CHAPTER FIVE

DATA MODEL

5.1 INTRODUCTION
The human eye is highly efficient at recognizing shapes and forms, but computer need to be
instructed exactly how spatial patterns should be handled and displayed (Burrough, 1993).
Geographical variations in the real world is infinitely complex the closure it can be looked the
more detail can be seen almost without any limit. It would take an infinitely large database to
capture the real world precisely. So data must be somehow reduced to a finite and manageable
quantity by a process of generalization or abstraction. Geographical variation must be
represented in terms of discrete elements or objects (Goodchild and Kemp et al. 1990).

Despite the heterogeneity of the information that can be stored in a GIS, there are only a few
common methods of representing spatial information in a GIS database. In developing a GIS
application, real world features need to be translated into simplified representations that can be
stored and manipulated in a computer. Two data models raster and vector are mainly dominating
current commercial GIS software.

5.2 DATA MODEL

Tsichritzis and Lochovsky (1977) define a data model as a set of guidelines for the
representation of the logical organization of the data in a database consisting of named logical
units of data and the relationships between them.

While the concept of the data model is used in a variety of ways by numerous disciplines, a
digital geographic data model is generally defined as an information structure which allows the
user to store specific phenomena as distinct representations, and enables the user to manipulate
the phenomena when held in the system as data (Raper and Maguire, 1992,
http://www.ncgia.ucsb.edu/~curtin /nonplanar.html).
The data model represents a set of guidelines to convert the real world (called entity) to the
digitally and logically represented spatial objects consisting of the attributes and geometry. The
attributes are managed by thematic or semantic structure while the geometry is represented by
geometric-topological structure (Shunji 1999).

5.3 DATA MODELS USED IN GIS

A great number and variety of data models has been used in GIS. They are listed below (John,
1997).
1. General Models
Spaghetti model
Basic data models
Vector
Raster (more generally, tessellation model)
Spatial models
Plane geometry models
Plane topology models
Surface models
Digital Elevation Models (DEMs)
Triangular Irregular Network (TIN) model
Mathematical models
Conceptual models
Entity-Relationship (ER) model
Enhanced Entity-Relationship (EER) model
An implementation model
Relational model
Semantic (?) models
Object-oriented model
Functional model
Hierarchical models
Quadtrees, strip trees
2. Standards
Spatial Data Transfer Specification (SDTS)
3. Proprietary models
GIS
ARC/INFO
ERDAS
Geovision
Grass
Caris
DBMS based
Ingres
 Oracle
Postgres

5.4 SPATIAL DATA MODELS OF GIS

The ability to take the geographic location of objects into account during search, retrieval,
manipulation and analysis lies at the core of a GIS (Smith et al. 1987). How well these tasks can
be accomplished is determined by the spatial data model, apart from other factors such as the
data algorithms and database management systems selected for the GIS (Berry 1993). The theory
of spatial data models currently attracts the most active research and development with in the
GIS community (Clarke 1986, Van Roessel 1987, Mounsey and Tomlinson 1988, Goodchild and
Gopal 1989).

A GIS typically possesses two important characteristics. It provides a close linkage between
digital cartographic information and an associated database. GIS are able to integrate data from a
verity of sources into a common geographic framework, although they all do not use the same
logic to achieve this. Most GIS use one of two basic spatial data models to represent the real
world, namely the vector model and the tessellation model (Burrough 1986, Aronoff 1989).

5.4.1 VECTOR DATA MODEL

In the vector model, objects or conditions in the real world are represented by the points and
lines that define their boundaries, much as if they were being drawn on a map (Aronoff 1989).
With vector representation, the boundaries or the course of the features are defined by a series of
points that, when joined with straight lines, from the graphic representation of those features.
The points themselves are encoded with a pair of numbers giving their X, Y coordinates in a real
world map projection. The non-spatial attributes of these features are then stored with a
conventional database management system. The link between the spatial data file and the
attribute data file can be a simple identifier number that is given to each feature in a map (Kam
1993).

SPAGHETTI DATA MODEL

Among many of the commonly used vector based data structure, the spaghetti data model has the
most simple data structure (Aronoff 1989). In the spaghetti data model each entity on a map
becomes one logical record in the digital file, and is defined as a string of x, y coordinates.
Although all entities are spatially defined, no spatial relationships are encoded. This represents a
significant deficiency since, to perform any type of spatial analysis, the spatial relationship
between such entities must be derived through computation. But the spaghetti data model can
efficiently reproduce maps digitally because information extraneous to the plotting process is not
stored (Peuquet 1984).

Figure 5.1: Spaghetti data model

Properties of Spaghetti Data Model

 Point is enclosed as single XY co-ordinate pair
 Line is encoded as a string of XY co-ordinate pairs
 Polygon is encoded as a closed loop of XY co-ordinates that define its boundary. The
common boundary between adjacent polygons must be recorded twice, once for each
polygon.
  The Spaghetti model is a file of spatial data constructed in this manner is essentially a
collection of co-ordinate strings with no inherent structure-hence the term spaghetti
model.
 Although all the spatial features are recorded the spatial relationships between these
features are not encoded.

TOPOLOGICAL MODEL
The topological model is the most widely used method of encoding spatial relationships in a
vector based GIS (Peuquet 1984). Topology is that branch of mathematics used to define spatial
relationships between entities (ESRI 1992). For example, an area or polygon is defined by a set
of lines which makes up its boundaries. In this case the line is the border between two polygons.
Each line can represent part of a path connecting such other paths. For example, lines can be
used to represent streets and the routes which pass along them. The connectivity or contiguity of
these features is referred to as their topology structure (ESRI 1992). By sorting information
about the location of a feature relative to other features, topology provides the basis for many
kinds of geographic analysis without having access to the absolute locations held in the
coordinate files (ESRI 1992).

Topology is the mathematical method used to define spatial relationships. The model is termed
Arc-Node data model.

 Arc the basic logical entity, a series of point that starts and end at a node.
 Node is an intersection point where two or more arcs meet. A node can also occur at
the end of a dangling arc i.e. and arc that is not connected to another arc such as the
end of a dead-end street.
 Polygon is comprised of a closed chain of arcs that represents the boundary of the
area.
 Point is encoded as a single XY co-ordinate pair. Point is considered as the polygon
with no area.
 Figure 5.2: Topological Model

TIN DATA MODEL

The Triangulated Irregular Network (TIN) data model is an alternative to the raster and vector
data models for representing continuous surfaces. It allows surface models to be generated
efficiently to analyze and display terrain and other types of surfaces. The TIN model creates a
network of triangles by storing the topological relationships of the triangles. The fundamental
building block of the TIN data is the node. Nodes are connected to their nearest neighbors by
edges, according to a set of rules. Left-right topology is associated with the edges to identify
adjacent triangles. The TIN creates triangles from a set of points called mass points, which
always become nodes. The user is not responsible for selecting; all the nodes are added
according to a set of rules. Mass points can be located anywhere, the more carefully selected, the
more accurate the model of the surface will be. Well-placed mass points occur when there is a
major change in the shape of the surface, for example, at the peak of a mountain, the floor of a
valley, or at the edge (top and bottom) of cliffs. By connecting points on a valley floor or along
the edge of a cliff, a linear break in the surface can be defined. These are called breaklines.
Breaklines can control the shape of the surface model. They always form edges of triangles and,
generally, cannot be moved. A triangle always has three and only three straight sides, making
their representation rather simple. A triangle is assigned a unique identifier that defines by its
three nodes and its two or three neighboring triangles
(http://www.olemiss.edu/depts/geology/courses/ge
470/RasterDataModel.htm#The).

TIN is a vector-based topological data model that is used to represent terrain data. A TIN
represents the terrain surface as a set of interconnected triangular facets. For each of the three
vertices, the XY (geographic location) and the (elevation) Z values are encoded.

Figure 5.3: TIN Data Model

Four Tables for TIN Model

 Node Table it lists each triangle and the nodes which define it.
 Edge Table it lists three triangles adjacent to each facets. The triangles that border
the boundary of the TIN show only two adjacent facets.
 XY Co-ordinate Table it lists the co-ordinate values of each node.
 Z Table it is the altitude value of each node.
5.4.2 RASTER DATA MODEL
Raster data models represent geographical space by dividing it in a series of units, each of which
is limited and defined by an equal amount of earth's surface. These units are of different shapes,
i.e. triangular or hexagonal, but the most commonly used shape is the square, called cell. Cells
are interconnected to create plane surfaces representing all the space of a single area of study.
The matrix of cells, organized into rows and columns is called a grid. In raster data model the
focus is more in location. A raster data model is more like a photograph rather than a map.
Geographic features are represented in grid cells or pixels filled with values. In the raster data
model, the accuracy of the map depends on the scale of the map, the resolution and, hence,
accuracy depends on the real world area represented by each grid cell.
(http://www.olemiss.edu/depts/geology/courses/ge470/RasterDataModel.htm#8b.1)

Figure 5.4: Raster Data Storage System

There are a number of ways of forcing a computer to store and reference the individual grid cell
values, their attributes, coverage names and legends. The principal data structures existing in the
market are:

1. Grid/Lunr/Magi
2. Imgrid GIS
3. Map Analysis Package (MAP)

GRID/LUNR/MAGI
In this model each grid cell is referenced or addressed individually and is associated with
identically positioned grid cells in all other coverages, rather than like a vertical column of grid
cells, each dealing with a separate theme. Comparisons between coverages are therefore
performed on a single column at a time. Soil attributes in one coverage can be compared with
vegetation attributes in a second coverage. Each soil grid cell in one coverage can be compared
with a vegetation grid cell in the second coverage. The advantage of this data structure is that it
facilitates the multiple coverage analysis for single cells. However, this limits the examination of
spatial relationships between entire groups or themes in different coverages.
(http://www.olemiss.edu/depts/geology/courses/ge470/RasterDataModel.htm#grid)

IMGRID GIS
To represent a thematic map of land use that contains four categories: recreation, agriculture,
industry and residence, each of these features have to be separated out as an individual layer. In
the layer that represents agriculture 1 or 0 will represent the presence or absence of crops
respectively. The rest of layer will be represented in the same way, with each variable referenced
directly. The major advantage of IMGRID is its two-dimensional array of numbers resembling a
map-like structure. The binary character of the information in each coverage simplifies long
computations and eliminates the need for complex map legends. Since each coverage feature is
uniquely identified, there is no limitation of assigning a single attribute value to a single grid cell.
On the other side, the main problem related to information storage in an IMGRID structure is the
excessive volume of data stored. Each grid cell will contain more than 1 or 0 values from more
than one coverage and a large number of coverages are needed to store different types of
information. (http://www.olemiss.edu/ depts/geology/courses/ge
470/RasterDataModel.htm#mgrid)

MAP ANALYSIS PACKAGE (MAP)

This type of data structure integrates the two structure discussed previously. In this raster
structure, each thematic coverage is recorded and accessed separately by map name or title. This
is accomplished by recording each variable, or mapping unit, of the coverage's theme as a
separate number code or label, which can be accessed individually when the coverage is
retrieved. The label corresponds to a portion of the legend has its own symbol assigned to it. This
structure facilitates the performance of operations on individual grid cells and groups of similar
cells, and the resulting changes in value require rewriting only a single number per mapping unit,
simplifying the computations. The MAP data structure allows the manipulation of information in
a many-to-one relationship of the attribute values and the sets of grids. The MAP is used in GIS
mostly (http://www.olemiss.edu/depts/geology/courses/ge470/Raster DataModel.htm#Map).

TESSELLATION MODEL
In the tessellation model the basic logical unit is a single cell or unit of space in a mesh (Star and
Estes 1990). The location of geographic objects is defined by the row and column position of the
cells that they occupy (Burrough 1986). The area that each cell represents defines the spatial
resolution. The value assigned in the cell indicates the value of the attribute it represents. Hence,
the essential property of such a data model is that spatial relations between logical units are
implicit in the tessellation (Aronoff 1989).