would only conduct in the forward direction and
switch off at current zero. This however, is not the
case as the S.C.R. continued conducting into the negative
direction. One Wossible cause for this negative current
could be the small charge stored in the S.C.R. This
small charge within the S.C.R. is dumped back into the
commutating capacitor, reducing the capacitor voltage.
To dump the charge back into the commutating capacitor
negative current will be required to flow. From each of
the four photographs it can be seen that the S.C.R.
does not switch off at current zero, but continues flowing
for a short period in the negative direction.
The stored charge as well as the forward voltage
drop could explain the eXistance of VSCR. The forward
voltage drop across the S.C.R. can be reasonably assumed
but it may not explain the full 1.25 volts. Nith the
stored charge within the S.C.R. it expresses itself as
a VOltage when it's charge is dumped into the commatating
capacitor. From graph 4-1 it would appear that this
charge is independant of the commutating capacitor voltage.
4-4
I
\ . -
.,/
>'
I
I.l0,_ ' /'

" I
./'" ~'I I:·
,/'
/'
I
); //
,//
Q)
Cf7
,/
,/
I
'~5
o
-+- /~C~ j
\J -0
>
I.-
0,
......
y Line of besHit
GrClcll~nt of ihis 1I\"\e. is K
I
'uo /' ...

" K= 2.7 - 1d = O· ~q
0-
o /./ 33- 49
U
,//' 27 =33 X 0-89 - (1-8'\) VSCR
J""'0 - 0
-
c: /./ j-Sq 2.- ~7
./ 0 "
\jc!"p .."
lL -~ \ - .)
/ / C2. .'. \j sc H ::-.1' 25
I
i,
,// "
/'8 Graph 4-1 Graph of initial &fillQ\ vo\tu5es
,,/
//
CI
Determ\\l1r\9 the chorQcterisiks of the II
/
24 .// iring -,0 ro.und c\rcuit II

1 ~'. : .. ' L:
I'
InH'ia\ Capacitor Voltage Vf I'
~ . ~
!
30 35 40 45 50 I
I I
,
I (
.", ..,•• '!'" "'CT'
I
- ~:". -''''''''r':::,-~~.", ' ......-~~.'.''"'":''"~ ""-\"-'-,"-"',1 ."-'--'-'--'-~'-"'~"
I
~'ft.
.. .. ::
"...
From photographs 0-1 to C-4 the voltage before
reversal and after reversal were measured as well as
the peak current, details of this is listed below.
1 cm division on the oscilloscope reads as 8.43
mm on the photograph. An extra and most important
piece of information is that the 10 to 1 probe leads
used were not 10 to 1 ratio, but 10.63 to 1 ratio.
The inaccuracy of the probe leads introduce some doubt
into the accuracy of some of the laboratory results.
This doubt disappeared when it was realised that the
probes were causing the errors.
INFORMATION FROM THE PHOTOGRAPHS:

Photograph C-1
Current Peak = 37 mm = 4.39 amps

B:43mm
Initial voltage = 15 mm
20 x 15 mm = 35.59, correcting 35.59 = 33.48 volts
8.43 1.063
Final voltage = 12 mm
20 x 12 mm =
8.43-
28.47 Yolts, correcting 28.47
r.o63
= 26.78
Current peak = 4.39 amps, initial VOltage = 33.48 yolts

final voltage = 26.78 volts.
Photogr~ph C-2

8.43 mm
20 x 16 mm = 37.97, correcting 37.97 = 35.72
8.43 1.063
20 x 13 mm = 30.85, correcting 30.85 = 29.02
8.43 T:Qb)"
Current peak = 4.75 amps, initial voltage = 35.72 volts

Photograph C-3
Current peak = 2 x 23 mm = 5.46 amps

8.43
4-5
20 x 18 mm = 42.71, correcting 42.71 = 40.18
8.43- 1.063
final voltage = 15 mm
20 x 15 mm = 35.59, correcting 35.59 = 33.48
8:"43 1.0b3
Current Peak = 5.46 amps, initial voltage 40.18 volts
Photograph C-4
8.43
Initial vOltage = 19.5
20 x 19.5 = 46.27, correcting 46.27 = 43.53
8.43 1.063
20 x t6 = 37.97, correcting 37.97 = 35.72
8:43 1.063
Current Peak = 5.81 amps, initial voltage 43.53 volts
final voltage 35.72 volts.
The results for final and initial voltages are

plotted on graph 4-1 and marked C-1, C-2, C-3 and C-4.
From this graph it can be seen that predicted and actual
results agreed well ( maximum error of 2.4%).
Checking the validity of the model by comparing
the initial voltage with peak current.
From page 3-8, The capaci tor current is
.
Lc ( -t,) = Vc - V SC R. exp(-Rt) sinlJ& -~ X t)
j Ob.C _ 4R2. 2L ~ 4L2- LC
The value for exp(-~C) when wt:. 1'l' Wo.s
0.92, and hence since current peaks half way through

the conduction period when ~t:. 11. the value for
'2,
exp (-R11 ) OlD O'Q6
\2L '2.t..o
I peak ~MqG (Vc -V5CR)

L _ R
C +
R= 0-34
4-6
Pea!\ capacitor curren,t VBrsus
initlol capacItor vD/tase
frraph 4-2 ; /.;9
///'
, ,;/y'
-. . .n
+-'
o
> t{
I .
\--- -'1'- -.:;:,
:.;//1
/1'
.1.,/
. ,,':,>/ I
C4- ;;/
,/
.'
./
/'
+I L'In e 0f be s t .f'\+ ~ . /,../

, ./
".
,/'/": .
/'
>
u
/./
~c:: 6'01 Ip +4 -2 2 ./ it- - • - - - _.'
,
I /
/"-:.'
,/ ~r, /
~; i
l
CJ.'J
~ "'/ :
:"
g T
,
/' ,/
"
-::,-
/
"-•.
o
-t-
Jecoo'd \'me orr best f \t
r
II ,/' / /' /'
/ " '
'Ie ~ 7· \3 I-f +1-25 .. c.~/~/;/ /<~redicted ~€slilts

:'x// ,/ -"
l}
C c
~
Ge'
r,::l
U
I ,/ //1 "
'Vc= G'b7 Ip+ I !..5
u I /' /" I ,-
CI 1/'" I
+- ,,/' /' I "
~ , '--;/f'. -;;/ ~ " ,-
1
/ / .!..11 .. "
. /'. ,/:';7'*I" .-
. -' /'
'I ..-'
.
/.,. / / ' ..... ,
//
// "
, /"
,/
Peak CdpaC\tor current -'il" arn:Js
?,O_ ;/
./..
/,/'
/',
(
1.
~"'!' •
. ...
~ ,
--~._~~v<
.,..
.....;J-
",..
Ip
=6-61 Ip t \-'2.5
This is the predicted relationship between the

initial capacitor vOltage and peak capacitor current.
On graph 4.2 the predicted relationship as well as
the actual results are graphed. As well as the predicted
line of Vc = 6.67 Ip + 1.25 two more lines are drawn
Vc = 6.67 Ip + 4.22 and Vc = 7.13 Ip + 1.25.
From graph 4.2 it can be seen that predicted and
actual results do not agree closely at all.
There exists two reasons for this discrepancy:
The first being the modelling of the voltage drop across
the S.C.R. by a constant voltage source. The forward
voltage drop across the S.C.R. is high during the early
stages of conduction. When the S. C.R. i:$ triggered
there is only a small cross-sectional area available
for conduction. This area grows with time. As this
cross-sectional area grows the charge stored across the
junctions increases. So there are many reasons for the
vOltage across the S.C.R. not remaining constant.
Also it would be expected that the vOltage drop
across the S.C.R. to be higher during the early stages
of conduction. This would mean a constant voltage
soutce representing the forward vOltage would be higher
during the early period.
This is reflected in the equation:
Vc = 6.67 Ip + 4.22
In this expression "VSCR" is 3 volts higher than predicted.

The second reason for this discrepancy could be in
the values for Land C. This is shown by the expression
Vo = 7.13 Ip + 1.25. Here we are assuming that the VSCR
value is correct.
4-7
-6
The value for L was given as 405 x 1.0_6 henrys,
and the value for C was given as 10.3 x 10 farads.
Assume that the inductor's figure is 5% low and the
capacitor figure is 5% high then
true IOd lIctan<:-e va\ue 405 \O-G

X -- 42.6 X \()b \-\
0-95
\O·?, 'I.. \0- 6 9 ·8\ ~ \0- 6 F

\-05
--
Errors could explain the reason for the difference.

For the four measured points shown on the graph, errors
of a magnitude of 1mm are displayed. The 1mm represents
1mm on the surface of the each of the individual
photographs. 1mm may be a too large an error as to be
considered as a typical reading error, but rather. it
gives an idea of how sensitive this section is to errors.
To find out what is really occuring and establish
a relationship for peak capacitor current versus initial
voltage would require developing a much more sophisticated
model for the S.C.R. Methods for taking much more accurate
measurements would have to be developed.
As far as the chopper design and operation it would
be unnecessary to establish a better model. vie have an
accurate relationship linking the initial capacitor
voltage and the reversed capacitor voltage. But it may
prove useful to determine if VSCR is independant of L,
C, and the period of conduction.
4-8
4.2 FALJJ OF CAI'ACITOR CUH:aEHT TO Z:8RO
In section 3.2 the expressions for the final

voltage on the commutating capacitor was determined.
The expression being:
In this section by using three slightly different

transfer choppers experimental evidence shall be used
to back up this expression.
In chapter two, we found that by adding extra

inductance in series with the capacitor the commutation
period is independant of the load current. This extra
inductance was effectively added in series with the
leakage inductance of the transformer. The sum of the
inserted inductance and the leakage indt:Ictance of the
transformer go to form the term "Lif.
Three choppers were built, each with different values
of inductance. Two chopners were built from the same
magnetic core and the third was built with a different
magnetic core. The values of the inserted inductance
were 68.2uH, 20uH and 5uH.
From the photographs of the chopper waveforms,
the capacitor voltage was measured. Two measurements
were taken, when S.C.H.."SCR21f was triggered and when
S.C.H. "SCR2" was switched off. From these results
graphs were drawn.
Before we begin to analyse the results obtained

from the photographs, two pieces ai' information.
The supply VOltage was approximately 32 volts. The 10
to 1 voltage probes used had a ration of 10.63 to 1.
Results:
For this section of the lab. work we need only

know the value of the inserted inductance and the
supply voltage.
For the first chopper the inserted inductance had

a value of 20uH and the sup0ly voltage was approximately
32 volts the same commutatin~ capaciiance was used for all
of the choppers its value being 10.28 ufd.
The first thing to do is obtain the results from the

photographs.
Looking at the photographs the point at which S.C.H.

"SCH2" is triggered is easily found. But the point where
S. C.R. "SCR2" ceases conduction is harder to find. IJooking
at the voltage waveform we see that the capacitor peaks
negatively and then begins to increase its voltage again.
This could be due to the S.C.B.tfSCH2" conductin,q in the
negative direction for a period. ~he second ca~acitor
voltage is taken just after this negative peaking.
The upper most waveform is the flux waveform. From

this waveform it can be seen when the flux has reached
zhero. This point is taken as the point in time to measure
t e capacltor voltage.
4-9
Seven divisions on the oscilloscope occupy 59mm
on the surface of the photograph. Therefore 1 division
occupies 59/7 = 8.43 mm.
ACTUAL RESULTS - 20UH
With load current of 10 amps the following results
were obtained:
Final voltage 21 mm., initial vOltage 16 mm.
final voltage 21mm, 21mm = 49.83 volts correcting 49.83 =
8.43 T.Ob3
46.88 volts, final voltage is 46.88 volts
Initial voltage 16mm, 16mm = 37.97 volts, correcting 37.97 =
8.43 1.0b3
35.74 volts, initial voltage is 35.74 volts.
Voltage before reversal of capaCitor voltage.
35.74 = 0.89 x 42.82 - 2.37
42.82 = 0.91
4i;.88
This means that the ©Ommutating capaCitor leaks
9% of voltage between the period when S. C.R. "S CR2"
is switched off and when the capaCitor voltage is reversed.
The following results will not be done in such
detail as was done for the 10 amps case. The 10 amps
measurements were only done in detail so as to show
the methods used in converting distances on the photographs
to actual voltages.
The next sections will not be done in such details.
~amps:
Final voltage 20 mm 47.46 volts 44.67 volts

Initial voltage 15 mm 35.59 volts 33.50 volts
Vol tage before reversal - 40.30 volts
Means 10% loss of voltage between commutation periods
6 amps:
Final voltage 18.5 mm 43.90 volts 41.32 volts
Initial VOltage 14.0 mm 33.22 volts 31.27 volts
Voltage before reversal 37.80 volts
Means 10% loss of voltage between commutation periods.

Initial voltage 13.5mm - 32.03 volts 30. 15 volts
Voltage before reversal - 36.54 volts
Means 9% loss of voltage between commutation period.
4-10
4 amps:
Means 7% loss of VOltage between comn}utation period.
,Lamps:
Initial voltage 12. 1 mm 28.71 volts 27.02 volts
Means 9% loss of voltage between commutation period
Lamps:
Initial voltage 12 mm 28.47 volts 26.80 volts.
_1 amp:
Initial voltage 11.3 mm 26.81 volts 25.23 volts
The results obtained for the final and initial

VOltages are graphed in graphs 4.3.
The final voltage curve agrees very closely with
predicted results. The transformer adds an extra 3.2uH
of inductance. By assuming that the capacitor will
loose only 9% of its charge between commutation intervals,
an expression for the initial capacitor VOltage (when
S. C.R. nSCR2" is triggered) can be obtained.
Final voltage is given by:
E = 32 + 1.51 1
CapaCitor voltage before reversal is 0.91E
Voltage after reversal is:
0.91 x E x 0.89 - 2.37
which is the initial voltage.
Initial voltage is
(32 + 1.5I 1 ) x 0.91 x 0.89 - 2.37
= 23.55 + 1.22I 1
This expression gives results within 3% of the

measured values. This is the expression for E* see page
3. 1 2.
ACTUAL RESULTS 5uH
This section concerns itself with the results
obtained using an inserted inductance of 5uH.
Because of the lack of forsight there is not
sufficient enough information contained within the
photographs for this section. But by a bit of assumption
and by working our way back then the full characteristics
of the chopper can be determined.
4-11
FInal Vo\tQ3~
.c .... h·
.. Eguolion 0: i .:is
J.. l'
! i nc
E= 32 t I-SIt
. '
t
./
_/~ . .
!
f /
/
l-
o ;.- ,/1 ./
.+-
'u
o
D-
I ./
l ,./
/' / ComrnU1Q
. \ -1--,tr '-' COP-Qrllor
. \
1..
•
.
• ' I 'll
j
~
.......
\.
1'-./ _ l
II
fr-,\7.:oq:::
_ _ , --:
SCR '/1 / j'c.

..l. ...... (
j
(R
o
LJ 1,/ /
W-hon
1 t'tt,.,
C,
...J ... ....,. \ ..,. _ \-..1' \. r'.,"".·,,:".
\"... \ r::.· .
t.,_ ........... '-~ ¥
V /
i . /
EC\l\01\On of th\s lIne. .
(32 + I·SI.,JxO·9 \ y. 0'89 - 2·37
/
30 .. /
/
/
(32+ I-SII)xO<31 -2~ 37

.
/
/
/
2.3-55 +1-2..2 I,
I'
/
. /
/
.
/
/.
, /
/
/
/
Load Current II
20~ __________~__________~,
o 510
i---------·---------------------------·--------·-·--- . -----------.------
11.4 amps:
Initial voltage 14.5mm - 34.41 volts 32.39 volts
Means 8% loss of voltage between commutation period.

Means 7% loss of vOltage between commutation period.
L...L~~:
InItial voltage 26.2 mm 31.08 volts 29.25 volts
5.7 amps:
Final voltage 33.5mm 39.75 volts 37.41 volts
Initial vOltage 30.0 volts 28.24 volts
~56 amps:
2 amps,:
To fill in the values for the final capacitor

voltages it is assumed that the capacitor voltage loose
8% of its voltage between commutation periods.
7.5 Amps:
Initial voltage is 29.25 volts
Voltage before reversal is 35.53 volts
Final voltage is 35.53/0.92 which is 38.62 volts
3.56 amps:
Voltage before reversal is - 32.78 volts
Final voltage is - 32.78/022 which is 35.63 volts
2 amps:
.Voltage before reversal is 31.5Q volts
Final voltage is 31.52/0.92 which is 34.62 volts.
These results are shown with a circle enclosing each
one.
The results for final and initial voltages are
graphed in graph 4-4.
4-12
501
I.
I
Finol Vo\tcCJ2-
/" .
/
Equation of th\s line

40 r E= '32 + 0-95 I l
. /'
I /
T !1 /::-'-1
OJ ,,/'
OJ
CJ
,. /
+- /
./
:5? I ///
~I
L ~y/ t'
0 / 'ca!:,u'C-::2d
+-
.-
c>
~// resuits
0
D- ,//;
o I /
U 1/'
1/
/.
/'
V ./
i
/ /•. r_ .... 1··\nO LopGe\

UJmmUlQ r ·t· 0\' "I';
\OliGQe
/' . J ~
30 // .when S.C.n \\SCR t' is \r!gs,erEG

r / /'. .Equation of lhis line
II / /'
/'
. (32+0·qSI,)xO·~2)1.0·B9-2·37
./ /' /' (32 -+ O·'1510xO·82 - 2·3J
/ /' 23 -83 t 0·781\
./ #
'j
L.<// Emili ~1uillcl Capac-1tQr' YnlJnc~-
r ~ ~~ G.r<lyb- 1- 4-
I
>t:, >
20 L-~.-.
o
I
5
Load Current--'P-
:_._-------------_....... _-_.• _.--_._-_ .._._------_ .. _--------_.------_._----_.

Once again actual results agree closely with the
predicted results. The transformer presented a leakage
inductance of 4.3uH. This compares with a value of
3.2uH obtained from the previous section.
By assuming a constant reduction of 8% between the
commutation periods, it is possible to establish an
expression for the initial voltage (Commutating capacitor
voltage when S.C.TL"SCR2" is triggered).
E = 32 + 0.951 1
Capacitor voltage before reversal is 0.92E
Voltage after reversal is
0.92 x E x 0.89 2.37

which is the initial voltage
Initial voltage is:
(32 + 0.951 1 ) x 0.92 x 0.89 2.37

= 23.83 + 0.781 1

measured values. This is an expression for E* see
page 3-12.
ACTUAL RESULTS 68uH
This section concerns itself with the results
obtained using an inserted inductance of 68uH. This
large amount of inductance was used for investigation
work on other sections of the chopper operations.
Again there exists the problem that some photo-

graphs do not show final voltages. Similiar tactics
are used in this section as was used in the previous
section to back calculate final voltages from initial
vol tages.
So far the scaling of distances on the photographs
to voltages has remained constant. But it was found
that with the photographs taken for this section 7 div-
isions on the oscilloscopes did not necessarily occupy
59 mm. In fact some occupied 59, 58.5 and 58.2 mm.
on the surface of the photograph The individual scaling
are marked 59/7, 58.5/7 and 58.2/7
9 amps: 58.2/7
Final voltage 60 volts 56.47 volts
Initial vol tage 19.5 mm 46.91 volts 44.15 volts
4-13
8 amps - 58.5/7:
Means 85;0 loss of voltage between commutation periods.
7.4 amps _~~«5/7:
Final vOltage 54.56 volts

22.8 mm 51.35 volts
Initial voltage 18 mm
43.08 volts 40.55 volts
Means 6% loss of vOltage between commutation periods.
.Latp~ - 58.5/7:
5 amps 58.5/7
4 am}2s 58.5/7:
3 amps 58.5/7:
2 am.:e2._ _....22/7:
Initial voltage 24 mm 2g.47 volts 26.80 volts
1 amR-..::_59/7:
Again to help fill in results for final capacitor

voltage it is assumed that loss 8% of its voltage between
commutation periods. It may be argued that perhaps 7%
to 6% may be a better figure but this is hard to say
mainly due to the sensitivity to errors of this figure.
6 amps:

Fina1 voltage is 43.40/0.92, which is 47.17 volts
.2..- am ps:
final volta~e is 40.63/0.92, which is 44.16 volts.
4 a!!lps:
Final voltage is 38.09/0.92, which is 41.40 volts.
4.14
3 amps:
}'inal voltage is 35.56/0.92, which is 38.65 volts
L§:!!!ps:
Voltage before reversal is32.79 volts
Final voltage is 32.79/0.92, which is 35.63 volts
_1_~£:
Initial voltage is 24.57volts

Voltage. before reversal is 30.27 volts
Final v6Jtage is 30.27/0.92, which is 32.90 volts.
Once again actual and final results agree closely.

The transformer added an extra 6uR and once more, by
assuming a constant reduction of 8% of capacitor voltage
between commutation periods, it is possible to establish
an expression for the initial voltage (voltage when
S. C.R. tlSCH2 lf is triggered.
E = 32 + 2.681 1
Capacitor voltage before reversal is 0.92E
Voltage after reversal is:
0.92 x E x 0.89 2.37

which is the initial voltage
Initial voltage is:
(32 + 2.681 1 ) x 0.92 x 0.89 - 2.37

= 23.87 + 2.21 1
measured values~ This is an expression for E* see page
3.12. A major part of the 5% error appearsto be slight
shift in the supply voltage downwards.
It is interesting to compare these results with

those given in Fig. 8 "Maximum Capacitor Vol tage lt Ref.
1. From the work carried out in section 3.2 the maximum
capacitor voltage is given by:
This equation by means experimental evidence is

correct.
We can express this equation differently:
E k{C
'Vs 'JsJc
E +
Vs
4-15
60
;.
,-
52. .I
'2-E/3={f
t ,I
L:: 7· \8 A IO'3x 10-s
=T4)J.H
\eSIJ\~s /
/
/
Equnt;on of tnls line
/
..
/
"" (32 + '2- G511) x 0-92. x 0-89 - c-3"7
36 / "
/
/
(32 +2:691 1)'1- 0-82. -2- 37
0
I
/
/
. '2.3 -81 +2· 2.0 I,
/
/
/
/
.
/
/
/
28 /
/
/
Final ~ loi1Lci1billi~)1cr ~fuJ&~_
/
/ b12.uti Inserted ~R~_i~~
/
/
.
','
'Load Current--r-
't! .
20+-__________~--------~
o 5 10
This is the same equation as stated by Nilliam
McMurray REF:2. If we look at Mr. M. Akamatsu and
Co., we see that they have become confused.
If we normalize the load current in terms of Y,
we would expect a maximum value for Y of 0.33. This
is a typical value for Y for a transfer current chopper.
A typical maximum value for Y for McMurray Chopper is
between 0.6 to 0.7.
Using the 68uH inductor force the Y value to a
high value Y., approaching unity. Mr. Mr. Akamatsu and
Co. gives a value of Y greater that unity. However,
the chopper does not operate with Y greater that unity.
Looking more closely at figure 8 in ref. 1 we see
that the voltage waveforms flatten out for Y less than
0.33. This raises some interesting problems if it was
observed in the lab. work. But fortunately it was not
observed. Mr. Akamatsu raised no reasons for this
flatten section.
RISE OJ? C1LPACITOR CURRENT FROM ZERO
In this section we hope to show that the relation-

ship developed in Section 3.1 is correct and valid.
One of the three choppers had a larger than necessary
inductance inserted. This was to allow accurate
measurements of voltages which are needed for this
discussion.
From page 3-3 we have the following expression:
Two voltages E and E' need to be known quite

accurately. By having a large inductor L, we achieve
a large variation between E' and E. Also because of
the large inductance it takes a reasonable amount of
time for the capacitor voltage to go from E volts to
E' volts.
From page 3-2 we have the time required to go

from E to E':
t'
HESULTS:
To test this expression a chopper with 68.2uH
of inserted inductance was used. The initial voltage
E and the final voltage E* were read from the photo-
graphs of the voltage and current waveforms. To make
the measurement technique easier E* is the capacitor
vol tage when the capaci tor current reaches tlle load
current. Ii' instead of measuring the capacitor
voltage when the load current reaches 1 1 (n + 1).
4-16
The expression for E* is:
As you can see the expression is slightly different.

Although we may not be proving the original equation,
if the expression for E* is shown to be correct then
the expression for E' should be correct also. The reason
for this alteration is the point 011 the current wave-
form where the capacitor current equals the load current
is a lot easier to find than compared with trying to find
the point on the current waveform where the capacitor
current equals the load current times (n+1), I 1 (n+1).
Again the voltage probes had a ratio of 10.63 to 1.
RESULTS FROM THE PHOTOGHAPHS 68uH
7 divisions (70mm on the oscilloscope) occupies

58.2 mm on the photograph.
8 amps (58.5/7):
Initial voltage 18.8 mm 42.34 volts
Final voltage 14.5 mm 33.79 volts

Final voltage 14.5 mm 32.66 volts

Final voltage 28 mm 31.53 volts
5 amps (58.5/7):
Initial voltage 30 mm 33.79 volts
4 amps (58.5/7):
Initial voltage 28 mm 31.53 volts
TII\,~E TAKEN FOR CAPACITOR CURREN~_TO RIS.}~ TO LOAD CURRENT Ii
9 amps (58~.211l:
Time - 7.2 mm 17.23 u sec.
8 amps (58.5/7):
Time - 7 mm 16.75 u sec.
4-17
7.4 amps (58.5/11:
time: 6.5 mm 15.56 u sec.
6 amps "t2~5/7):
Time: 6 mm 14.29 u sec.
Time: 5.5 mm 13.16 u sec.

4 amps (59/7):
Time: 4.5 mm 10.68 u sec.
])ISCUSSION OF RESULTS
The first set of results concerning initial and
final voltages should agree with the following equations:
We know reasonable accurately E, E*, I i and C.

We have a rough idea of the value of L, but its exact
value we do not know.
Vie can determine the value for L from the results.
Better still we can determine a value for L.
C
Which is given by:
L = E2 _ E*2
C 112
From the results we obtain the following values

for L:
15
9 amps 9.83 = L
C
8 amps 10. 17 = L
15
7.4 amps 10.55 = L
C
6 amps 8.85 = L
C
5 amps 8.68 = L
15
4 amps 8.55 = L
C
From these results we see that there is a large
variation of L/c. The reasons for this variation could
be due to a large number of causes. The easiest one to
4-16
understand is errors. All of these measurements are
taken from the zero line, on the photograph. When
setting up the oscilloscope for measurements, it is
attempted to have the VOltage trace zeroed. Unfortunately
there is an error associated with the zeroing.
To show how sensitive the results are to errors
we shall alter the results for the 9 amps case.
Alter the 19.5 mm to 19.0 mm 2.6% error.
58.2/7:
This gives an Llc value of 8.61.
8.61 = L
C
compared with previous value of 9.83, which gives an
error of 12.4%.
So we can see that the results gives an Llc value
which is very sensitive to errors.
The only way we could do is to take the average of
the six results. The average of 9.83, 10.17, 10.55,
8.85, 8.68, 8~55 is 9.44 with a standard deviation of
0.85. USing this value for Llc we can calculate the
final results which gives us the following results.
load Current Final voltage Calculated Percentage
Final voltage l~rror
9 amps 33.96 34.42 ---1:-3%
8 amps 33.79 34.47 2.0%
7.4 amps 32.66 33.58 2.7%
6 amps 31.53 31. 19 1 .1%
5 amps 30.41 30.10 1 • O~~
4 amps 29.28 29.04 0.8%
TABLE 4.2 COMPARISON OF RESULTS WITH CALCULATED RESULTS
USING AVERAGE VALUE OF LIC
From these results it would seem that the value for

LIe of 9.44 would see to be a good solution.
Before finally deciding on a value for Llc it would
be better, to look at how the times compare with that
given by:
This can be reduced by letting L=KC. The value of

C is kno~~ to be 10.3 ufds. Combining these two we have
As the capacitor voltage E varies with the load

current, it would be a good idea to graph the time
required to go from E to E* as a finction of Ii
4-19 E
Load Current Initial Volta~
111E Time U Secs.
9 44.15 0.204 17.23

8 42.34 0.189 16.75
7.4 40.55 0.182 15.56
6 36.23 0.166 -14.29
5 33.79 0.148 13. 16
4 31.53 0.127 10.68
TABLE 4.3 ELRPSE TIME VERSUS 111E
The results from table 4.3 are shown in graph 4.6.

By means of this graph we can determine a suitable value
for K. The previous method of using initial and final
vOltages gave a laree variation of K. The mean of this
variation being 9.44.
With the glapse times it proves difficult to obtain
directly from the readings values for K. It would be
impossible to have an expression, involving elapse time,
with K as the subject. So to obtain a suitable value
for K, using elapse time, is purely a graphical method.
I 1$ 7.4 7.6 7.8 8.0 8.2 8.4 8.6 9.44

0;10 7.72 7.93 8. 14 8.35 8.57 8.78 8.99 9.88
O. 11 8.51 8.75 8.98 9.22 9.45 9.69 9.92 10.91
0.12 9.32 9.57 9.83 10.09 10.35 10.60 10.86 11.95
0.13 10.13 10.41 10.69 10.97 11.25 11.53 11 .81 13.00
0.14 10.95 11.25 11.56 11 .86 12.17 12.47 12.78 14.07
0.15 11.78 12. 11 12.43 12.76 13.09 13.43 13.76 15. 16
0.16 12.62 12.97 13.33 13.68 14.04 -14.39 14.75 16.26
0.17 13.47 13.85 14.23 14.61 15.00 15.38 15.76 17.39
0.18 14.34 14.74 15.15 15.56 15.97 16.38 16.80 18.55
0.19 15.22 15.65 16.09 16.53 16.97 17.41 -17.85 19.73
0.20 16.12 16.58 17.05 17.52 17.99 18.56 18.93 20.94
0.21 17.04 17.53 18.03 ~8.53 19.03 19.53 20.04 22.19
TABLE 4.4 VARIATION OF ELAPSE TIME WITH K and I iIE

-
On graph 4.6 the results of table 4.4 are also
displayed1from graph 4.6 we can work out values for K
for the different 111E values.
Load Current l11E K
9 0.204 7.7
8 0.189 8.15
7.4 0.182 7.9
6 0.166 8
5 0.148 8.3
4 0.127 8
Mean of the results of K is 8.01 with a standard
deviation of 0.21. The value of K = 9.44 as far as
elapse times is in error. Using the value of K of
9.44 we see from graph 4.6 that the elapse time is much
greater than the measured elapse time.
4-20
/<1;44
,/ RatIos of l to C
20t
1
I
I
t /5
tf)
U
QJ
(j)
"
5
0-/ 0-/5 0-2
How sensitive are the results in this section
to errors?
For the 6 amps case assume we have a reading
of 5% low. Actually the reading for E should be
38.04 volts instead of 36.23 volts.
IilE = 0.158 which has time still 14.29 u secs.,
this glves a value of K of 8.4. The measured value of
1i1E of 0.166 which yields a value of K equal to 8.0,
Tlie new result of K is a 5% increase in the value of K.
So this method of measurement is less sensitive
to errors. So it would seem that it would be better
to trust the value of K gain from this action rather
than the results obtained from final and initial voltages.
With an L/c value of 8.0 how do the measured final
voltages agree with those measured. The values used
for the initial voltages are those measured.
Load Initial Final Caculated
C'iirrent Volta£e Vol tage Final Voltage Percent Error
------
9 44.15 33.96 36.07 5.85%
8 42.34 33.79 35.79 5.58%
7.4 40.55 32.66 34.73 5.96%
6 36.23 31.53 32.01 1.50%
5 33.79 30.41 30.69 0.91%
4 31.53 29.28 29.43 0.51%
TABLE 4.5 COIVIPARISON OF PREDI CTED AND MEASURED RESULTS
WITH A L7c VALUE OF 8.0
From table 4.5 we can see that there is good

agreement with actual and predicted results over half
of the resul t·s. With high currents the agreement
begins to grey rather dramatically.
But if we consider the eventuation that if we had
an error of 2% in the first three results then:
0.98
Load Initial InItial Final Calculated Percent
'Cl:irrent :yolta~ -Yoltage Vol tage Final Vol tB:E~ Error
9 44.15 43.27 33.96 34.99 2.94%
8 42.34 41.49 33.79 34.78 2.85%
7.4 40.55 39.74 32.66 33.78 3.32%
TABLE 4.6 COMPARISION OF PREDICTED AND MEASURED RESULTS
WITH AN L7 C VALUE O}' 0.8 AND AN ASSUMED EHROR
OF 2% IN E
In trying to compare predicted measured results,

we have to oontend with a large number of components
which have errors. There eXists errors within E, E*,
C and Ii' which add together. There is also the
disadvantage that we are subtracting errors which
increases the percentage error.
4-.21
With these small errors we cannot accurately
determine the leakage inductance by measurements.
Nor can we determine the effect of the leakage
inductance has on the circuit. The value of the
leakage inductance is controlled by degree of satur-
ation of the core. With the core of the transformer
unsaturated, the leakage inductance is low. With
the core saturated the leakage inductance is high.
During this period where the capacitor current is
rising the transformer core is altering from being
saturated to being unsaturated. This means that the
leakage inductance is altering. How this altering
leakage inductance affects the circuit is hard to
determine because of errors.
With the inserted inductance larger than the
leakage inductance the varying leakage inductance
will have very little effect on the operation of the
circuit.
The voltage measurements sgggest a total series
inductance of 9.44 x 10.3 x 10- = 97.2 x 10-6 henrys.
The elapse time suggest a total series inductance of
8.0 x 10.3 x 10- 6 = 82.4 x 10-6 henrys. These two
values of inductance give two different values of
leakage inductance of 29uH and 14 uR.
Before any accurate figures for leakage inductance
can be obtained a much more accurate method of deter-
mining the voltages E and E* has to be obtained.
The question may arise that why the value for
leakage inductance obtained in the last section cannot
be used in this section. Values obtained in the last
section are 3.2 uR (20uH), 4.3uR (SuR) and 6uH (68uH).
These results are lower than those obtained in this
section.
The reason for this is Simply that the capacitor
see two different leakage inductances.
commutq\ infj
capaC\1a nee..
\nsertec\
Jnductance
DIFFERENT PATHS OF CAPACITOR CURRENT.

4-22
During the rise of the capacitor current (t), the
capacitor sees N1 turns of the windings of the transformer.
While during the fall of capacitor current (2), the
capaCitor sees N1 -N turns of the winding of the trans-
former. But as the 2leakage inductance is approximately
proportional to the number of turns squared, we would
expect a greater difference than that shown by the
measured results.
With the chopper with 68uH inserted N1 = 12 turns 2
and N2 = 13 turns. Therefore the ratio of (N 1 /(N 1-N 2 ))
= 144. This is not the case. The greatest ratio of
the measured results with the 68uH is 29/6 is 4.8.
At this stage I cannot offer an explanation for
this. Perhaps with more accurate methods of measurement
an explanation could be obtained.
Equations covering the transformer core have not
been discussed:-:::as far as experimental evidence. From
chapter two, two basic design equations. From these two
equations the two basic components are chosen. The
commutating capacitor and the transformer core.
The two equations are:
'2.
VcoC
and the period of commutation is given by:
where Vco is the

T:: 'L VcoC initial capacitor
Ie (\\t \) voltage at the end
of period t i • see
page 1-1.
Three choppers were designed as to show diff~rent
effects.
The first chopper had an inserted inductance of
68.2uH. This large inductance was used to show capacitor
voltage effects during the period t1 (see page 1-1) when
the capacitor current is rising from zero to above the
load current. Also this large inductance shows how
the leakage inductance affected the capacitor voltage
as the capacitor current is falling to zero. Periods
t , t6 and t7 (see page 1-2).
5
This particular chopper was designed for the
following conditions.
The load current 10 = 11 amps, Initial capaCitor
voltage (Capacitor voltage when the capacitor current
is (1 + n) times the load current Vco = 28 volts.
This chopper used two Phillips E30/15/7 cores with
one limb broken away, this gave a cross-sectional area of:
4-23
- 4-.\ )(..\0- 5 me..~fes squa.r~d
How many turns do we require for the transformer.
'L
NI - \leo C
Ignoring n initially
2-
NI = \lco C
Normally a person would choose C by means
To :: 2. \}CC) C
Ie en T\)
C IS <jl\Je.n. b'j c~ \010
2Yco
But in the three choppers built C was picked for
different reason~ The capacitor used was larger than the
one required by the S.C.R. There are several reasons
for this action. The first being that if a smaller
capacitor was used then elapsed times within the chopper
would have become difficult to observe. Another reason
is, by having a larger than necessary capacitor, and
hence a long commutation period, the chances of the
S.C.R. nSCR1 tt not being commutated are remote. This
allows us to see a design which did not meet the original
specifications of commutating but still working. Jith
the commutating period close to the requirements of the
S.C.R. the chances of the chopper not operating are
high.
Also by having a large capacitor a large cross-

sectional area of core can be used. Also a reasonable
number of turns may be employed.
If the three choppers built were being built for

commercial applications it would then be advisable
to use a small capacitor and also a small core. In
fact because of the small amount of power being handled
by the choppers the transformer core could consist of
a toroidal core.
4-24
Jumping back to the design.
With C = 10.3 ufds, and using Phillips grade E-1
magnetic material, Bs = 0.35
This means that
N, - 2.8'2. X \0-3)( \O-b

L x 4-. \ )(. \0 -5)( 0,( '( \ \
Use 12 turns and let Cn + 1) factor to take care

of the decreased number of turns.
- 0-017
the diode current is n 10

0.077 x 11 = 0.85 amps, which is sufficient current
to turn diode "DII on.
Using this value for n, we can determine the
minimum current before which saturation occurs.
== \0·8<1 amps u.>n\ch \~ ac.ce.ptcb\e
Now what is the commutation period with this

capacitor voltage and current?
\0::: 2 "leo C 2 X ZB)( \O·3x.\O-b

10 \0·89
If we were designing the chopper to be insensitive

to current variations we want Q = 3.2.
L~-25
A -l
3·2.
= 6·65 u\-\
But rather an inductance of 68.2uH was inserted and

ignoring any leakage inductance which the core may have.
It would be stupid to design a chopper with a

value of 0.99 or anywhere as it would not commutate.
From chapter three we lmow that the capacitor voltage
will rise above the supply vOltage. dith this extra
voltage it will reduce the value for A (A; \/0..)
From the lab work we know that Vco was not 28 volts
but rather it was the order of 34 volts for a 10 amps
load current giving a value of A of:
A = ill.
34-
J 63
10-3
= O-lf>
Vco throughout chapter 2 is considered as a constant

independant of current. Through chapter three and
through the early part of chapter four we see that Vco
is not independant of load current, but rather very
much dependant upon the load current. In chapter five
we shall see how to use this dependancy of Vco on load
current to reduce capacitor size using the McMurray
Chopper.
Unfortunately, this dependancy of the capacitor

vOltage "Vcol! on the load current, was not able to be
used in the design of the three choppers. The reason
being that it was not understood at the time.
To use this dependancy an accurate knowledge of

the losses within the circuit would have to be known.
Different losses and various values of inductance that
the capacitor sees affects the shape and magnitude of
Vco versus Ii.
4--26
During the design stages as insufficient information
was known about hovY' the capaci tor voltage "Vco" would
alter with load current, it was hoped that Vco was not
affected to any ereat extent.
Any if Vco was affected to load current to any
great extent, it was hoped by means of the circuit
resonanting in the negative saturation region. (Period
t~, page 1-2), the commutation would remain reasonably
independant of the change of Vco with load current.
Load Displacement Commutation

Current Scaling on photographs Period
9 amps 58.5/7 22.5mm 53.8 u.sec.
8 amps 58.5/7 23.5mm 56.2 u. sec.
7.4 amps 58.5/7 25.0mm 59.8 u.sec.
6 amps 58.5/7 28.0mm 67.0 u.sec.
5 amps 58.2/7 30.0mm 72.2 u.sec.
4 amps 59.0/7 32.0mm 75.9 u. sec.
TABLE 4.6 VARIATION OF COMMUTATION PERIOD WITH LOAD
CURRENT
As we can see from table 4.6, with this chopper the

commutation period is not independant of the load
current. This is mainly due to the large value of inserted
inductance.
The same core with the same number windings was
used but with a smaller inserted inductance. Using
the criteria that Q = 3.2, we have a value of inserted
inductance of:
- 25 ~
\tx\-07rJL:
3-2..
5·G2.uH
The actual value used was 5uH.

It would be interesting to see the variation of
t1 (commutation period) with load current.
4-27
IJoad Dis~lacement Commutation
Current Scaling on rhotographs reriod
9 amps 58.5/7 22.5 mm 53.8 u. sec.
8 amps 58.5/7 23.5 mm 56.2 u.sec.
7.4 amps 58,/5/7 25.0 mm 59.8 u. sec.
6 amps 58.5/7 28.0 mm 67.0 u.sec.
5 amps 58.2/7 30.0 mm 72.2 u.sec.
4 amps 59.0/7 32.0 mm 75.9 u.sec.
TABLE 4.7 VARIA'rI ON OF COMMUTATION PERIOD :,vITH LOAD
CURRENT
- --
From Table 4.7 and from the photographs of the
waveforms, it can be seen that the core saturates at a
lower current than expected. The core saturates
between 8 and 10 amps. The calculated value is 10.9
amps. The reason for this is the lower voltage "Vco".
For the core to just saturate at say 9 amps, it requires
a voltage of:
y2 _ 28'2.
q \0-<=\
Looking at the waveforms for 8 amps and determining

the capacitor voltage, when the capacitor current has
reached
is 22.5 mm with a scaling factor of 59/7 which

gives 26.7 volts, correcting this figure for the errors
in the voltage probes 26J~g, = 25.1 volts
34
Therefore the core will saturate as B is larger

than 0.7 teslas.
Looking at the waveforms for 10 amps and determining
the capacitor voltage, when the capacitor current has
reached:
is 12 mm with a scaling factor of 59.1/7 gives

28.43 volts, correcting this for errors in the voltafe
probes 28.4 x 32 = 26.7 volts
34-
4--28
( 2.b7i (28)~
10 \0-9
hence the core will not saturate as 6B is less

than 0.7 teslas.
Although the core saturated at a lower current
then expected, the commutation period for the currents
below 8 amps remain reasonable constant (within 4.6%).
The stablization of commutation shows the importance
of tho period where the core is negatively saturated.
When the core does not saturate with currents greater
than 9 amps, the cmmmutation period becomes smaller
as the load current is increased.
The photograph of the waveforms for 8 amps shows
that it is on the verge of saturation so the ?ormula
on page 2-16 applys and also the formula.
2. \fco C
10 (n t \)
10 2." 7.5-1 x \0·3 'A. \O-f,

8 x \·017
50 }J seeS
measured value is 60.6 u.secs. which gives a good

agreement between measured and predicted results.
Considering the last chopper which was built;
the last two ch6ppers have two 30/15/7 cores with one
limb broken off forming the transformer core. With
this last chopper two 30/15/7 cores were used but this
time the limb was not broken off. This gave a cross-
sectional area of 6 x 10- 5 square metres instead of 4.1
x 10-5 square metres.
The current probe used thro1}.ghout the experimental
work, had a limit in that it saturates at 12 amps. So it
was decided to desifn a chopper where the saturating
current is low. The characteristics chosen were Vco=
28 volts, 10 = 6 amps.
ini tially ignoring n, and determining N1 •

4-29
2
NI -- Y..co C
2l\BAIc
= 2S'L x IQ· 315. \Q-6

2l<O'1x6~\O-sx6
-- \~ '02. turns
We will try Nl = 14 turns and N2 = 15 this gives a

value for n of i.0'fi. With this data at what current
will the core saturate?
~
10 -- Veo C
2. N\ A LlB Cltn)
-- '253 2 x lO':,ax \0- 6

2x \4~ bx. \O-Sx.O·l~ 1·01\
-- ~'4 amps
What should the inserted inductance be using Q=3.2.
Vo rL
lo(\tn) jT
\b,3uH
The actual inserted inductance used was 20uH.

The reason for this, the term (n + 1) was neglected in
the calculations.
Ignoring the term (n -j- 1) we have:
So with a larger than necessary leakage inductance

we would expect the commutation periods at low currents
to be longer at higher currents.
4-30
The commutation period is:
1D :: 2. Yeo
10 (n t\)
2 )( '2.8 ~ \0-'3)C. \O-G

6-4)( \·01\
84· ~).J Sec.5
Load Dis12lacement Commutation

Current Scali.!}£ on Photographs Period.
----
':'1 40 94.6
Amps 59.2/7 mm u.secs
2amps 59.2/7 41 mm 97.0 u.secs
3amps 59.5/7 41.5 mm 97.7 u.secs
4amps 59.5/7 41 mm 96.5 u.secs
5amps 59. 1 /7 37 mm 87.7 u.secs
6amps 59.2/7 33 mm 78.0 u.secs
8 amps 59.1/7 27 mm 64.0 u.secs
10 amps 59.2/7 22 mm 52.0 u.secs
TABLE 4.8 VARIATION OF COMMUTATION TIME WITH LOAD

CUH1{ENT
-----
From table 4.8 and from the photographs of the
waveforms it can be seen that the core saturates
earlier than expected. Somewhere around 5 amps and
lower the core began to saturate. The calculated
value of current for the core to saturate is 6.4
amps. The cause for this is the lower voltage "Vco".
For the core to just saturate at say 5 amps required '
a voltage of:
.i! -= 2.8<L
5 b-4-
V - 2.4-8 vo\ts
Looking at the waveforms for 5 amps and deter-

mining the capacitor voltage, when the capacitor current
has reached:
'·071 X 5 - 5·4- amps
is 10 mm with a scaling factor of 59.1/7 which

gives 23.7 volts, correcting this figure for the errors
in the voltage probes 23.7 x 32 = 22.3 volts.
-34--
l2.c:3l
5
< (2.8Y~
6-4-
4-31
Therefore the core will not saturate as B as
less than 0.7 teslas.
Looking at the waveforms for 4 amps and deter-
mining the capacitor voltage, when the capacitor current
has reached:
4-x \-07\ :: 4-3 amps
is 11 mm with a scaling factor of 59.5/7 which

gives a voltafe of 25.9 volts. Correcting this figure
for errors in the voltage probes 25.9 x 32 = 24.4 volts
34
Therefore the core will saturate as B is greater

than 0.7 teslas.
Althoueh the core saturates at a lower current
than expected, the commutation period for currents
below 5 aBps remain reasonable constant (within 3.2%)
This stablization of commutation period further shows
the importance of the period where the core is negatively
saturated. When the core does not negatively saturate,
with currents greater than 4 amps, the commutation period
becomes smaller as the load current is increased.
Calculating the period for a load of 5 amps. The

measured value of Vco is 22.3 volts.
To ~ Veo
10 (t\ t\)
?- x ~(:3 x \0-3 X \0-(;

5 x \-01\
8 IS -S \j sess
The measured value being 87.7 u.secs. 2.2% while using

the 4 amps value, measured value of Vco is 24.4 volts.
\0 2. Veo C
To (nt))
~ x 24·4-)<. \O'3x\Ob
4- x \-07\
4-32
- l11· 3 3 p sees.
The measured value being 96.5u.secs. The reason

for the large difference is, with a load current of 4
amps the transformer's core is saturated, reducing
the commutation period.
If we take the mean of Veo for 4 amps and 5 amps

we should obtain a Vco which is just on the verge of
causing the core to saturate.
22-3 + 24-4 :: '2. 3· 4- vo\ts

2
To = 2.x'2.3-4-)(. \0-3)(, \O-b

4--5 'A \-07\
:: \00 y sees.
measured commutation period is approximately 96

usecs, which shows a good relationship with the calculat-
ed value of 100 u.secs.
In this section we have shown that by the two

equations:
'2..
68 VeQ C
10
are correct and agree closely with measured results.

!Ie also have shovm that a value for Vco is hard to obtain.
The supply voltage is 32 volts while the Vco voltace is
from 24 to 25 volts.
Checking the Q values for any alteration due to

the voltages and saturating currents.
Q- Veo Ic
lD(\+n) JT
for the 5uH inserted inductance:
4-33
Q-
4 ·18
while for the 20uH case:
23·4
4·5)(\-07\
J
\0-3
'2.0
3-4-8
The Q value for the 5uH case appears to be high, but

by taking into account the leakage inductance of the trans
former. And using the value of L obtained from graph 4-4
L -
Q,. -
3·07
While with the 20uH chopper, from graph 4-3 L=23.2uH.
Q - 2 3·4- fT(;3"
4-·5~\·011j~
- 3-24-
So although the voltage"Vco U was below expectation,

the Q values remain around the value obtained in chapter
and ap:lendix 1.
4-34
q(J t
..J
I
I
:'
13L- ...--~----'.-'---
<::U
Cl-
,- 50
..'
S)JH \.
.f.--:
Cl
I~
/!J5cr.r.::.c/ .t~ I
'- (f)
~
U
(5 U
U 1.11
:=i,
!,l.l
\7
gO
1
.Q
L
Q)
CL
c: so
20;1l-f -r-~
0
three grophs of -the COITH'nU rotlon
-t----
/>.i51?r··!~""(:/
E
:::J
·f' 1lrnCS ve,su.s +he \oe\O cUrrC\,T
c'::: <...,'J
0 I...J
QJ forcod .. of -the ~hrce T.e. Chopp':1rs
4 V if)
:::t.
0 -'--_ _ _ _ _ _ _ ~ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _L _..__ .___ ~_
qO.
-0
0
I-
Q)
CL.
c.: SO
.\ 6V)JtT
Q :/
0
-t- ...
G
-1- ..-
.:J
t
itlSCifed c- (Ji
C u
e
0 ~
0
~
_ _ _ _ _ _......L_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _--L_ _ . _ _ _ _.
0
0 5 \0
LOhO CURRENT Al'lPS
\.
,_. __._-------_ _._._----_ .•. ... __

-. ._._......_---_ ..•..- ....._-_._._--------_._-------_._--
CHAPTER 5
FINAL DIsCUSSION
In this chapter, the equations in chapter three

are grouped together to show that the processes
determining the capacitor voltage are stable. Also a
detailed comparison between the Transfer Current
Chopper and the McMurray Chopper is carried out.
CHAPTBH FIViil
The aim of any engineer is to eventually use his

or her knowledge of a system, to design a system to
work in a manner which he or she wants. So it is
worthwhile to talk about the design of Transfer Current
Choppers.
The initial method adopted in the design of these

choppers followed these steps.
(1) Initially ignore the term "n" and let it

equal zero.
(2) Guess a value for the voltage "Vco". This

voltage will not necessarily equal the
supply voltage.
(3) Choose a S.C.I?. with the characteristics

you want (Maximum continous current, di/dt,
dv/dt and maximum forward and reverse
voltage). S. C.R. ' s which have lower
commutation times are usually more expensive
to buy.
(4) From the chosen S.C.R. we have the minimum

required commutation time TO
(5) Calculate the required commutating capacitor
from the formula:
The load current 10 is the maximum load

current which is required to be commutated.
(6) Knowing the size of capacitance required

choose the core using the formula:
2
68 :: Veo C
The unknown quantities are B, A and N1 •

From the manufactures data book, the right
core to suit the above equation can be
found.
(7) Substitute in for "nit and make the appropriate
corrections. The diode liD" current is nT •
and sufficient current must flow through ihe
diode, in order to ensure that it is turned
on.
5-1
(8) To make the commutation period insensitive
to load current variations, have the
leakaee inductance such that the commutating
capacitor sees, complies with this formula.
3·0h3·2.= Q =- Veo ,K
Io(nt\)JT
Where L is the total leakage inductance, inserted
inductance plus the leakage inductance of the trans-
former.
With these steps it is hoped that your Transfer
Current Chopper works satisfactorily.
This method was used in the design of three choppers
used in the laboratory work. But it was found that
the hardest part in the design procedure is choosing
the right transformer core.
It was found later, by combining the equations for
the magnetic core and the commutating capacitor, a more
general equation covering the choice of cores can be
obtained.
Derivation of the general equation concerning

the magnetic core.
Throughout the project two equations play an

important role:
2
68 Veo C
To 2. \leo C
It (\+ n)
Changing A to Ac (cross-sectional area of the
magnetic core).
Introducing a new cross-sectional area, Aw. Aw

is the cross-sectional area of the chopper window.
where Aw x J =
J is the current density of the windings used
on the transformer core. Here we are assuming that
the transformer is wound as an auto-transformer.
from the defin·'tion of \\ nil
n :::
5-2
henc.e
2.
Now b.B -- VcoC
'LAw r Ac:.
AcAw -- v/.o c
'2. T b8
¢ C -- \oIt(\tnj
'L'Vee
Sub st 'l t ut \ (\'3 \n TOr- C
2-
AcAw - Veo
'2..6 8 J
2..
= Veo I\ x, To(\tn)
4-T6.B
AcAw - Power x Ta(\+n)

4-J~B
Power- ~ Ac Aw 4TLlB
To (\-tn)
From this equation we can see how to change different

parameters within the circuit to increase its power
handling capability. To increase the power, we would
increase Aw, Ac, J and i1B. To also increase the power
we decrease To, and n.
5-3
If we go through the core sizes available from
Phillips, we can gain an idea of the power that
Transfer Current Choppers made from these cores are
capable of handling.
From the Phillips handbook "Components and
Materials", we can obtain the following information:
Aw, Ac and A B.
The parameter tJ' would have to be determined by

both the losses which the chopper can handle and by
the acceptable temperature rise of the conductors of
the transformer windings. 'To' will be determined
by the actual S.C.R. which is being used. tn' will
be kept as low as possible as to keep the efficiency
of the chopper high.
Now what are the figures for Aw, Ac and ~ B
for the various cores. For all cores B = 0.7 teslas.
For core E20/10/5:

Ac 3 1 .2 x 1 0 -6 metres square
= Aw = 27 x 1 0 -6 metres square
Ac Aw ~B = 31.2 x 10- 6 x 27 x 10-6 x 0.7 = 5.90 ~ 10- 10
For core E30/15/7:
Ac = 59.7 x 10 - 6 metres square 80 x 1 0 -6 metres square
Aw =
Ac Aw nB = 59.7 x 10-6 x 80 x 10-6 x 0.7 = 3.34 x 10- 9

For core E42/21/15:
Ac = 182 x 10-6 metres square Aw = 178 x 10- 6 metres square
Ac Aw 6B = 182 x 10 -6 x 178 x 10 -6 x 0.7 = 2.27 x 10 -8
For core E55/28/21:
Ac = 354 x 10-6 metres square Aw 10-6 metres square
= 250 x
Ac Aw 6B = 354 x 10 -6 x 250 x 10 -6 x 0.7 = 4.41x -108

for Core E65/32/15:
Ac = 532 x 10- 6 metres square Aw = 394 x 10- 6 metres square
Ac Aw ~B = 532 x 10-6 x 394 x 10-6 x 0.7 = 1.47 x 10-7
Cores
--- Aw Ac B
E20/10/15 5.9 x 10 -10

E 30/15/7 3.34 x 10- 9
E42/21/15 2.27 x 10- 8
E55/28/21 4.41 x 10- 8
E65/32/15 1.47 x 10- 7
TABIJE 5.1 LISTING OJ? POWER PARAMETERS FOR THE VARIOUS

CORES
5-4
Vie shall deter:~tine what amounts of power that a
Transfer Current Cnopper can handle using these cores.
Using conservative for J and To, and letting n=O.1
Letting t J t = 2.5 x 10 6 amps/metre 2
'To' = 40 x 10-6 sec
Power = Aw Ac D.B)( 4J
T0 (1 + n)
4-J
6
= 4 x 2.5 x 10
40 x 10-6 x 1 • 1
11
= 2.27 x 10
Using the largest core for the transformer E/65/32/15
Power = 1.47 x 10-7 x 2.27 x 10 11

= 3.34 x 10 4 watts
= 33.4 Kilo-watts
Using less conservative values for J and To, it is
possible to bring the amount of power that can be handled
to a higher value. 133.6 Kilowatts which is a reasonable
load.
Using the E65/32/15 cores and J = 5 x 10 6 amps/
metres 2 and To x 10-6 sees, and leaving n=O.1
Power = 1.47 x 10-7 x 4 x 5 x 10 6
20 x 10- 6 x 1.1
= 133.6 Kilowatts
While using the smaller cores and conservative
values for J gnd To. J = 2.5 x 10 6 amps/metres 2 , and
To = 40 x 10- secs., and leaving n=O.1
.Power = 5.9 x 10-10 x 4 x 2.5 x 10 6
40 x 10-6 x 1 • 1
-10 x 2.27 x 10 11
== 5.9 x 10
2
= 1.34 x 10 watts
= 133.4 watts.
So there is a large variety of power that the chopper

can handle
5-5
By using the formula:
PO'Nei - Aw Ac 68 4J
To(\t\"\)
can sort the cores according to their power level

and is an easier method than using
~B - Veo'2.. C
So it appears that the design procedure is a simple

one, but from the lab. work it was found that the voltage
"Vco n is hard to predict and this leads us into the
next part of the discussion involving design.
5-6
5.2 VOLTAGE STABILITY
From chapter three and four it was shown that the

capacitor voltage varies considerably over the commutation
period. The question is what is the steady state value
for "yco n and what determines this voltage.
In many ot~er choppers elaborate methods are used

to control the commutating capacitor voltage. (see page 1-8)
It is unfortunate that with the Transfer Current

Chopper and The McMurray Chopper the discussion of the
control of !tyco" has to be theoretical as the concept
and importance of this voltage became known at this
later part of this project. The voltage "Yco" plays an
import~nt role in the commutation period by having a
voltage "Vi!5!O" below the supply voltage we will need a
larger capacitor and a larger core. By having Yco
higher than the supply voltage we will need a lower
capacitor voltage and a smaller core. So there is an
advantage in looking into this control of "Yco" as far
as the design of the chopper is concerned.
During the operation of the chopper we already know

that there is a large variation of the comr~utating capacitor
voltage. eg. the fall and rise of the capacitor current.
Jith this variation of voltages there are two problems.
The first is what is stopping the system, each time
commutation occurs to continually build up the capacitor
voltage and eventually becoming out of control? The
second is what determines the capacitor voltage "Yco"?
An easy chopper to look at to see how this voltage

stabili ty occurs, is the I\ITcMurray Chopper.
Earlier it was described by placing a resistance

and diode in the circuit, it is possible to bring the
commutating capacitor voltage back to the supply voltage.
This capacitor voltage is then reversed. The capacitor
voltage is then Ys x K, where K is less than one. This
voltage Ys x K is not the voltage "Yco".
However, this is a simple mode of operation, it is not

the most efficient way. A much more efficient mode is
to leave the capacitor voltage above the supply voltage.
Reverse the voltage on the capacitor just before it is
needed and then use it. This brings up the problem that
because of this method the voltage "Yco" could be greater
than the supply voltage. During section 3.2, page 3-3
the expression for the capacitor voltage when the capacitor
current has fallen to zero was derived and is given again.
This equation only applies to the McMurray Chopper

for Yco less than the supply voltage "Ys".
5-7
With the McMurray Chopper, the voltage Vco is the
commutating capacitor voltage when the capacitor current
equals the load current for the McMurray Chopper.
vThile with the Transfer Current Chopner it is the voltage
when the capacitor current is equal to (1 + n) times the
load current. Vco is also the commutating capacitor
voltage when the capacitor current falls below these
levels.
Since the ahove equation does not apply for Vco

greater than the supply voltage, we shall determine the
final commutating capacitor voltage when the capacitor
current falls to zero; where Vco is greater than the
supply voltage.
Laplace E9u\vc\en-t of the C\fCU\ t
5 upp\ y - \I s - \J co +l I I
\)s - Veo -t II \
5
l(s) {52 + _\ 1.. L

LC} s
I(S) Ys - 'Veo ,. SL1t

~?- t -Cc) L
for <3= ~
J LC
Vs-\Jco t j LIt
JLC
5-8
2D -
The curren' passes +hrou5h an o["\~e of
<X. = IT _
2
tQn-t{ (Veo - Vs)
II
rc}
JT.
(Vco-Vs)!t
D~
Current express \on \5 '-
J I?- -t (Yeo - Vs?-L

L
cas(cut t 04-)
Vc(s) - M + Veo
cs S
- Vs - Vco +S L 11
(S'2.+[c)LCS
- Ys - Veo +SLII + \fceel c..:,l£. t \Jeo
CLS(S7. t -bJ
\/5 + S LII + 'Icc Cl 52.
C l S ( S 2. + Lc..)
5-9
fer s= 0 lUe have Ys
we.. have Ys T ~ L 1:.\ - \}CC0

J[C
LC x 2.. ¥~
LC
Vco-Vs
-IV§-
From pOCje 5 - 9 we have
= tan-
l
{1' -Vs J!L}
Veo c
from the locus diagram on this page we can see that
when the capacitor voltage vector has moved through an
angle of the capacitor voltage has reached its peak of
5-10
The current vector and hence the voltage vector will
move through an angle of ex... ',·'lhen the current vector
has moved through an anf~le of 0<....., it will be zero and
hence the o.C.R: will switch off.
Combining the voltaGe expressions:-
~rhe voltage when the S. C. H. switches off is
(yeo - Vs) '2. -1- I?- L -\- Vs

C
So the final voltage for the commutating capacitor
voltage, for Vco greater than the supply voltage is:
Vf - j (Vee -Vsl + 1(- ~ -\- Ys
The equation for the final capacitor voltage, for

the voltage "Vco" less than the supply voltage is
Vf V5 t lIfe
Note that these two equations agree when the capacitor
voltage equals the supply voltaee.
These two equations can be expressed in a different
manner.
v+
Vs
(VCO-Vsl
\is
+ -I?-
2.
Vs C
L
- t 'J2
Vs
= J(Veo - VsY- +
Vs
,'2- \
\If --
Vs
-Vs
Vs
t IF:
1-1
~. C
+Y
So we have expressions for Vf and Vf/Vs. For the foll-

owing calculations we shall still use Vf
Vs.
Vf will be greater than 1 always.
Vs
5-11
After the cRpaCitor current has fallen to zero it
must hold its voltage until the next commutation. It
will loose some of its vOltage and hence its voltage
before reversal is Yf x K1
Vs
The capacitor voltage is then reversed. From
chapter three and four it was found that the capacitor
vOltage after reversal is given by:
where K2 is related to the losses of the reversal

circuit.
Vc
Vs
to make the mathematics easier we shall ne~lect
the term y~. At high voltages this is a justified
Vs
method, but atlower voltage it is not a good aprox-
. +.
lrnavlon.
K2. \\l Vr-

Vs
from the section 3-1 dealing with the rise of the

capacitor current.
Veo vt - 1'-
\ -L
C
Vro L
Vs C
If Vco is greater than 1 then Vco is greater than

Vs- '
the supply voltage.
5-12
With the first example assume that Vco is less than
the supply VOltage and Vco/Vs is less than unity.
Vc K Vf
Vs '/5
where K\Jf K + KY
\Is
- !\<o..'l-( \ + 2.'1 -\- '12) _y1..
as long as K2(1 + 2Y + y2) - y2 remains less than

or egual to one, the system will remain static.
Under what conditions does the voltafe "Veo" equal
the supply voltage?
for this suitation Veo = 1
Vs
for a given value of Y, what value of K do we need

for Veo = 1?
Vs-
K'2. -- \ -t y?.
\ t?Yt y7[
\t\ = j \ +'12-
\+y
5-13
Y 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
K 1 0.91 0.85 0.80 0.77 0.75 0.73 0.72 0.71 0.71 0.71
TABIJE 5. t. TABLE OF K VBRSUS Y FOR VCO/VS EQUAL TO UlifITY
Making Y the subject of the equation:
finding the roots:
= -v(2~JK4_(~4_L~'2.t\)
\-(2. _\
The particular root we want is:
= y _K2+J~~2-\
K2. - \
K2. - J 2.",2..-t
\_\<.'2..
The expression:
\ _ ",2.
gives values of Y great:er than uni ty vihich cannot

physically eXist and the chopper commutate.
The minimum value of K is.r0:5 for any value

below this the voltage Vco will never be greater.
K 1 0.95 0.90 0.85 0.8 0.75
Y o 0.054 0.119 0.2 0.308 0.478
TABLE 5. 2 TABLI~ OF Y VERSU_~ K ~OR VCO/v..S EQUAL TO UNITY
5-14
We have an expression for Vco as long as it is
less than the supply voltage.
The relation between Vco/Vs to Y and K is shown in
Graph 5.1. Looking at these curves, we see some
interesting shapes. In a number of the curves the
relationship peaks and falls away to zero as Y is in-
creased.
However this graph does not tell us why the comm-

utating capacitor reaches a stable condition. Nor does
the graph tell us how the commutating capacitor voltage
reach a stable condition. Graph 5-1 shows the steady
state conditions for Vco/Vs for various K and Y.
])irectly graph 5-1 is of little use in the design
of a McMurray Chopper. :llhe voltage which plays an
important role in the operation of the McMurray Chopper
is the voltage Vc. This voltage determines the
commutation times.
see PQ~e 1-5
~ = (I t Y) v\
Vs
By having Vc greater than the supply voltage a
smaller capacitor can be usen. The values fur Y and K
for which Vc/Vs is equal to unity are:
\= (ltY)~
1-- \ - Y
K
y = 1-\-\
K
K .95 .90 .85 .80 .75 .71 .65 .60 .55 •• 5
Min Y .053 .111 .176 .25 .333 .408 .538 .667 .818 1
TABLE 5-3 VALUES OF Y VEHSUS K SUCH THAT Vc/Vs = 1
The value for a chopper operating with K of 0.65

and a Y of of 0.7 gives~
Vc = (I + 0·7) x 0'55 = I· IOlj

\Is
5-15
I-
t 05
~ 0,55
i
~
~
- -
-t----y,--"------\---'.Q~
:! -
~/'
-I
.,::..
o
-\
o o-s 1-0
'-'
A Graph 5-/ VcojVs versus Y
lor dif'feren f /OS5 cO/1.5fOIl ts /{
I
. t~
l
.~
'. Fot' Mc/VturrclJ Chopper
(n= 0)
I
;j
I
I
1
!!
i i
l____________.________.___
For choppers operating with a K equal to or greater
than 0.71 and operating at high values of Y it becomes
difficult to determine the value of Vc/Vs. The reason
for this, is Veo/Vs is greater than~. An equation for
Vf, when Vco is greater than the supply voltage was
derived earlier. But little can be done with this
formula as it proves difficult to obtain Vco/Vs in
terms of Y and K.
For conditions where Veo/Vs is greater than one,
the final capacitor voltage is given by:
Vf I~co~vsl + ,2- +
Vs
\Ie --
-- KJrcCD~;j~ +'(2- + K
\Is
_ y2.
Veo
\Is J(~J~
Veo
Vs
j K2{j (Yc~Vs)1 t ,Q. + If -y2
It proves difficult to obtain an expression where
Vco/Vs is the subject of the expression. If we were
designing a r:lfcMurray chopper we would be interested in
the expression for Vc/Vs.
t K
For this expression we need an equation for Vco/Vs

in terms of Y and K, which we do not have.
It would be possible by means of a digital computer
to obtain curves for Vco/Vs for various K and Y. From
the results for Vco/Vs curves for Vc/Vs can be obtained.
Because of time this was not done. However, it can
be shown that the McMurray Chopper does achieve voltage
stablization, although an equation for steady state values
has not been obtained.
Assume that we have a chopper with the following

p~rameters. K = 0.8 and Y = 0.6. We will start off with
an initial voltage where Vc=Vs and we will trace the
capacitor voltage movements.
5-16
Commutation No. Zero - Vc = 1
Vs
Yeo = J 1'2. - (0·6)'2.. = 0·8 which \5 \ess than one

'Ys
\If - 1-\-0·6 - \-6

\Js
Commutation No. One - Vc = K Vf = 0.8 x 1.6 = 1.28

Vs VB
Veo = J (\·?.ra)~ -(O>6)<L =\-l3}

Vs
::J£ - J (0 ·13 \)~ t (O·6)?. t \ - \. G\4-
Vs
Commutation No. Two - Vc = 0.8 x 1.614 = 1.29 1

Vs
Veo =J(\0'2.(11)1- - (0 0(,)'2. = \ \4-'3

Vs
Vi- = J (0· \4-3)'2.. +(o.~)tt. +, = \·617

Vs
Commutation No. Three - Vc = 0.8 x 1.617 = 1.294
Va
Veo =)(1 '2.<14)'" -

0
(0 0
f ::
E, to t45
Vs
Vf - J(o· \46)2. t (0' b') L + \ = \,6 \1
Vs
5-17
Commutation No. Four Vc = 0.8 x 1.617 = 1 .294
Vs
Veo -- J (\-2.94-')'2- - (0'6)'1. -- \. \46

Vs
:R -- J (0-146)'2. +(0'6)1 +) -- \'b\8

Vs
Commutation No. Five Vc = 0.8 x 1.618 = 1.294

Vs
From the above results it can be seen that the comrn-

utating capacitor voltage has stablized, with Vc = 1.294
Vs. It would be a shame to dissipate the extra energy
which is associated with the 0.294 volts, through a
resistor. This extra voltage can be used in the design
of the chopper. It is annoying that there was not
sufficient time to find out ways in which the fact that
Vc is a function of both load current and losses can be
exploited in the design of a McMurray Chopper.
An important conSideration is that Y can Change

quickly. Y is proportional to load current. It would
be interesting to see how the capacitor voltage alters,
when the load current is reduced.
To simulate this condition assume that Vco/Vs = 2

and using the same values for K and Y.
Commutation No. Zero Vc = 2

Vs
Veo -- J2.'2 - (a-())'2. - - (·Q08

Vs
Vf -- J(O-90Bl t (0-6)?. + \ -- L'O«38

Vs
Commutation No. One Vc = 0.8 x 2.088 = 1.671

Vs
Veo - jO-G70'2. - (0 6 )'2.

Vs
Vf - )' (O·55Q)2 + (0'6)2 +\F \ '520
Vs
5-18
Commutation No. Two - Vc = 0.8 x 1.820 = 1.456
Vs
Veo -- J (\ '45b)~ - (0''0)''- -- \,{;)2.7

Vs
Vf -- j (0' 32.7) 2 + (0 '6) L t\ -- \·683

Vs
Commutation No. Three - Vc = 0.8 x 1.683 = 1.347

Vs
V~O
-- j (1'34-7)2 - (O-t>)'2. = \-2-05
Vs
Vr -- j (Q'lOSi- t (0'6)2 + \ -- \ ·63L)-

\Js
Commutation No. Four - Vc = 0.8 x 1.634 = 1.307

Vs
Yeo - j ( \'301)2.. -( o·ro)'1- = \. \~'2.

Vs
Yf = J (0·\b2.)2 + (O'G)?" 1- \ = \ob'2..\
Vs
Commutation No. Five - Vc = 0.8 x 1.621 = 1.297

Vs
Veo -- / (\'<Lq 1')2- - (O'6)L -- \.\ 50

--vs
Yf -- /(O'\50Y- t (O'b)2' -\- \ -- \·6\<a
Vs
Commutation No. Six - Vc = 0.8 x 1.618 = 1.295
5-19
;1/hich is the same result obtained by having the
initial capacitor voltage equal to the supply voltage.
So the commutating capacitor reaches a steady state
value of 1.295 - 1.294 times the supply voltage.
This voltage is independant of the path followed in
getting to the steady state value of Ve. There is
another piece of information gained from these two
examples. With the first example, withVc/Vs initially
equal to one, the Commutating Capacitor Voltage rises
quite quickly. In one commutation the voltage HVC tt was
within 1.5% of its steady state value. dith the second
example with VC/Vs initi~lly equal to two, the comm-
utating Capacitor VOltage fell slowly. In chapter four
commutations of the load current, the voltage nVc ll was
within 1% of its steady state value.
This information becomes important when the chopper
has to deal with a transient load current condition eg.
during the start of a D.C. motor. If it is possible to
operate a McMurray Chopper such that Vc is greater than
the supply voltage it must be able to handly the transient
conditions as well as the steady state. This means that
the capacitor voltage nvc" must follow the load current
quickly. This is very important to have this condition
with rising load current. With the load current
falling this following is not as important. The only
disadvantage being that it decreases the efficiency of
the chopper.
TRANSF~R CURRENT CHOPPER
We have talked considerably about the McMurray

Chopper, so it is reasonable that we should talk about
the Transfer Current Chopper.
It was shown in Chapter Three that the final
voltage expression is {for Vco less than supply vOltage1
Vs + l'if:
\jf + ~IL. +y
Ys \Is" C
Vc K Vf
The formula for Vco is slightly different.
V/o j vl: - I~ (l+n)'2. t
5-20
Veo
Vs
The (n +\) '2. "IS -the new te.rm

For a full understanding 0 f the opera tioD of the
chopner we have to determine an expression for Vf for
Vco greater than Vs. This condition has only been
observed and as yet no experimental evidence has been
done to analyse the condition and determine exactly
what is happening.
Once the commutating SCR, S. C.R. flSCR2" is triggered
the commutation process begins. The capacitor current
builds up to a current (1 + n) times the load current.
The transformer flux begins to alter. The main SCR,
S.C.R.ffCR" is commutated. The question is what norm-
ally stops the operation of the chopper. The core mayor
may not saturate in the negative direction. But it will
eventually saturate in the positive direction. dhen
the core goes into positive saturation it has no longer
its ideal transformer characteristics. The main SCR
is forward biased. Since the SCR has had sufficient
time to turn off no current flows through the SCR.
This is not the only way of stopping the commutation

process. Looking at Fig 1.1 nOutput Voltage Waveform u ,
we see that by the action of the transformer core,
the capacitor vrutage is added to the supply voltage.
:Cquating primary and

secondary VOltages
Therefore the output voltape is; V = Vs t (\ +n) E

When the capacitor voltage goes negative, E goes
negative. Thus the output voltage begins to reduce.
5-21
When this output voltage goes negative the flywheel
diode begins to conduct. The flywheel diode stops
the output voltage being any less than the diode's
forward voltage drop. As the flywheel diode begins
to conduct there is no longer a constant current
flowing through the commutating capacitor. Also
the transformer's flux cannot increase, as the
supply voltage and the flywheel diode will not allow
it to. This means that the whole commutation
process breaks down.
If we ignore the forward voltage drop across the
diode we can determine the capacitor voltage at which
this all occurs.
o Vs t (\ +n) E
•
4 • E -Vs
\+ll
The magnitude of the capacitor voltage will be less

than the supply voltage, when the commutation process
ceases.
So the final voltage will be given by:
W :: Vs + TIff
If this is what actually happening we would expect
to see a flux waveform similar to that shown in figure
5. 1 •
+ 0-35
o -----~ ----------------
-0,35
FIG .. 5.1 FLUX CHANGES NITH VCO GREATER THAN THE SUPPLY
VOLTAG.8
----
5-22
The uppermost waveforms shown in the photograph
of the chopper for 20uH, are the transformer flux
movements. This waveform was achieved by wrapping a
few windings around the core and using an intergrator
made from a reSistor and capacitor.
With large values of Vc waveforms Similar to that
shown. in graph 5.1 were observed. This indicates it
was not the positive saturation of the core forcing
termination of the commutation process. But as yet
carefull analysis of this mode of operation has not
been carried out.
This means that the expression for the final voltage
has not been tested. The expression for Yf is correct,
ignoring any effects due to the core and the SCRs
This means that the expression:
Vf +~!L
Vs VsJc
covers the operation of the chopper when Vco is greater
than or less than the supnly voltage. (makes things
easier). fiith this, it is possible to write an ex-
pression for Vco/Vs and show the factors which affect
its steady state values.
Vf +'Y
Vs
Vc - KVf - K( \ +Y)
Vs Vc
Vco= J~'2.(ItY)2. _(I;-n)L'(1...

Vs
The term (1 + n)2 introduces a third variable.

If n=O, we would have the same curves which were
drawn for the r~cIVlurray Chopper. Graph 5-1. Normal
design values for n would range from 0.05 to 0.1. Two
graphs for Vco/Vs were draw~n, graph 5-2 with n=O.05 and
graph 5.3 with n=O.1.
From these two graphs we can see that Vco/Vs is a
function of t-<-) J\ and n. Ni th lower values of K and
high values of n the dependancy of Vco/Vs is increased.
When looking at these graphs it should be remembered
that the transfer current chopper normally operates in
the low values of Y, normally less than 0.4. In this
region Vco/vs is always greater than K. The method of
capacitor voltage control is more efficient than just
using a reSistor to bleed off the excess voltage, such
5-23
t -
t
0-65
0-60
" .'
o 0-5 •~
G-raph5-2 \,. \-0
.. r vcojVs
.. tor differenf /0< versus Y
For the Tt, ,,'s constants K
fVl7Srer C . . .
wIth /1 =0.05 urrerd Chop,cel"
.... --_..- .-.-

.~----
f' ,
. I
t
(11
>
! . '0--
.U
>
1 .' . 0-5
0-50
. I
o o-s 1-0
Groph 5-3 Vco/Vs versus Y··
for dIfferent \055 constcmts K
For the.Tran\;1er Current ChOpy2f
. \\lIth r1 ::: 0,(
as in the McMurray Chopper shown on page 1-8. With that
particular McMurray Chopper the voltage ratio Vc/Vs=K
The formula for Vco/Vs would be
Vco
Vs
:E1rom this equation alone, it can be seen tha t the
voltage would be lower. Any Transfer Curent Chopper
using such a methould would be at a disadvantage.
Requiring a larger capacitor and with a larger change
in capacitor voltage larger losses.
So far with both the McMurray and Transfer Current
Choppers only praise has been spoken for havingVc and
Vco (respec~ively) greater than the supply voltage.
However, there is one disadvantage with this technique.
The transfer Current Ci10pper has the disadvantage that
with Vco/Vs greater than one the commutation period is
decreased. The reason for this being the fact that it
is the capacitor vOltage and not the core positively
saturating, causing the collapse of the commutating
process. This effect might be able to be corrected by
adjusting the value of Q. Because of time this was
not proven.
5-24
~__. COMPARISON OF CHOPPERS
At present there may be some confusion between

and Y and Q. To strengthen the definition of Q on page
2-13 we have defined Q as:
Q -
The important terms are the constants Vco and 10.

These two constants are the voltages and load currents
at which the core just saturates in the negative direction.
The term A was defined as the maximum value of Y
on page 1-6. Y was defined as being:
y - LIL
vole
It was assumed that the value Vo was constant and
in a number of cases the voltape Vo was replaced for the
supply voltage Vs. It was fou~d in this chapter that
the voltage Vo is a function of the load current. For
the purpo~es of showing this
y h/L
\is j c
(I represents the load current which is to be
commutaied). This means that the previous definition
of Y is not being contradicted. It is hoped that you
will bear with me, as each chapter is in many ways in-
dependant of each other. In each chapter Y and 'J\ Have
been defined.
In chapter one the term U.F.e. was introduced.
Mr. Akamatsu and Co. used this term to show the advant-
ages of the transfer current chopper. By making
generalizations, different types of choppers can be
compared using this term D.F.C. The inverse of the
U.F.e. can be used as an order of merit.
Example: One chopper having an D.F.C. of 0.8

has a commutating capacitance of C farads. A second
chopper has a D.F.e. of 0.3 and a capitance of e t
farads. The ratio of the two capacitors are such that:
0-8e 0-3C I
c 0-3 c' O·3<3C'

o·~
5-25
Higher U.F.O. means a lower value of capacitance.
The reason for this is, the chopper with the higher
U.F.e. is using the charge on its commutating capacitor
more effectively. This means that a lower value of
capacitance is required.
As well as considering the size of the commutating
capacitor, there is the question of how much loss is
caused by the commutating process. Losses within a
chopper depend upon the method of commutation and the
size of the commutating capacitance. (loases within
the chopper circuit are proportional to the size of the
capacitance value. A chopper with a high U.?C. will
have the advantage of a low value of capacitance and
generally lower losses compared with a chopper with a
low U.F.C.
The main comnetitor against the T.C. chopper is the
McMurray chopper. The McMurray chopper has the highest
U.F.C. value outside the T.C. chopper. In some sections
of operation, the McMurray U.F.C. is the same as the T.C
chopper.
We shall now compare the two choppers generally.
With this comparison of the two choppers it is assumed
that the capacitor voltages are independent of the load
current. That is Vc=Vs (for the McMurray) and Vco=Vs
(for the Transfer Current).
The commutation period for the McMurray chopper
was derived in chapter one.
tc = 'L JLC C05-

1
{ Jsk}
y =~~k
tc ?.JLC (05-$"<)
u. F. C of the MclVTurray chopper is Y cos -1 Y ( see page

1-6) which has a maximum of 0.56 for Y ranging from 0.6
to 0.7.
DETERMINING THE U.F.C. AND T.e. OF THE T.C. G:HOPPER
It is possible with the transfer current chopper to
design the circuit such that tc remains independant of
the load current. This is only true for currents below
a certain value. For the chopper to achieve this situation
the leakage inductance (transformer plus inserted induct-
ance) must equal L.
5-26
L must correspond to this equation:
Q ~ 3-0 - Vs /c \
I(\\+~JL 'A
Where Io is the load current where the core just
saturates in the negative direction tc is given by:
tc = 2VsC while the core negatively

IoCn +$ saturates tc remains
constant at this value.
and also while the core does not

negatively saturate
(varies with the load
current) .
This last expression can be rewritten as:
~ = 2- VsC l
!Lc 1$n+$ jil
-- ~Vs
I, (n-u)
If
L
tc -- L
JLC Y(fLtt)
VVhile the value for tc wi th Y less than 0.33 is:
Determining the U.F.C. of the Transfer Current Chopper

wi th Y ~ 0.33
U.F.C. - l\ tc = 1\ tc..
C 6\Jc C 2.Vs
5-27
with the core not going into negative saturation.
tc -- ~ VsC
I((\+f\)
U.F.C. -- 11 X ~ \jsC
'LCVs l$\t\$
-- --L ~ remO\f\ S CO\\si- an-\:)

\t-n
so for a chopper with n = 0.1 the U.F.C. outside the

saturated region is:
U.F.c. - \ - 0·9\
\ -t 0·\
for a transfer current chop~er with n = 0.2
U.F.C. _. \ - 0-S3
1+0·2.
So for a high D.F.O. n has to be kept low.
What is the D.1!'.C. for the T.C. chopper when the

core does go into negative saturation?
U.F.C. =
2Vs x C
Tc remains constant
C remains constant
2Vs remains constant
Ii is the load current which does
vary depending upon load cond-
i tions.
U.F.C. = I i x constant
and hence it is a straight line relation-

ship.
,ilien I = 10 (10 is the minimum current beIore the

core saturaies).
5-28
U.F.C. - -IL l<. _I_
Ie, nt \
If the commutation period remains constant, then the

D.F.e. of the chopper is an easy thing to determine.
But what happens when Tc does not remain constant, but
alters for currents less than the supply voltage. This
is especially an occurrence if the chopper is designed
to operate with a Q of 1 or 2.
To determine the D.F.G. in these cases we have to
determine tc. In Appendix 1, tables for tc in terms of
To are given (T is the commutation time when the core
just negativelyOsaturates and 10 is the load current
at that particular occurrence). 'ro find the particular
commutation time tc for a current Ii' you must put the
current Ii in per unit terms.
Let K - 11
Io
from the tables for a particular Q and K we obtain

tc in terms of To' let this be expressed as:
p = tc
To
From this we can determine the D.F.C. of the circuit
U.F.c. = I\tc -- V\. 10 PTo

C 2. Vs C 2. \Is
To -- ?.. Vs C
Ie (n t l)
U.F.C. = K2.(IoP X 2 VsC

Vs Ie (f\ -T 0
-- 1~P
n +I
K -- YO
5-29
Interesting relationship
Y=.1L!f\fs C
U·r·C. = py~ whe.r-e P \s founa from '\-c:\o\es

nt l \isted in appe\\chx Olte.
Example for working out the U.}?C. for:
Q = 2, Y = 0.4, n = O. 1
K =Qx y = 0.8
From appendix I, and table for Q = 2 & K = 0.8
P = 1.11152.
U.F.C.= PYG - \'\U52x 0·41< 2. - 0-808

f\+-\ \.\
We have already obtained a relationship for tc/jLC

for the McMurray chopper and also one for the transfer
current chopper (while the transformer doesnot negatively
saturate). We still have to obtain one for the Transfer
Current Chopper with Q equal to other values besides
3.2 to 3.0 and with the core negatively saturating.
Again we need the assistance of the tables in

Appendix one.
from qppend ix one tc -::: p" to
to -- L Ys.C
to (r\tO
Q -- Vs ~
I() L
5-30
tc Pto Px'LCxVs
n t\ Io
tc.-- -
- Pt.-
a Px~ x Vs rc
IoJL"
fCcfCI 0+1
Interesting, maximum of Y is l/G..

From graphs 5.4 and 5.5 we can see how the Transfer
Current [-tnd McMurray Choppers, U.:8'.C. and t/JLC values
vary with Y. These curves differ from the curves given
by Mr. Akamatsu and Co. (see figs. 6 and 7.)
Graphs 5.4 and 5.5 give a rather too optimistic view

of the differences. These graphs make the Transfer
Current Chop~er appear far more superior than it should
be.
It would be better to graph U.F.C. and tc for the
two choppers as a function ;f load current. If we are
comparing two different types of chopners we should
compare them as if they were uSing the same type of
S.C.R. and handling the same rang~ of load currents.
!he relationships for D.F.e., and tc versus 11 are.shown
1n graphs 5.6 and 5.7. In tnese two graphs the dlff-
erences between these two choPDers are not as dramatic
as would be believed by looking at ~raphs 5.5 and 5.4.
Prom graph 5.4, we see that the Transfer Current
Chopper has the advantage of the commutation period
remaining constant. Th~ commutation period for the
McMurray Chopper varies to a maximum of 1.69T . (the
chopper was designed with a A of 1 11.67 = o. g or a
ma:ximum of Y equal to 0.6 and a Q of 1.67.)
From graph 5.6 we see that the D.F.C. for the

Transfer Current Chopper overlaps the U.F.C. of the
McMurray Chopper for per unit currents less than 0.4.
From previous discussion in this chapter it could be
assumed that the McMurray Chopper is just as efficient
as the Transfer Current Chopper for K less than 0.4
(ratio of currents).
This is, however, not the case. From graph 5.7
we see that the McMurray period increases above what
is needed to turn the Load S.C.R. off. The dash line
II F~ f f e c t i "iT e U. F. C. If S how s the value s for th e U. J!'. C .
which is calculated from the commutation period which
is necessary to turn the S.C.R. off. This is a further
refinement of the definition of U.F.O. It is only
wasteful to have extra commutation period than is
necessary.
5-31
I; -
~'i'~~~ I
I'
I
G=2. (~::l
I
, -, -. --- -r7;-
-. )-t-c ---;:-:.:.:-":~
... Q~-~~)," _. -;;;r -_. --'
n=D·'
n, 0'1 Scl\d \ines indicate 1ne
reSjicn eve. whiclr>. the cbc?pe:-
I
'; /r'
' ' .t
-, 50hd lines indic.clte the , '. •. ,Call cpel'a.+e .. , ..
u re3ion C)\J€r' V'Jh\ch chopper- t.Ql\
6.~37 f'~O
w: / operOi€.
v\~.
1---- \
,
1
!,
1 .-',
.rJt; \ ,
0
'
:J I ...... ; 5~.t:'lf\:':O\ TC
//;1/' ~Q=\-~? "" "
0,-4: ~I
,1/ /
. \
' r ':'
:~;urfaj """"", I
OJ /%1///
0,2 /1/:()1
Me Murr-a'J \
I
z L ,:'., ----..-____--'-----.. I, '
fl il
I.
I
--- !
I;·
t -'.
J
O'L I~',/
I /V I
I i
I
olP' I
o I I I ! .....l-..L~ i
o 0'\ 0·2 0'3 fA O·~ 0'1) (j.( O·~ 0·" H) o 0-\ C..2 !}3 0·4- 0-5 .0·6 0-1 O'S Q'1 \~()
I
'(= 1J..
\Is. C
~ If , y::: lLiS.. ..:..:..
vsJC.- .
(
I
I
VI i 3otion k':lol" .vs\ood cUlren r Aeve;se bios ft'me charac1~r;5tic5; . !

GRAPH 5-4 vs lood current
Graph 5-5
I
•• I
~I!' •
.. ....;i)
.r
·':u.,'t
\-0_
0-8 L . .'
ji' '
--n"o-,
/?" _. - n::. 0-2

2.10
--.~".~ ....... ' '.' .
"'1-
. S~'.id. \ine.. s in:j.ic.atc the

'~\on. over W ',11C..b chapper-
I"'€.
CClnope\"Qte ..
//
y" .C·
"
....'1·,;
;. .: . .J .." :..
.' . . .~
...•..•. ~.}'1.c
~: :~
l'1u..r.ra. y...
.' "" ______
...' ..•.. ---...;.
. .. /~~~~-M~rtci3· t'To '-----'-~:. ',.
~
//" < . . ,," . . , " ....... ,... . .T.e: '.
t
,..J /<1 ./",".
,//.' ....... ",>/, . ~ .... _
.;:. ."
.{'€~\onover\.~h(crt \-i:e.,c.noppers
So\idlines ind.\(Qi€; the. .~".~~~~_)
:: if ...... ::~:::
'j
u..: ,« , / ./
//" . 0 o ' c. eln C'p€ rak
-S c
.. .
. , . ';
.I
~~ eMu r \' c, " :
'"
-; o2 ' /" . " E! f . U C t:" ,...E (U .. '. i..I
. I- /;" ,,/ - I .(lc1IVe • r. _ C 0-
I /~. ,
I.~~,''''
- /;,
. . ' J
.;/ ,
.- 0 /~'
1 \ -l---.J 1 ---' 0
o 0'2. 0·4 0'6 0'8 1;0 ,0 0-'2.: 0-4 0'0' 0-8 1-0 \.2.. .1·4
LoadCurr-eflt K~ I Load. C~r\E?n1 K~ i
U li 3ation fad'or vs. \ oad cutt'en.t Commuta1:lon' time V5. \ood .cut'r~Y\-t :.
GRAPH S-6 GRA?H 5:-{
I
. ~ ,f
\.~, .~J
,
Considering the U.F.e. and commutation period for
currents less than 10 it is only useful in a comparison
and to find methods in improving the operation of the
choppers.
The most important points are the maximum current.

Both choppers have to be designed to meet this load.
This current and the supply voltage will determine the
choice of components.
Comnarison of Losses:
Althouf'h the maximum current will determine the

components used in the choppers, a comparision of the
two choppers losses over the whole current rante would
be useful. The chopper may be operating over a narrow
range of currents. Meaning, that if one chopper has
less losses over part of the current range it may be the
better choice if the load current is normally in this
region.
For a simple comparlslon of losses there is a

large number of approximations. The first is to deal
with the capacitor voltage - Vo (McMurray) = Vco
(Transfer Current) = Vs (Supply Voltage). The next
calculation of losses within the chopper circuit.
One way would be to subtract the energy going to
the load and subtract it from the energy coming from
the supply.
An easier method and the one used is:
Energy lost per commutation = ~ C {\II; -\/"/n }

where Vp is the maximum capacitor Voltage
Vm is the minimum capacitor vOltage
So for the comparision of the two choppers we have
to design them. In designing a McMurray Chopper there
is a range of L & C which can be used. For minimum
capacitor size ranges between 0.6 and 0.7. To
minimize the inductor size should be kept low, so
we will choose A = 0.6.
"A. = 10 /L(m) = 0-5

Ys ~ C(m)
Where 10 is the maximum current.
L(m), cCm) are the inductance and capacitance

values for the McMurray Chopper.
Vlhile for the T. C. chopper A = 0-33
10 ~ 0-33
Vs j C(~~)
5-32
LCto), aCto) are the inductance and capacitance
values for the Transfer Current Choppers.
The D.F.C. of the McMurray Chopper is 0.56 (at
maximum load current) and the D.F.C. of the Transfer
Current is 0.94 with n=0.06. The relative capacitor
values are:
0.94 C(tc) = 0.56 C(m)

C(to) = 0.6 CCm)
The McMurray Chopper commutating capacitor is
bigger. How do the two inductors compare?
L (m)
0-5 \·68 ((tc)
0-33 L (tc)
C(~c)
3·3\ - L(m)
I-GB
L (tc)
L (~C.) = O-IS L ('0
The McMurray chopper requires a larger capacitor

and inductor, when compared to the Transfer Current
Chopper.
To calculate the efficiency of the two choppers
a further assumption needs to be made. The third
assumption is that the minimum voltage (Vm) for both
choppers supply voltage. This is only to make the
mathematics easier. Maximum capacitor voltage for
the McMurray Chopper is:
Vp -- Vs + I jL(nl) I
c em)
-- Vs + 1:/ 5-55 L(\:.c)

\·6 <6 c etc)
-- Vs -\- I, ~ log?.} L(t~

C(-tc)
Maximum capaci tor voltape for the McMurray Chopper.
5-33
YY-
Vs
- \ + \ -<02. "
The maximum voltage rise on the T.C. Chopper is:
Y-L- \ tY
Vs
Energy losses
With the McMurray Chopper -
Energy loss per commutation is:
1-
Vs etc.
1-
Wi th the Transfer Curr ent Chopper -
Energy loss per commutation is:
l.
Vs et.c
2
2
Ignorine the term Vs ctc which is common to both
expressions, we can have the following relative terms.
Power loss (T.C. chopper)
Power loss (McMurray Chopper) 6·\ 2.. '{ t 5·5{; \,'2-

5-34 'L
Ratio of Power Loss (McMurray Chop~ is
Power Loss (T.C. Chopper)
6-1[, Y + 5-56 y2-

2y +- y2.
The following table allows us to see how these
expressions vary with Y.
Y 0.05 O. 1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.31 0.33

T.C. 0.05 O. 11 0.16 0.22 0.28 0.35 0.38
M O. 16 0.33 0.52 0.72 0.94 1 .17 1 • 31
MIT. C. 3.20 3 3.5 3.27 3.36 3.34 3.41
TABLJ~ 5.4 COMPARISON OF POiVER LOSSES filTH Y.
From table 5.4 we see that the McMurray chopper

is more than 3 times the 10 ss of the ~r. C. Chopper.
But what do these losses actually represent?
Example: a T.C. Chopper operating with a supply

vOltage of 200 volts and a load current of 10 amps.
The commutatinf capacitance value is 2uH.
The maximum losses occur when the maximum

current is flowing.
Vp = 1 + Y} Y has a maximum value of

VB 0.33
Vp = (1 + 0.33) x 200
= 266 volts.
Energy loss is equal {266)2

2
= 3.076 x 10- 2 jo~les.
Say the chopper is operating a 1 kilohertz

-2
Loss in Power = 3.076 x 1 0
'Z
joules x 10J
1 second.
:::: 30.76 watts.

The McMurray Chopper wi th ,/\ = 0.6 would dissipate
104.89 watts
104.9 Jf
"2" 00 x 10 me an s a 5. 2'}0 los sin e f f i c i en c y •
26g·~ 10 means a 1.5% loss in efficiency.
So the T.C. Current Chopper does have an advantage

over the McMurray Chopper. ~{hen actually comparine
losses this method is rough. The S.D.R. forward voltage
drop results in losses. Also the minimum capacitor
5-35
voltage falls below the supply voltage.
If losses are important, the following chopper

has the least losses of any chopper.
S upp\y
IrtQuctGnce
3 4
Load
I\,.qODIFIED PARALLEL CAPACITOR CH01-:lpEH
To commutate S. C.R. "CR", S. C.R.s is 1 & 4 are triggered.

On the next commutation S.C.R.s 2 & 3 are triggered.
The operation of the chopper is the same as the Parallel
Capacitor Chopper.
If there is no inductance in series with the supply,
there is no build of capacitor voltage above the supnly
vol tage. J:his means that the minimum and maxi mum capaci tor
voltages are equal.
The only disadvantage with this chovper is the comm-

utation period.
tc - V~ C
It
It is a function of the load current. At low
currents the commutation period is large. This makes
operation at high frequencies difficult.
5-36
CONCLUSION
In this project detailed information about the

Transfer Current Chopper has been discussed. The
operation of the chopper has been described in greater
detail than Mr. M4 Akamatsu, M. Kumano and A. Kaza
cared to describe it in. In chapter four experimental
evidence was given to prove the justification of
equations derived in chapter three.
It is interesting to note that it takes one chapter

(chapter two) to describe the operation of the core.
It takes two large chapters (chpter three and five) to
describe the operation of the commutating capacitor
voltage outside the commutation period. dhat occurs
during the commutation period determines what size of
commutating capacitor is needed. But capacitor voltage
variation outside the commutation period determines the
efficiency of the chopper. It also determines the capacitor
voltage at the beginning of the commutation period.
The term U.F.C. introduced by Pro M. Akamatsu,

M. Kumano and A. Kaza, was used to compare capacitor
sizes durinr, this project. In addition it was used in
comparing losses, something Mr. M. Akamatsu & Co. did not.
State equations have been successfully avoided prov-

iding the designer with a richer understanding of what
is occurring. It is unfortunate that equations on page
2-16 and 5-23 have not been combined as to show the
full effects of Q and the losses within the chopper.
Another regret is that higher voltages could not

have been used. Thus giving a good in the designs.
The only source of high voltages which could handle
reasonable amounts of power were D.C. motors. These
motors have amounts of armature inductance. dhen the
capacitor current falls to zero, the large armature
inductance produces larg'efinal voltages, which is a
disadvantage.
A battery is the ideal vOltafe source. The problem
is that Iusti tute batteries have a maximum vol taQ'e of
approximately 31 volts. This meant that no expe~ience
was gained 'Ni th choppers operating at higher voltages.
Although the results obtained have low errors in

them, more ~ccurate results need to be obtained. One
such method wonld be to measure the time it takes for a
voltage to rise or fall below a certain value. There
are several triggering pulses which can be used as
starting pulses for the timing circuit.
There has been one assumption made throughout this

project, which has not been stated. ~his is, that there
is no lumped resistance between the inserted inductance
and the commutating capacitance. This allows for sim-
plified expressions. The expressions describing the
operation of the T.C. chopper would become complexed.
The effects of leaving out this resistance was not
observed by the experimental work. Sugf'esting that it
is small. Perhaps with more accurate techniques of
measurement any effects may be shovm.
CONCLUSION (contd)
Choppers can be treated as a complicated or a simple

thing. The deciding factor being what you are going to do
with them. Designing a chopper to operate at low freq-
uencies anrt without too much concern about losses would be
a simple task. But to design a chopper to operate at
high frequencies and with low power dissipation would
mean a great deal of work. The characteristics of the
load will also affect the design and choice of the type
of chopper.
A method for protecting the chopper was developed
and it worked. It consisted of a 0.05 ohm resistor,
which was used to the load current. When the load
reached a prescribed point it was chopped and the trigg-
ering circuit did not trigger the main S.C.R. itCH" for a
prescribed time. .-
No method was developed to detect a non-commutation

(commutation capacitor going to zero). This senSing is
important as the load current is no longer under control.
Detailed information of how to incorperate such a feature
was not given in this project because of time and space
reasons.
One final important point "What may be good for a
chopper may not necessarily be good for an inverter.tI
J.A. DOWSETT.
( 1) A Thyristor-FoTced COl.m.'1ut:ltion. l'Iethod VIi tIl Commutation
Current frel1sformer.
, . 1¥J
s};:,:un::n:,su, )/. K rU'!1,TI10 and .::~. Ii [iZ~i.
(2) • gdh.:a:ray, D.P. ;3hD. ttch: I.:J:.E.g. ~C:I·ans. on GOIDLRm. 'Slectronics,

Yolo CE - SO p. 531, No. 1961
The above Here only 11seful references fO'lmu. References on other

choppers cc:m be found at the back of Hel'. (1).
A userul design reference is the fol1o'ltJing
(3) Philips Data Handbook.

Components a.:.t1d l:Iaterials 0
Part It", JViarch 1970

APPENDIX ONE
This appendix consists of a listing of the results

obtained for the commutation period, with the initial
capacitor remaining constant. The variables Q and the
load current are varied.
On page 2-16 we have the following equations
T= To{~ -JH?-;K tt~-\t QJH\~-\\1)

\e t t "\(1g H:::: \
The computer printed the com8utation period in
terms of T , for various Q and K. Q varies between
and 4.5, wHile K varies between 0.05 and 0.95.
From the results, it can be seen that by having
~ between the values of 3.0 to 3.3, there will be little
variation of the commutation period.
The first column of the results is K, the second
is the time the core is negatively saturated. The third
column is the time where the core is not positively or
negatively saturated. The fourth column is the addition
of the second and third columns. (The last three columns
are in terms of To.)
IJISTING OF PROGRAM USED

-"---------
0001 Let H=O
0002 For Q=1 TO 5.5 Step .1
0004 Let H=H+1
0005 If H < 4 then go to 0020
0006 For Z=1 TO 15
0007 Print
0008 Next Z
0009 Let H=1
0020 Print Tab(6), "This is QII, W
0030 For K=.05 TO .97 step .05
0040 Let T1=SQR(1-K)
0050 Let T2=T1/K
0060 Let T1=1/K-T2
0070 Let T2=T2*Q
0080 IJet T2=ATn(T2)
0090 Let T2=T2/Q
0100 Print Tab(6), K,T2,T1,T1+T2
0110 Next K
0120 Next Q
THIS IS Q 1
.05 1.51954 • 506409 2.02595
•1 1.46577 .513167 1.97394
• 15 1.40951 .520304 1.92982
.2 1.35081 .527864 1.87867
.25 1.28976 • 535898 1.82566
1.22651 .544467 1.77098
•3
.35 1.16123 .553641 1.7 1 487
.4 1.09412 .563508 1.65762
.45 1.02541 .574178 1.59958
.955316 .585787 1.5411
•5
.55 .884043 .593503 1.48255
.811726 .612574 -1.4243
•6
• 65 .738404 .628295 1.3667
.7 .663954 • 6461 1 1.31006
.75 .588003 .666667 1.25467
.8 .50974 .690933 1.20072
.85 .427538 .720826 1 • 1 4836
.9 .337889 .759747 1.09764
.95 .231167 .81 7256 1.04842
THIS IS Q 1• 1
.05 1.38563 .506409 1.89204
• 1 1.34115 .513167 1.85431
• 15 1.2945 .520304 1 .8 1 48 1
.2 1.24568 .527864 1.77355
.25 1. 19468 .535898 1.73058
•3 1.14153 .544467 1. 686
• 35 1.08628 .553641 1 • 63992
.4 1.02899 .563508 1.59249
.45 .969737 .57417'3 1.54391
.5 .908619 .585787 1.49441
.55 .845703 .598508 1.44421
.6 .781022 .612574 1. 3936
.65 .714535 • 628295 1.34283
.7 • 64607 .64611 1.29218
.75 .575226 .666667 1.24189
.3 '-501197 • 690983 1.19218
.85 .422377 .720826 1. 1432
.9 .335286 .759747 1.09503
.95 .230317 .817256 1.04757
THIS IS Q 1.2
.05 1.27339 .506409 1.7798
• 1 1.23598 .513167 1.74915
• 15 1.1967 • 520304 1.717
.2 1.15547 .527864 1.68334
.25 1.11226 .535898 1. 64816
•3 1.06703 .544467 1.61149
.35 1.01973 .553641 1.57337
.4 .970348 .563508 1.53336
.45 .918865 .574178 1.49304
.5 .865261 .585787 1.45105
.55 .809504 .598508 1.40301
.6 .751527 .612574 1.3641
.65 .691197 .623295 1.31949
.7 • 62827 • 6461 1 1.27433
.75 • 562283 .666667 1.22895
.8 .492394 • 690983 1.18338
.85 .416969 .720826 1 • 1 378
.9 .332515 .759747 1.09226
.95 .229399 .817256 1.04666
THIS IS Q 1• 3
.05 1.17797 .506409 1.68437
•1 1 • 14607 .513167 1.65924
• IS 1.11253 .520304 1 • 63284
.2 1.07727 .527864 1. 60514
.25 1.04022 .535898 1.57612
•3 1.00128 • 544467 t·54575
.35 .960384 .553641 1.51403
.4 .917447 .563508 1.48096
.-45 .872382 .574173 1.44656
.5 .825097 .585787 1.41088
.55 .775475 .598508 1.37398
•6 .723367 .612574 1.33594
.65 .668555 .628295 1.29685
.7 .610711 .64611 1.25682
.75 .5493 .666667 1.21597
.8 .433412 • 690983 1.1744
.85 .411359 • 720826 1.13218
.9 .329594 .759747 1.08934
.95 .228416 .817256 1.04567
THIS IS Q 1.4
.05 1.09584 • 506409 1. 60224
• 1 1.' 06832 .513167 1 • 58148
• 15 1.03936 .520304 1.55966
.2 1.00887 .527<364 1.53673
.25 .976749 .535898 1.51265
.3 .942904 .544467 1.48737
.35 .907222 .553641 1.46086
.4 .869588 .563508 1 .4331
.45 .829871 .574178 1.40405
.5 • 787925 .585787 1.37371
;55 .743574 .598508 1.34208
.6 .6966 .612574 1 • 309 1 7
.65 .646715 .628295 1.27501
.7 .59351 • 64611 1.23962
.75 .536378 .666667 1.20304
.8 .474325 .690983 1.16531
.85 .405589 .720826 1.12641
.9 .326538 .759747 1.08629
.95 .227371 .817256 1.04463
THIS IS Q 1. 5
.05 1;02441 .506409 1 • 53081
• 1 1.00043 .513167 1.51359
• 15 .975168 .520304 1.49547
.2 .948542 .527864 1.47641
.25 .920446 .535898 1 .45634
•3 .890769 .544467 1.43524
• 35 .859385 .553641 1.41303
.4 .826159 .563508 1.38967
.45 .790932 .574178 1.36511
.5 .• 753523 .585787 1.'33931
;55 .713714 .598508 1.31222
.-6 .671235 .612574 1 • 28381
.65 • 62574 .628295 1.25404
.7 .576756 • 6461 1 1.22287
.75 • 523599 • 666667 1.19027
;8 .465196 .690983 1.15618
.85 .399696 .720826 1.12052
.9 .323366 .759747 1.08311
.95 .226267 .817256 1.04352
THIS IS Q 1 .6
.05 .961715 .506409 1.46812
• 1 .940631 .513167 1.4538
• 15 .918411 .520304 1.43871
;2 .894962 .527864 1.42283
."25 .870184 .535898 1.40608
·
.35
.....
..)
.843958
.816155
.544467
.553641
1.38842
1 • 3698
.4 .786626 • 563508 1.35013
.45 .755197 .574178 1.32937
•5 ." 721664 .585787 1.30745
.55 .685782 .598508 1.28429
.6 .647245 .612574 1.25982
.'65 • 605662 .628295 1.23396
.7 • 560506 .64611 1.20662
.75 .511028, • 666667 1 • 1 7769
';8 .45608 • 690983 1.14706
.85 .393716 .720826 1.11454
;9 • 320092 .759747 1.07984
;95 .225108 .817256 1.04236
THIS IS Q 1.7
.05 .906252 .506409 1.41266
• 1 .88757 .513167 1.40074
• 15 .867871 .520304 1.38818
.2 .847066 • 527864 1.37493
.25 .825053 .535898 1.36095
•3 .801717 .544467 1.34618
." 35 .776925 .553641 1.33057
.4 .750523 .563508 1.31403
.45 .72233 ;574178 1'-29651
.5 .692129 .585787 1.27792
.55 ." 659657 .598508 1 • 2581 7
.6 .624534 .612574 1.23716
.65 .586488 .628295 1.21478
.7 • 544799 • 6461 1 1.19091
.75 .498715 • 666667 1.16538
'-8 .44702 • 690983 1. 138
.85 • 387681 .720826 1 • 1 0851
.9 .316733 .759747 1." 07648
.95 .223897 .817256 1.04115
THIS IS Q 1.0
.05 .856835 .506409 1.36324
• 1 .840167 .513167 1.35333
• 15 .822584 • 520304 1.34289
.2 .804001 .527864 1.33187
.25 .784319 .535898 1.32022
•3 .763424 • 544467 1.30789
.35 .741186 .553641 1.29483
.4 .71745 • 563508 1.28096
.45 • 692032 .574178 1.26621
.5 .664711 .-585787 1 • 2505
"55 .635212 .598508 1.23372
.6 .- 603192 .612574 1.21577
." 65 .568206 • 628295 1.1965
•7 .529657 • 64611 1.17577
.75 .486698 • 666667 1.15337
.8 .438057 • 690983 1.12904
.-85 • 381 618 .720826 1.10244
.9 .313301 .759747 1.07305
."95 .222637 .817256 1.03989
THIS IS Q 1.9
.05 .812527 .506409 1.31394
• 1 .797564 .513167 1.31073
• 15 .781775 .520304 1,- 30208
.2 .765077 • 527864 1.29294
.-25 .747375 .535898 1.-28327
.- 3 .728562 .544467 1.27303
.- 35 .708508 .553641 1.26215
.' 4 .687061 .563508 1.25057
.45 .664039 .574178 1.23822
.5 .639218 .585787 1.22501
.'55 .612323 .598508 1.21033
.6 • 583001 .612574 1.19557
.' 65 .550795 .628295 1.17909
.7 .515088 • 64611 1.1612
.75 .475003 • 666667 1.14167
.8 .42922 .690983 1 .' 1 202
.85 .375554 .-720826 1.09638
.9 .309812 .759747 1.06956
.95 .~221333 .817256 1.03859
THIS IS Q 2
.05 .772575 .506409 1.27898
• 1 .759069 .513167 1.27224
• 15 .'744812 .520304 1.26512
.-2 .729727 .527864 1.25759
.25 .713723 • 535898 1.24962
•3 .696697 .544467 1"24116
.~ 35 .678524 • 553641 1.23217
'-4 • 659057 .563508 1.22257
.45 • 6381 15 .574178 1.21229
.5 .615479 .585787 1.20127
.55 .590872 .598508 1.18938
.6 • 563942 .612574 1.17652
.65 .534225 .628295 1.16252
.7 .501092 • 6461 1 1 • 1472
.-75 .463647 • 666667 1.13031
.8 .420534 .690983 1 • 1 1 1 52
.85 • 369509 .720826 1.09033
.9 .306277 .'759747 1.06602
.95 .219987 .817256 1.03724
THIS IS Q 2. 1
.05 .736367 • 506/109 1.24277
• 1 .724115 .513167 1.23728
• 15 .711178 .520304 1 .23143
.2 .697483 .527864 1.22535
.25 • 682946 • 535893 1,.21884
.3 .667466 .544467 1.21193
.35 .650924 .553641 1.-20457
'-4 .633178 • 563503 1.19669
.45 .614054 .574178 1.18823
.5 .593334 .585787 1 • 1 791 2
.55 .570748 .598508 1.16926
•6 .545945 .612574 1.15852
65
.~ .518461 .628295 1.14676
.7 .487662 .64611 1.13377
.75 .452641 .666667 1.11931
.8 .412017 • 690983 1. 103
.85 .363501 .720826 1.08433
.9 .302709 .759747 1.06246
.95 .218603 ;817256 1 .03586
THIS IS Q 2.2
.05 .7034 • 506409 1.20981
• 1 .692235 .513167 1.2054
• 15 .660443 .520304 1.20075
.2 .667955 .527864 1.19582
~25 .654692 ~" 535898 1. 19059
.3 .640559 .544467 1.18503
.35 ." 62544 • 553641 1.17908
;4 .609201 .563508 1.17271
.45 .591671 .574178 1.16585
.5 .572641 .585787 1.15843
.55 .551846 .598508 1.15035
;6 .52894 .612574 1.14151
• 65 .503464 .628295 1.13176
;7 .474784 .64611 1 • 1 2089
.75 .441989 .666667 1. 10866
."3 .403685 .690983 1.09467
~85 .357548 .720826 1.07837
;9 .299118 .759747 1.05886
.95 .217184 .817256 1.03444
THIS IS Q 2.3
.05 .673258 .506409 1.17967
~ 1 • 663041 .513167 1.17621
.15 .652249 .520304 1.17255
.2 • 640817 .521864 1 • 16868
.25 .628668 • 535898 1.16457
.3 ;615713 ;544467 1 • 1 6018
.35 .601843 .553641 1.15548
.4 .586929 .563508 1.15044
.45 .570806 .574178 1.14498
.5 .553273 .585787 1.13906
.55 .534071 .598508 1.13258
;6 .512863 .612574 1.12544
.'65 .489195 .628295 1.11749
.-7 .462442 • 6461 1 1.10855
;75 ."431692 .666667 1~O9636
.8 • 395549 .690983 1.08653
.85 .351662 • 720826 1.07249
.9 .295514 .759747 1.05526
.95 .215734 .817256 1.03299
THIS IS Q 2.4
.05 • 645593 .506409 1. 1 52
•1 • 636209 .513167 1. 14938
;15 • 626294 .520304 1.1466
.2 .615788 .527864 1.14365
;25 .60462 .535898 1. 14052
.3 .592703 .544467 1.13717
;35 .579935 ;553641 1. 13358
.4 .566191 .563508 1 • 1 297
.45 ;551316 .574178 1.12549
.5 .535114 .585737 1. 1209
.55 .517335 .598508 1. 1 1 584
.6 .49765 .612574 1 • 1 1022
; 65 .475617 .628295 1.10391
.7 .450617 • 6461 1 1.09673
.75 .421748 .666667 1.08842
.8 .387614 .690983 1'-0786
;85 .345855 .720326 1.06668
;9 .291906 .759747 1.05165
.-95 .214254 .817256 1.03151
THIS IS Q 2.5
.05 .620111 .506409 1 • 12652
.- 1 .611462 .513167 1. 1 2463
15
~' .602322 .520304 1. 12263
~2 .592635 .527864 1 • 1 205
.25 .582333 .535898 1.11823
.3 .571335 .544467 1.1158
;35 .559544 .553641 1.11318
;4 .54684 .563508 1.11035
.45 • 533074 .574178 1.10725
.5 • 51806 .585787 1.10385
"55 ;501556 .598508 1.10006
.6 .483243 .612574 1.09582
.65 .462689 .628295 1.09098
.7 .439288 .- 64611 1 .0854
.75 .41215 .666667 1.07882
.8 .- 379886 .690983 1.07087
.85 .340135 • 720826 1.06096
.9 .288303 .759747 1.04805
.95 .21275 .817256 1.03001
THIS IS Q 2.60001
.05 .596564 • 506409 t.l0297
• 1 .588567 .513167 1.10173
.15 .580115 .520304 1.-10042
.2 .571154 • 527864 1.09902
.' 25 .561622 .535898 1.09752
•3 .551441 .544467 1.09591
.35 • 540519 .553641 1.09416
.4 .528742 • 563508 1.09225
;45 .515969 .574178 1.09015
"5 • 50202 .585787 1.08781
.55 .486662 .598508 1.08517
•6 .469587 .612574 1.0821 6
; 65 .450376 .623295 1.07867
•7 .428436 .64611 1.-07455
.75 .402891 .- 666667 1.06956
.8 .372367 .690983 1.06335
.85 ;334511 .720826 1.05534
.9 .2.84711 .7597,47 1.04446
.95 .211222 .817256 1.02848
THIS IS Q 2.70001
.05 .574739 .506409 1.08 1 1 5
; 1 • 567323 .513167 1.08049
• 15 .559484 .520304 1.07979
;2 ;551172 • 527864 1 ~'O7904
.25 .542326 • 535898 1.07822
;3 .532875 .544467 1.07734
.35 .52273 .553641 1.07637
.4 .511784 .563508 1.07529
.- 45 .499901 .574178 1.07408
;5 .486909 .585787 1.0727
.55 .472585 .598508 1.07109
.6 .456631 .612574 1.06921
;65 .438641 .628295 1.06694
~7 .418037 .6 L161l 1 .06415
.75 .393961 .666667 1.06063
.-8 .365057 .- 69098 3 1.05604
.85 .328988 .720826 1.04981
.9 ;281137 .759747 1.04088
.95 .209675 .817256 1.02693
THIS IS Q 2.80001
.05 • 554455 .. 506409 1.06086
; 1 .547559 .-513167 1.06073
.- 15 .540269 .520304 1.06057
.2 .' 5325 37 .527864 1.0604
.25 .524306 • 535898 1 .0602
•3 .515509 .544467 1.05998
.'35 • 506062 .553641 1 .0597
.'4 .' 495863 .563508 1.05937
;45 .484781 .574178 1..05896
.5 .472653 .585787 1.05844
.55 .459264 ;598508 1.-05777
.' 6 .444328 .612574 1.0569
.65 .427451 '-628295 1.05575
'-7 .408072 • 64611 1.05418
.75 .385352 .666667 1.05202
;8 .357956 .690983 1.04894
.85 • 323571 .720826 1.0444
.9 .. 277586 .759747 1.03733
.' 95 .208111 .817256 1.02537
THIS IS Q 2.90001
.05 .535553 .506409 1.04196
; 1 .529124 .513167 1.04229
• 15 • 522327 .- 520304 1'-04263
;2 .515117 .527864 1.04298
• 25 '-50744 .535898 1.04334
.3 .499232 .544467 1.0437
~' 35 .490413 .553641 1.04405
.4 .480887 • 563508 1.0444
.45 .' 470529 .574178 1.04471
•5 .459183 .535787 1.04497
.55 .446643 • 598508 1.04515
~ 6 ;432633 .612574 1.-04521
;'65 .-416773 .628295 1.04507
.7 '-398519 • 6461 1 1.04463
.75 .377051 .666667 1.04372
.-8 .351062 • 690983 1.04205
'-85 .318263 • 720826 1.03909
.9 .274064 .759747 1.03381
.95 .206532 .817256 1.02379
THIS IS Q 3.00001
.05 • 517898 .506409 1.02431
•1 .51189 .513167 1.02506
.' 15 • 505538 .520304 1.02584
.2 .498798 .- 5278 64 1'-02666
.25 .491621 • 535898 1.02752
.3 .'483945 .544467 1.02841
.35 .475695 .5536 l 11 1.02934
.4 .466777 • 563508 1.03028
.45 .457075 .574178 1.03125
;5 .446439 .585787 1.03223
;'55 .43467 .598508 1.03318
;6 .421506 .612574 1 .03408
.65 .406577 .628295 1.-03437
;7 .389357 .64611 1.03547
.75 .369049 • 666667 1.03572
.8 • 34437 .690983 1.03535
'-85 .313066 .720826 1.03389
'-9 .270575 .759747 1.03032
'-95 '-204941 .817256 1.0222
THIS IS Q 3.10001
.05 • 50137 .506409 1.00778
.- 1 .495743 • 513167 1.00891
• 15 .489793 .520304 1.0101
.2 .483479 .527864 1 .01 1 34
.25 .476755 .535898 1.01265
.469561 .544467 1.01403
•3
':35 .461825 .553641 1.01547
.- 4 .453461 .563508 1.01697
." 45 .444355 .574178 1.01853
.434365 .585787 1.02015
•5
.- 55 .423301 ." 598508 1.-02181
.- 6 .410909 .612574 1.02348
." 65 ':396835 • 628295 1.02513
':7 .380563 • 646 I 1 1 .02668
.75 .361333 .666667 t.028
."8 .337878 .690933 1.02886
•.- 85 ;307982 .720826 1.02881
.9 .267122 .759747 t·02687
':95 .203341 .817256 1.0206
THIS IS Q 3.20001
.05 .485863 .506409 .992272
.- 1 .480582 .513167 .99375
.- 15 .474998 .520304 .995302
.2 .469072 .527864 .996936
." 25 .462758 .535898 .998656
.3 .456002 .544467 1.00047
.- 35 .448735 .553641 1 .00238
.4 .440874 .563508 1.00438
.- 45 .- 432312 .574178 1 • 00649
.- 5 .422912 .585787 1 • 0087
.- 55 .412492 .598508 1 .-0 1 1
.- 6 .400807 .612574 1.01338
.' 65 • 387519 • 628295 1.01581
.7 .-372132 • 6461 1 1.01824
• 75: .353893 .666667 1.02056
':8 .33158 • 690983 1.02256
.85 • 303011 .720826 1.02384
.9 .26371 .759747 1.02346
.-95 .201733 .817256 1.01899
THIS IS Q 3.30001
.05 .471287 .506409 .977696
;1 .466322 .513167 .979489
;15 ':46107 .520304 .981374
.2 .455496 .527864 .98336
.25 .'449557 .535898 ."985455
." 3 .4432 .544467 .987667
;35 .436361 .553641 .990003
.4 .42896 .563508 .992468
.45 .420895 .574178 .995072
.- 5 .'412033 .585787 .99782
;55 ." 402204 .593503 1.00071
"/
-0 .39117 .612574 1."00374
;65 .378605 .- 628295 1~O069
.-7 .364031 .64611 1.01014
;75 ."346717 .666667 1.01338
.8 .325471 .690933 1.01645
.'85 ."298153 .720826 1.01898
.9 .26034 .759747 1.02009
;95 .-200119 .817256 1 .01 738
THIS IS Q 3.40001
.05 .45756 .506409 .963969
.' 1 .452882 .513167 .96605
'-15 .447934 • 520304 .968238
'-2 .442683 .527864 .970547
.25 .437086 • 535898 .972984
.3 .-431094 .544467 .975561
.35 .' 424646 .553641 .978283
'-4 '-417666 .563508 '--981174
.-45 .410055 .574178 .984233
.' 5 .401689 .585787 .987476
.55 .392402 .598508 .99091
.6 .381968 .612574 .994541
.- 65 .37007 .. 628295 .998365
'-7 .356248 .64611 1.00236
.75 .339795 .666667 1.00646
;8 .319547 • 690983 1.01053
.85 .'293409 .720826 1.01424
.'9 '-257016 .759747 1.01676
'-95 .198502 .817256 1'-01576
Tl-ilS IS Q 3~50001
.05 .44461 .506409 .951019
•1 .'440196 .513167 .953363
• 15 .435526 .520304 .95583
."2 .430569 .527864 .958433
.25 .425286 .535898 .961184
.3 .419629 .544467 '-964096
'-35 .413539 .553641 .967181
.' 4 .406945 • 563508 .970453
;45 .399752 .574178 ;97393
'-5 .391842 .585787 .977629
'-55 .383054 .598508 .981561
'-6 .373172 .612574 .985745
• 65 '-361892 .628295 .990187
.7 .348768 • 64611 .994878
~' 75 .333115 .666667 .999782
'-8 .313801 • 690983 1.00478
.'85 .288777 .720826 1 • 00 9 6
.9 '-253738 .759747 1.01348
;95 .196883 .817256 1.01414
THIS IS Q 3.60001
.05 .432373 .506409 .938782
.- 1 .4282 .513167 .941367
• 15 ~'423786 .520304 .94409
.2 .4191 .527864 .946964
.25 .414104 .535898 .950003
'-3 .408755 .544467 .953222
.35 .402995 • 553641 .956637
'-4 .396756 .563508 .96026 L1
.45 • 389948 .574178 .964126
.5 .382457 .585787 '-968243
.55 .374129 .593508 .972637
~' 6 .364758 .612574 .977331
.- 65 .354049 .628295 .982344
.7 ·341574 • 6461 1 .987684
.75 • 326668 • 666667 .993334
'-8 .308229 • 690983 .999213
~'85 .284255 • 720826 1.00508
.9 .250509 .759747 1.01026
.95 .195265 .817256 1.01252
THIS IS Q 3.10001
.05 .420192 .506409 .9212
.~ 1 .416841 .513161 .930008
• 15 .412662 .520304 .932965
.-2 .408225 .521864 .936089
.25 .403494 .535898 .939393
;3 ;398428 .544461 .942895
.' 35 • 392972 .553641 .946613
.4 .38706 .- 563508 .950568
.- 45 • 380607 .514118 .954185
'-5 ;313503 .585181 .95929
.- 55 .365601 .598508 .964109
.' 6 .356702 .612574 .969276
• 65 .346524 .628295 .914819
;7 .' 334652 • 6461 1 .'980763
.75 .320442 .666667 .987109
.'8 .- 302826 .690983 .993809
;85 ;219843 .720826 f.00061
';9 .241329 .759141 1.00708
.95 .193648 .817256 1 .0109
TaIS IS Q 3.80001
.05 .409814 .506409 .916223
.- 1 .. 406068 .513167 .919236
• 15 .402106 .520304 .92241
.2 • 397899 .527864 .925763
.-25 .393413 .535898 .929312
.3 .- 388608 .544467 .933075
'-'35 • 383432 • 553641 .937014
.4 .311823 .- 563508 .941331
';45 .371698 ;574178 .945875
'-5 • 364952 .585787 .950738
;55 ';357445 .598508 .955952
.6 • 348984 .612514 .961558
.65 .339299 .628295 .967594
;1 .321989 • 6461 1 .974099
.-75 .- 31443 .- 666661 .981096
.-8 .291584 .690983 .988567
.85 .275538 .720826 .996364
;9 .-2442 .759747 r.00395
~'95 .192033 .817256 1.00929
THrs IS Q 3.90001
.05 .399395 .506409 .905803
• 1 .395839 .513161 .'909006
;15 • 392011 .520304 .91238
.-2 • 388082 .521864 .915947
;25 .383823 .535898 .919121
';3 • 379259 .544467 .923726
;35 ~'314342 .553641 .927984
.-4 .- 3690 13 .5635013 .932521
';45 .363191 .574178 .937369
.- 5 ;356711 ;585187 .942564
."55 .349636 .598508 .948144
.6 .-341583 .612574 .954157
.65 .332351 .628295 .960652
.1 • 32157 • 64611 .967681
.15 • 30862 • 666667 .975287
.-8 ;292499 • 690983 .983482
;85 .211339 .720826 •. 992165
.9 .241122 .759747 1.00087
.-95 .190423 .817256 1'-00168
END AT 0120
*
THIS IS Q 4
.05 .389493 .506409 .895902
.- 1 .'386112 .513167 .89928
.- 15 .382536 .520304 .90284
~2 • 378736 .527864 .906603
;25 .- 374688 ;535898 .910586
.' 3 .370343 .544467 .914315
.' 35 :365672 .553641 .919313
.4 .360602 .563508 .92411
;45 • 355062 .574178 .92924
•5 .• 348957 .585787 .934744
.55 ;'342156 .598508 .940664
;6 .334482 .612574 .947056
.65 .325683 .628295 .953978
'-7 .315386 • 64611 :961496
:75 .303006 .666667 .969673
."8 .287565 .690983 .978549
:85 .267243 .720826 .988069
.9 .238096 .759747 .997843
';'95 .188819 .817256 1.00608
THIS IS Q 4. 1
.05 .380069 .506409 .886478
.; 1 .376852 .513167 .890019
• 15 ';373447 .520304 .893751
';2 :369832 .527864 .897697
'-25 .365976 ;535898 .901875
:3 .361344 ;544467 .906311
.35 .357392 .553641 .911033
:4 :352562 .563508 .91607
:45 .347285 .574178 .921462
:5 .341466 .585787 .927253
.55 .334982 .598508 .93349
.' 6 .'327661 .612574 .940235
.-65 .319261 .628295 .947556
.-7 .309422 • 6461 1 .955532
:75 ';297578 .666667 ;964244
:8 .282778 .690983 .973761
.-85 .263248 .720826 .984074
:9 .235122 .759747 .994869
:95 .- 187221 .817256 (.00448
THIS IS Q 4.2
.05 .371091 .506409 .8775
.' 1 .' 368025 .513167 .881192
• 15 • 36478 .520304 .885084
.2 '-361335 • 527864 .889199
.'25 .35766 .535893 .893558
:3 .353721 .544467 .898188
.35 .' 349476 .- 553641 .903117
:4 .344871 .563508 .908379
.45 ;'339837 .574178 .914015
'-5 .334286 .585787 .920073
.-55 • 328097 .598508 .926605
.- 6 .321106 • 612574 .93368
:65 :313079 .' 628295 .'941374
.-7 • 303668 .64611 .949779
;75 '-292327 .666667 .958993
.-8 .27813 .690983 ;969114
;85 .259351 • 720826 .980177
."9 ;2322 .759747 .991947
.-95 .185632 .817256 1.00289
THIS IS Q 4.3
.05 • 362527 • 506409 • g 68936
•1 .' 359602 .513167 ;872769
.' 15 .356506 .520304 .87681
.2 .353219 .527864 .881083
;25 .349712 .535898 .88561
.3 ~'345953 .544467 .89042
.' 35 ;341902 .553641 .895543
;4 .337506 .563508 .901014
;45 .3327 .574178 .906878
.5 ;327398 .585787 .913185
;55 ;'321485 .598508 .919993
;6 ~314802 ;612574 .927376
.' 65 .307125 ;628295 .93542
.7 • 298116 .- 64 611 .944226
.75 .287246 .666667 .953913
.8 ;273619 .690983 ;964602
.85 .255551 .720826 .976377
~·9 .22933 .759747 .989077
.95 • 184051 .817256 1.00131
THIS IS Q 4.4
.05 .354349 .506409 .860758
•1 .351555 .513167 .864723
• 15 ;348599 .520304 ;868903
.- 2 .345459 .527864 .873323
.-25 .34211 .535898 .878008
.- 3 .338519 .544467 .882986
;35 .334648 .553641 .'888289
'-4 ~. 330447 .563508 .893955
;45 '-325853 .574178 .900031
;5 .320785 .585787 .906571
;55 .315129 • 598508 .913637
.6 ;308735 .612574 .921309
.' 65 ;301385 .628295 .92968
;7 .292753 '-64611 '-938864
.-75 .282328 ;666667 .948995
;8 .269238 .690983 .960222
.85 ;251844 .720826 .97267
;9 .226512 .759747 .986259
'-95 .182479 .817256 .999736
THIS IS Q 4.5
.05 • 346532 .506409 .852941
; 1 .343861 .513167 .857028
• 15 ;341035 .520304 .361338
;2 .338032 .527864 ;865897
;25 • 33483 • 535898 .870728
;3 .331396 • 544467 .875863
;35 .327694 .553641 .1381335
;4 .323676 .563508 .887184
.45 .319281 .574178 .893459
.5 .31443 .585787 .900217
.- 55 .309016 .598508 .907524
;6 .302893 .612574 .915467
.65 ;29585 .628295 .924145
;7 ;287573 .64611 .933683
;75 .277566 .666667 .944232
; ,! .-8 .264984 .~ 69098 3 .955967
."85 .248229 .720826 .969055
.- 9 .-223745 .759747 .983492
.-95 .180918 .817256 .998175
PHOTOGRAPH NUMBER ONE.
68.2uH T.C. Chopper.

Load current - 1 amp.
Supply voltage - 32 volts.
Time - 20 usecs. per. div.
(1) Capacitor Voltage, 10 volts per. diva (x 0.941).

(2) Voltage from search coil, around T.X. Core.
(3) Capacitor Current, 1 amp. per. diva
(4)
PHOTOGHAJ?H NUMB1~H T'v'lO.

Load Current - 2 amps.
Time: 20 u.secs. per. dive
(1) Capacitor Voltage, 10 volts per div. (x 0.941) ·

(3) Capacitor Current, 1 amp. per. dive
(4)
PHOTOGRAPH NUMBER THREE.
68.2w{ T.C. Chopper.

Supply Voltage - 32 volts.
Time - 20 u.secs. per. dive
(1) Capacitor voltage, 10 volts per div (xO.941).

(3) Capacitor Current, 3 amps per division.
(4 )
PHOTOGHAPH NUIVIB:;~I1 FOUR

(1 ) Capacitor Voltage, 10 vol ts per di v. (x 0.941) •

(2) Voltage from search coil, around T.L. Core.
(3)
(4) Capacitor Current, 2 amps. per. dive
PHOTOGRAPH NUMBER FIVE

Time - 20 u.secs per. dive
(1) Capacitor Voltage, 10 volts per. dive (x 0.941).

(3)
PHOTOGHAPH NUMB1;;R SIX

Iload Current - 6 amps.
Time - 20 u.secs. per dive
(1) Capacitor Voltage, 10 volts per. div (x 0.941).

( 3)
(4) Capacitor Current, 2 amps per dive
PHOTOGRAPH l'mMBER SEVEN
68.2uH T.C. Chopper ..

(1) Voltage from search coil, around T.X. core.

( 3)
PHOTOGRAPH NUMBER EIGHT


(2) Cap a cit or vol ta ge, 20 v 0 It s per. di v • ( x O. 941 ) •
(3 )
(4) Capacitor Current, 2 amps. per. diVe

PHOTOGRAPH NUIlJIBER NINE

( 3)
(4) Capacitor Current, 2 amps per. diVe
PHOTOGRAPH NUMBER TEN

Supply Voltage 32 volts.
(1) Voltage from search coil, around Tx core.

( 3)
PHOTOGRA:PH NUMBER ELEVEN

Time - 20u.secs. per. dive
(1) Capacitor Voltage, 20 volts per dive (x 0.941) .
(2) Voltage from search coil t around Tx core.
(3 )
(4) Capacitor Current, 2 amps per diVe
Load Current 12 amps.
(1) Capacitor Voltage, 20 volts per. diVe (x 0.941).
( 3)
(4) Capacitor Current, 2 amps per. -dive
j-;HOTOGHAPH NUMBER THIRTEEN
20uH T.O. Chopper.

Load Current - 1 amp.
(1) Transformer Core Flux.

(2) Capacitor Voltage 20 volts per dive (x 0.941).
(3) Voltage across the flywheel diode.

(4) Capacitor Current, 2 amps per. dive
PHOTOGRAPH NUMBER FOUHT~EN
20uH T. C. Chopper.
Time - 20 u.secs. per diVe

(2) Cap a cit 0 r Vol t a ge, 20 vol t s per. d i v • ( x O. 94 1 ) •
(3) voltage across the flywheel diode
(4) Capacitor current, 2 amps per. diVe
PHOTOGHAPH NUIVIBEH
--'~~---"-~----. --_FIFTEEN
_.,-
..
20uH T.C. Chopper.


PHOTOGHAJ?H NUMBER SIXTEEN
20uH T.e. Chopper.

IJoad Current - 4 amps.

( 2) Ca pa cit 0 r Vol t a ge, 20 vol t s per. d i v • ( x o. 941 ) •
(3) Voltaee across the flywheel diode.
(4) Capacitor current, 1 amp per. diVe
PHOTOGRAPH NUMBEH SEVENTEEN
20uH T.C. Chopper.

Time - 20 u.secs. per div.
(2 ) Capacitor Voltage, 20 volts per. div. (x 0.941).

(3) Voltage across the flywheel diode
(4) Capacitor Current, 1 amp per. div.
PHOTOGRAPH NlITvIBER EIGHTEEN
20uH T.C. Chopper.

Time 20 u.secs. per. dive
(2) Capacitor Voltage, 20 volts per dive ex 0.941).

PHOTOGRAPH NUMBER NINETEEN
20uH. T.C. Chopper.

(2) Capacitor Voltare, 20 volts per dive (x 0.941).

PHOTOGRAPH NUMBBR Tw'ENTY
21. IlV lE
u.mVI
r.1. "" ,I,II ' ',"
-
"D
!I, ,
II
!
'"
I,
Irid
II
.-., II,
i
!
i
I i
i
I \i
,
I, I
- -
.-
-
- 111 1
~
I \ II'
II'
•
I,
I
~
I' II' I
i IlI1! II
\ I
! ; I~ I, I I
D~~
II'
. " . ... . " ..
il
·· l1' '"IIJ.!!!:.: :IiiiIiiI
I 51· mV 20 Ir 20 tiS
20uH T.C. Chopper.

Load Current 10 amps.
(2) Capacitor Voltage, 20 volts per. div (x 0.94 1 ).

PHOTOGRAPH NUMBER TviENTY ONE
5uH T.C. Chopper.

Load Current - 1 amp.

(2) Capacitor Voltage, 10 volts per dive (xO.941).
PHOTOGRAPH NUMB.En. TIIENTY T,{O
5UH T.C. Chopper.


(2) Capacitor Voltage, 10 volts per. div (x 0.941)
(3) Voltaee across the flywheel diode.

PHOTOGRAPH NUIVIBEH TdENTY THREE
5uH T.O. Chopper.

Load current - 4 amps.

(2) Capacitor Voltage, 10 volts per dive (x 0.941).

PROT OGHAPH NUMBER T ~lENTY FOUR
5uH T.C. Chopper.

Time 10 u.secs. per dive
(1) Voltage fiom search coil, around Tx core.

(2) Capacitor voltage, 10 volts per div (x 0.941).
PHOTOGHAPH NUMBER T'dENTY J?IVE
5uH T.C. Chopper.

Supply VoltaGe - 32 volts.
time - 20 u.secs. per dive

PHOTOGHA~PH NUIvIBEH TWEN~CY SIX
5uH T.C. Chopper.

(1) Capacitor Voltage, 10 volts per dive (x 0.941).

5uH T.C. Chopper.
Supply voltage 32 volts.
(1) Capacitor voltage, 20 volts per dive (x 0.941)

PHOTOGH.APH NUMBER TW}~NTY EIGHT
5uH T.C. Chopper.

Supply Voltage 32 volts.

(1) Capacitor Voltage, 20 volts per. diVe (x 0.94 1 )

(3) Voltafe across the flywheel diode.
RiEE-a-round Waveforms
-(rever-s'al'~ of--
the capaci tor vol tClge)
2 amps (load current) - 20uH.

C-1 Time - 50 u.secs. per diVe
(3) Capacitor Voltage, 20 volts per dive (x 0.941)

(4) Capacitor Current, 1 amp per. dive
PHOTOGRAPH rTUTvJBER
---~,,~----- •..
THIRTY -~.--~-----
HI
,I
2 ll7V 5li O'iV Ir I
"" I'~--
!
,1" , . ... . . ... . . .
..
'"
g - .It
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I IIj ! "'-=
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al
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·m
... II) 51, mV ,
O~· ,
~
I l'
20r.
l.!'J
50·tlS
C-2 4 amps (load current) 20uH.

Time - 50 u.secs. per diVe
(3) Capacitor Voltage, 20 volts per. div (x 0.941)

~PHo~r:OGRAPH NUMBER THIRTY ONI!!
I
Ir:zi?v - III'_-I m-g I"I -~.
I, I' ,
'\ii--
lB
·· ,
f
, .. . ... . ,
II
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l ~
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,
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- !I I~i~ ~ .-:=:
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iii --- ~
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.... ... . ... .
0%' .
"a·· :1
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.. ~
I; 51· mV 211 50i!SI .
(3) Capacitor Voltage, 20 volts per. div. (x 0.941)

(4) Capacitor Current, 2 amps per. div.
PHOTOGRAPH NUMBEH. THIHTY TNO
I
211nv 51 tJ"V It l'lll
I
'I'---+\--
~
I II,
' .. 1 , ..
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Thesis Description of The Operation of The Transfer Current Chopper

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Thesis Description of The Operation of The Transfer Current Chopper

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NEW SOUTH NALE S

INS TIT UTE 0 F TEe H N 0 LOG Y

SCHOOL OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEEHING

FINAL YEAR PROJECT

NEW CHOPP}~H CONTROL UNIT

STUDENT: Mr. J.A. Dowsett

SUPEHVISOR: Dr. V.S. Ramsden

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

1-1 OPERATION OF THB TRANS:b"'ER CURItENT CHOPPER 1-1

1-3 DETERMINING LOSSES 'iVITHIN A CHOPP:ER BY MEANS OP 1-8

CHAPTER TY{O - E(~UATIONS ASSOCIATED WITH THE TRANS FORM Ell

2-1 OPE~~TION OF THE CHOPPER 2-1

CHAPTER THREE - EQUATIONS ASSOCIATED WTTH THE qAPACITOR

3-1 RISE OF CAPACITOR CURRBT\JT FROM ZERO 3-1

CRAPTER FOUR - EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

4-1 METHODS IN IMPROVING EFFICIENCY OF THE HING-AROUND

CHAPTER FlyE - FINAL DISCU~QION

5-1 DESIGN }EQUATIONS 5-1

Dr. '1 .,~. Har:-lSden.

Hrs. Esma H;w..l1cll1

'JDd the 'l'echnical ;Staff of Brickfield lliJ~.

This project is different from most articles which

The metho~ used for the development of expressions

In all, this project offers some interesting reading,

In this chapter the operation of the transfer

1.1 OPERATION OF THE TRANSFER CURRENT CHOPPER

This negative capacitor voltage forces the flux

Where I,is the load current (amps)

From the definition it can be seen that the constant

FIG 1. 1 IvlcI\TUH.HAY CHOFPEB.

FIG 1.2 BASIC CIRCUIT

::b. = 1(5) ( 5' + ..L\ h.

TRANSFORMING INTO TIME DOMAIN (see Page 2-9).

angle when "Lc(wt) =1\ is

~ on5le where the capac\tof current Lc.(t) falls below II is

is '2.1IJLC (71- 2.wt)

tc = 2./LCx (TL - <.uti) sec.e>ncis

: . Sin (w{) = cos( 1l. - 0J\.')

.". Ie:: 2- jLC C05-

U.F.C.-==-lltc ) ~ Vc = '2. \j 0 (for most chcp~rs)

:. U.F.C. =ycos-ty (please note thQt Akamatsu ~ co. have

le.t " be the mox\um va\ue of Y J for which the. c.hopper \5

des19 n to hond\e. ~1 wou\d be des'H'eab\e to find) for who.t VQ\ue3 of

'A do we ho.ve Q mo'/<.\um. U.F.C .. W'lth Q mQxium \J.f.c.. we have. a

A 0-\ 0-2- 0-3 0-4 0·5 0,6 0'1 o·g 0'9

Me Murra.~ chopper wiH t'e9u-l~e. 0.1 led,5 tj a commutotirt<j co pac. \ ror-

for 1he 1ransfet current chopper

eh cose. A. -::. 0-6 (smCl\l c:.opa.c.\tQ'(\c.e. ~ \f\ductonc.e needed')

Y con r-O{\5e be:\"wee.'t\. 0 arLd o· 6

ihevo\ue for c) fo\ UFC=\

Now the capac\tor needed for the Me. Murray Choppe.r- \5

the loci udonce \lQ~\J€. 0-6 = k)

L ::: (,5 -82> }l H

1.3 DETERMINING LOSSES #ITHIN A CHOPPER BY MEANS

After the capacitor current has fallen below the

FIG.1.4 MODI,FlED McMURRAY CHOPPER

This reduction of capacitor vOltage is achieved

Capacitor voltage when S.C.R. "SCR2 rt switches off.

The capacitor voltage after decay is:

and C can be written in terms of

As ,,-) 0 the value of A?. +2A --?> }'213

A 0 O' j 0-2. 0-3 0-4- 0·5 0-6 0-7 0-8 0·'1

In~the previous design example A was chosen to