E-HowNet- a Lexical Knowledge

Representation System for Semantic

Composition
Keh-Jiann Chen
CKIP
Institute of Information Science
Academia Sinica
Outline
 What is “understanding”?
 Conceptual processing vs. string processing
 Lexical Knowledge Representation
 Semantic Composition and
Decomposition
 E-HowNet
 Future researches
 What is “understanding”?

Conceptual Processing vs. String

Processing
What is natural language understanding?

Why is conceptual processing so hard?

Conceptual Processing vs.
String Processing
 Information retrieval
 E.g. retrieve “土地公”
 福德正神 vs. 土地公有、土地公開
 Word segmentation
 土地公開買賣。土地 公開 買賣。
 土地公開罵。土地公 開罵。
 Understanding
 土地公開罵福德正神很生氣
What is natural language
understanding?

 For each word, phrase, or sentence,

there is a way to derive its canonical
meaning representation?
 From the meaning representation the
associated information and their
relations can be accessed.
Why is conceptual processing
so hard?
 Ambiguities
 Speechtextconcept
 Semantic opaqueness
 Lexicalized concepts:白宮、紅火蟻
 Construction meaning and ellipses:我大你三歲
 我的年紀比你的年紀大三歲
 Metaphors:兩軍廝殺激烈。(Sport? Chess?)
 Background knowledge: 雞兔同籠
 A lexical knowledge representation
systems with semantic composition and
decomposition capabilities is the first
step toward conceptual processing and
understanding by computers.
 Lexical Knowledge
Representation

Lexical knowledge
Early works

E-HowNet
Lexical knowledge representation

 Words : the smallest meaningful units of a

language serve as indices to access various
knowledge.
 Word : sense1 : grammatical functions
semantic knowledge
world knowledge
sense2 : …
sense3 : …
 Granularity of Sense distinction
 打:1. play ball
1.1 打籃球
1.2 打棒球
1.3 …
2. dial
(打電話；通電話；撥電話；打手機；打大哥大 ；
通話‧‧‧)
3. beat
4. …
 Sense Representation
 WordNet approach :
 A synset is a set of words with the same part-of-
speech and refer to the same concept.
 A synset is described by a gloss.

“ 4-wheeled; usually propelled by an internal

combustion engine”.
Synsets can be related to each other by semantic
relations.
 Example:
 Synset :{car; auto; automobile; motocar}
{conveyance; transport}

hyperonym

{vehicle}
{hinge; flexible joint}
hyperonym {bumper}
{motor vehicle; automotive vehicle} meronym
{car door} {doorlock}
meronym meronym
hyperonym
{car window}
{car; auto; automobile; machine; motorcar} {armrest}
meronym
{car mirror}
hyperonym hyperonym
{cruiser; squad car; patrol car; police car; prowl car} {cab; taxi; hack; taxicab; }
Table 1: WordNet1.5 Relations
Relation PoS linked Example EWN
ANTONYMY noun/noun; verb/verb; man/woman; enter/exit; yes
adjective/adjective beautiful/ugly
HYPONYMY noun/noun slicer/knife yes
MERONYMY noun/noun head/nose yes
ENTAILMENT verb/verb buy/pay SUBEVENT or
CAUSE
TROPONYM verb/verb walk/move HYPONYMY
CAUSE verb/verb kill/die yes
ALSO SEE verb/adjective no
DERIVED FROM adjective/adverb beautiful/beautifully yes
ANTONYM noun/noun; verb/verb heavy/light yes
ATTRIBUTE noun/adjective size/small XPOS_HYPONYM
RELATIONAL adjective/noun atomic/ atomic bomb PERTAINS TO
ADJ
SIMILAR TO adjective/adjective ponderous/heavy no
PARTICIPLE adjective/verb elapsed/ elapse no
Disadvantages
 No information regarding conceptual
differences between different synsets
 Do not provide mechanisms for
semantic composition
 No information for unknown words
 HowNet :
 HowNet describes the following conceptual
relations﹕
 (1) Hypernymy 上下位關係
 (2) Synonymy 同義關係
 (3) Antonymy 反義關係
 (4) Attribute-host 屬性-宿主關係
 (5) Part-whole 部件-整體關係
 (6) Event-role事件-角色關係
 HowNet uses about 2000 primitives to define
concepts.
Examples :
 僱主={human|人:{employ|僱用:agent={~}}
 僱員={human|人:{employ|僱用:patient={~}}
 熨斗={tool|用具:{AlterForm|變形狀:
result={level|平}}
 假期={time|時間:{rest|休息},{WhileAway|
消閑}}
 旅館={Institute Place|場所:{reside|住下,
tour|旅遊:location={~}}
 救生艇={ship|船:{rescue|救
助:instrument={~}}
 HowNet ontology :
 V event|事件
 V1 static|靜態 V2 act|行動
 V1.0 relation|關係 V2.0 AlterRelation|變關係
 V1.01 isa|是非關係 V2.01 AlterIsa| 變是非

 …
 V1.1 state|狀態 V2.1 AlterState|變狀態
Common sense knowledge
Disadvantages
 Representation by primitives degrades precision and
readability.
 老虎tiger DEF={beast|走獸}
 鉗子forceps DEF={tool|用具:{hold|拿:instrument={~}}}
 鐘錶店watchmaker's shop
DEF={InstitutePlace|場所:{buy|買:
location={~},possession={tool|用具:{tell|告訴:
content={time|時間},instrument={~}}}},{repair|修理:
location={~},patient={tool|用具:{tell|告訴:content={time|
時間},instrument={~}}}},{sell|賣:
location={~},possession={tool|用具:{tell|告訴:
content={time|時間},instrument={~}}}}}
 Without considering semantic composition and
decomposition.
 E.g. function words: 僅just
 DEF={FuncWord|功能詞:emphasis={?}}
E-HowNet
Outline
 What is E-HowNet?
 Lexical sense representation
 Compositional semantics
 Applications of E-HowNet
 Future research
 What is E-HowNet?
Lexical sense representation
Compositional semantics
E-HowNet
 E-HowNet is an entity-relation model
extended from HowNet for lexical semantic
representation.
 A uniform semantic representation for function
words, content words and phrases.
 Semantic relations are explicitly expressed in E-
HowNet representations.
 Semantic composition and decomposition
capabilities.
 Near-canonical sense representation.
 E-HowNet- Sense
Representation
 Word sense definition- decompose a sense into
simpler senses and sense relations are explicitly
expressed
 果盤 fruit plate
def:{plate|盤:telic={put|放置: location={~},patient={fruit|
水果}}}
 玻璃盤 glass plate
def: {plate|盤:material={glass|玻璃}}

 圓盤 round plate
def: {plate|盤:shape={round|圓}}
E-HowNet- Sense
Representation
 Uniform representation for function
words, content words and phrases
 Preposition: 從
• def: location-source={},
• def: time-init={}
 Conjunction: 因為
• def: reason={}
 Adverb: 透頂
• def: degree={very|很}
 Definitions of function words
Function words Content words
Relational senses ---------------------------------------- Content senses
De的, prepositions, …adjectives, verbs, nouns
Conjunctions, adverbs…

Preposition: 從 from Noun: 果盤 fruit plate

• def: location-source={}, • def:{plate|盤:telic=
• def: time-init={}
{put|放置: location={~},
Conjunction: 因為 because
patient={fruit|水果}}}
• def: reason={}
Adverb: 透頂 very Verb:下雨 rain
• def: degree={very|很} • def: {rain|下雨}
 Uniform representation
 Preposition: 把 ba def: goal={}
 Noun: 文章article def: {text|語文}
 Verb: 寫好have written

def: {write|寫:aspect aspect={Vachieve|達成}}

 Phrase: 把文章寫好 The article has been

written.
 {write|寫:goal={text|語文}, aspect={Vachieve|達
成}}
 E-HowNet- Sense
Representation
 High-level representations can be decomposed
into primitive representations.
 E.g. ‘獅子狗Beijing dog’
def1: {狗|dog: source={北京|Beijing}}.
Extention result:
def2: {livestock|牲畜: telic={看家|MindTheHouse: agent={~}},
source={北京|Beijing}}.
def3: {livestock|牲畜: telic={TakeCare|照料:patient={family|家
庭}}:agent={~}}, source ={capital|國都: name={"北京"},
location={China|中國},
quantifier={definite|定指}}}.
 E-HowNet- Sense
Representation
 High-level representations can be decomposed
into primitive representations.
 The primitives are adopted from HowNet, called
sememes 義原.
 The set of primitives has about two thousand elements
and organized into taxonomy of entities and relations.
Taxonomy of E-HowNet
 http://ckip.iis.sinica.edu.tw/taxonomy/
 All|全
 entity|事物
 event|事件
 state|狀態
 act|行動
 AttributeValue|屬性值

 object|物體
 thing|萬物
 time|時間
 space|空間

 relation|關係
 Semantic Role|語意角色
 function|函數
Principles for word sense
definitions
Principles for sense definitions
 Use hypernym and prominent
properties to define concepts.
 Qualia structure- agentive, telic, formal,
and constitutive
 Use well-defined/primitive concepts and
relations to define new concepts.
Principles for sense definitions
 Agentive-the factors involved in the origin or
“bringing about” of the object

 Telic-the purpose and function of the object

 Constitutive-the relations between the object and its

constituents, such as its materials, parts, and
components

 Formal-the properties to distinguish the object within

a larger domain, such as its shape, magnitude, and
color etc.
Telic
 狗食 dog food
 def: {食物|food: telic={feed|餵:
target={狗|dog},patient={~}}}
 def: { food|食品: telic={feed|餵:
target={livestock|牲畜:telic={TakeCare|照
料:patient={family|家庭},agent={~}}},
patient={~}}}
Agentive
 早產兒premature baby
 def: {嬰兒|baby: agentive={早
產:patient={~}}}
 def: {human|人:age={child|少兒},
agentive={labour|臨產:manner={early|早},
patient={~}}}
Formal
 彩霞rosy clouds
 def: {CloudMist|雲霧:color={colored|彩}}
 酸辣湯spicy and sour soup
 def: {湯|soup:taste={and(酸|sour, 辣|hot)}
 def: {food|食品:material={Liquid|液},
taste={and(sour|酸, peppery|辣)}
Constitutive
 草裙grass skirt
 def: {裙|skirt:material={草|grass}}
 def: {clothing|衣物:telic={PutOn|穿戴:
instrument={~},location={leg|腿:
whole={human|人:gender={female|女}}}},
material={FlowerGrass|花草}}
Words associated by part-
whole relations
 腳 Foot
 {PartOf(Animal|動物)：
Telic={walk|走：Instrument={~}}
 喉 throat
 def:{PartOf(mouth|口):
telic={or({MakeSound|發聲: instrument={~}} ,
{swallow|嚥下:instrument={~}})}
Generic concepts vs. instances
 台北區 Taipei area
 def: {place|地方:quantifier={definite|定
指},name={'台北‘}, position={North(Taiwan|台
灣)}}
 中立區neutral zone
 def: {地區:predication={中立:location={~}}}
 def: {place|地方:predication={not(engage|從事):
content={fight|爭鬥},location={~}}}
 Functional compositions
 姪女 niece
 Def: {daughter(brother(x:human|人))}
 西北郊 north west suburb
 def: {地方:position={north(west(郊
|suburb))}}
 def: {place|地方: position=
{north(west({edge|邊: whole={city|市}}))}}
Spatial Concepts
 Location adverbs
 一路上 throughout the journey
 def: LocationThru={route|道路}
 到處 everywhere
 def: location={all|全}
Acts
 變短
 Pos: VH16
 def: {change|變:StateFin={LengthShort|短
}}
 唱獨角戲
 Pos: VA4
 def: {act|行動:manner={alone|獨自}}
Question Words
 誰 who
 def: {Ques(human|人)}
 誰關心市井小民？
Who cares about ordinary people?
 def:{關心|care:target={市井小民| ordinary
people}, experiencer={Ques(human|人)}}
Question Words
 哪兒、哪裡 where
 def: location={Ques()}
 哪裡漏水？
Where is leaking?
 def:{漏|leak:theme={水},
location={Ques()}}
Semantic Restrictions
 Preposition: 從 from
 def: location-source={place|地方},
 def: time-init={time|時間}
 Semantic composition
 E-HowNet is a lexical-concept representation
system which designed to achieve automatic
semantic composition, and
 The result of semantic composition becomes a
near-canonical conceptual representation.
 Semantic composition
 E.g. 因為下雨，衣服都濕了
Because of raining, clothes are all wet.
 Parsing and semantic role labeling:
 S(reason:VP(Head:Cb:因為|dummy:VA:下雨
)|theme:NP(Head:Na:衣服) | quantity: Da:都 | Head:Vh:濕
|particle:Ta:了)
E-HowNet lexical senses:  Semantic Composition:
因為 def: reason={} def:{wet|濕:
下雨 def: {rain|下雨} unification
theme={clothing|衣物},
衣服 def: {clothing|衣物} aspect={Vachieve|達成},
都 def: manner={complete|整} manner={complete|整},
濕 def: {wet|濕} reason={rain|下雨}}
了 def: aspect={Vachieve|達成}
Unification of Related
Expressions
 Conjunctive relation
 Exp1 and/or Exp2
 Semantic composition:
and/or(Exp1, Exp2);
 e.g.中美
 中|China and 美|America
 And({中|China}, {美|America})
 Unification of Related
Expressions
 Head-modifier or head-argument relations
 Need to identify semantic role of Exp1 if head is
Exp2.
 Semantic composition:
{Exp2: role={Exp1}}
 e.g.好|good 學生|student
 {學生|student: quality={好|good}}
 {human|人:quality={nice|良好},predication={study|學習
:agent={~},domain={education|教育}}}
 Unification of Related
Expressions
 Function word as syntactic head
 Semantic composition:
rel1={Exp2}
 E.g. 從|from 台北|Taipei
 Preposition: 從 from
 def: location-source={place|地方},
 def: time-init={time|時間}
 location-source={台北|Taipei}
 Semantic composition
 Processing technologies:
 Identify senses of new compound words
 Sense disambiguation
 Syntactic parsing and semantic role assignment
 Resolution of anaphoric references
 Filling gaps
 Process construction meaning and metaphoric
inferences
 Derive near-canonical conceptual representation
 Semantic composition
 Achieves near canonical meaning
representation.
 機長機敏地抓獲女搶犯 vs. 飛機駕駛員敏捷的逮捕女強盜
 Captain cleverly captured woman who is looting.
 Syntactic parsing
 Def:{抓獲:agent={機長}, patient={搶犯:gender={女}},
manner={機敏}}
 Def:{逮捕:agent={飛機駕駛員},patient={強盜:
gender={女}}, manner={敏捷}}
 Semantic composition and decomposition
 It is the first step toward machine understanding.
 Def: {catch|捉住:
agent={human|人:HostOf={Occupation|職位},modifier={official|官},
predication={manage|管理:agent={~},patient={aircraft|飛行器}}},
patient={human|人:modifier={guilty|有罪},predication={rob|搶:agent={~}},
gender={female|女}},
manner={clever|靈}}
 Def: {catch|捉住:
agent={human|人:HostOf={Occupation|職位},modifier={official|官},
predication={manage|管理:agent={~},patient={aircraft|飛行器}}},
patient={human|人:modifier={guilty|有罪},predication={rob|搶:agent={~}},
gender={female|女}},
manner={nimble|捷}}
Why is E-HowNet a near-canonical sense
representation system?
 Sense similarity can be measured through
taxonomies for entities and relations
 Functional composition and relational
identification
 Default value and feature inheritance
 Semantic decomposition
 Semantic composition by feature unification
 View point normalization
 Default reasoning
Current Status of E-HowNet
 Coarse-grained sense representation
 Sense representations for about 80,000
entries of CKIP dictionary
 Taxonomy for entities (sememes) and
relations
 Mapping between sememes and
WordNet synsets
Outline
 What is E-HowNet?
 Lexical sense representation
 Compositional semantics
 Applications of E-HowNet
 Future research
 Applications of E-HowNet
• Meaning representation
• Conceptual processing
• Synonym generation
• Disambiguation
• Specialization
• Generalization（舉一反三）
• Association (聯想)
• Inference (享受|enjoy 牛排|steak/音樂|music)
• Applications: IR, machine translation,
understanding, semantic analysis, information
processing at concept level
Association
Knowledge for Logical Inference
 Generalization and Specialization:
Taxonomy
 Sense similarity measure: through
semantic decomposition and taxonomy
 Reasoning: Analogy, Semantic
restriction, world knowledge
 Inference: Event frame
 Knowledge for Logical Inference
 Analogy
 果盤 fruit plate
def:{plate|盤:telic={put|放置:
location={~},patient={fruit|水果}}}
沙拉盤 salad plate  玻璃盤 glass plate
塑膠盤 plastic plate
def: {plate|盤:material={glass|玻璃}}
方盤 square plate
 圓盤 round plate
def: {plate|盤:shape={round|圓}}
Machine Translation
e.g. 桌子上放了這本書。
This book was put on the table.
Google translation:
Put the table on this book.
 S(location:NP(property:Nab:桌子|Head:Ncda:上)|
Head:VC33:放|
aspect:Di:了|
theme:NP(quantifier:DM:這本|Head:Nab:書))
Question answering
 衣服上的墨水怎麼洗掉？
How do you clean ink spots on clothes?
 def:{wash|洗掉:patient={ink|墨水
:place={clothes|衣服}},means={Ques()}}
 漂白水可以洗掉墨水。
Bleach may clean ink spots.
 def:{wash|洗掉:patient={ink|墨水},
means={漂白水|bleach}}
Four major semantic types
 Semantic classification may cross pos
classification.
 Events (acts) vs. Verbs
 Objects vs. Nouns
 Attributes (relations) vs. Nouns
 Values (values of attributes) vs. State
verbs, nouns
 Words of same semantic class hold
particular syntactic properties.
Attributes
 Attribute (relation) nouns do not
function as modifiers of objects.
 e.g. *重量|weight + object
 Attribute nouns occur only at positions
of Np head. (Ref: 劉春卉著 現代漢語屬
性範疇研究 巴蜀書社出版。)
 Values
 Values associate with respective
attributes and lead to identify semantic
relations.
 紅|red 酒|wine 三兩|3 ounce 肉|meat

color weight
 陳|old 酒|wine 快|fast 車|car

Time Speed
Agentive={produce|製造} Telic={move|移動}
 Application of semantic types
 Disambiguation of transitive Verb+Noun structure
 verb objects modifier head
檢驗|inspect + Noun

 行李|luggage,食物|food vs. 制度|system,方法|method

 Pos: Noun Pos: Noun
 Semantic: objects Semantic: attribute
 Application of semantic types
 Sense and part-of-speech prediction for new
compound words
 State Verb+ State Verb
 Antonym: 明|bright 暗|dark  Attribute Noun
 Synonym: 高|tall 大|big State Verb
 State Verb+Noun
 State Verb+ object: 紅|red 花|flower  object Noun
 State Verb+ attribute: 新|new 型|style  value Adj
Analytic Morphology
 If a morpheme (word) B is a dependency daughter of
morpheme (word) A, i.e. B is a modifier or an argument of A,
then unify the semantic representation of A and B by the
following steps.
 Step 1: Identify semantic relation between A and B to derive
relation(A)={B}. Note: the possible semantic relations are
shown in Table 1.
 Step 2: Unify the semantic representation of A and B by
inserting relation(A)={B} as sub-feature of A to derive
{A|relation(A)={B}}.
 one一 def: quantity={1} + bowl碗 def: container={bowl|碗} 
one bowl一碗 def: container={bowl|碗:quantity={1}}

 this這def: quantifier={definite|定指} + 本copy def:{null} 

this copy這本 def: quantifier={definite|定指}
Act1+Act2
 Conjunctive structure
 Synonym: and(Act1, Act2) e.g. 打擊
 Antonym : and(Act1, Act2) e.g. 進出
 Verb object structure
 Act1={試，禁} e.g. 試喝、禁入
 Verb result structure
 Most results are states (Vaues).
 Act2={獲、失、動、作、來、去、進來、上
去、起來、…}
Obj1+Obj2
 Obj1+Obj2Object Noun
 More than 99% are modifier+ head
structure.
 {Obj2: rel={Obj1}} where rel could be
Telic, Agentive, material, part, location, ….
 油 井 槍 彈

Telic={produce|製造} Predication={擊發}
 Note: objects are rarely to be suffix or
prefix of verbs.
 Val1+Val2
 Conjunctive structure
 Synonym: Hypernym(Val1, Val2) e.g. 豐富
 Antonym : attribute e.g. 好壞、興衰
 Modifier-head structure
 Val1=degree value = {大、深、寡、豔、...}
 e.g. 大好、深紅
 Verb result structure
 Most results are states (values).
 Val2={起來、下去…}
Act+Value
 Act+ValueVR
 {Act: result={Value}}
 Value={P-state, M-state, E-state}
 Problem: the transitivity of the result VR
compound?
 Intransitive: 跑累、氣昏
 Transitive: 哭瞎、打破
Value+Act

 Modifier+headAct
 {Act: manner={value}} or {Act: E-
attri={E-value}}
 E.g. 靜思 def ={思想: manner={靜}}
 快煮 def ={煮: speed={快}}
 Note: there is a set of actions which are
always nominalized at suffix position.
(See next page)
Object or Value+Act (nominal
action)
 Obj or Val+Action  affairs
 Action={存、收、考、行、吻、射、改、治
、防、…}
{affairs|事務: CoEvent={Act}}
 Animal+{叫}

 長、安、全壘+{打}
Obj+Value
 Obj+Shape-Value(形狀量詞)
 {Obj: shape={value}}
 E.g. 串、粉、捲、圈、桿、棒、管、環、末
、條、塊、團、屑
 Obj+color-value color-Value
 米白、酒紅
 Obj+odor-value odor Noun
 香、臭、腥
Value+Obj

 Modifier+head object Noun

 {object: Attribute={value}}
 E.g. 紅花、富人、昏君
 Very few exceptions:
 沿路 adv, 炫人 verb
Act+Obj
 Act+Obj Obj Noun /* It is different
from syntactic construction.*/
 E.g. 炒飯、用水、烤肉、吊櫃
 Some of examples have ambiguous
interpretations.
 The acts playing the role of prefix of
object nouns generally do not play the
role of prefix of verbs.
Compound with attributes
 Attributes do not modify object nouns.
 Attributes can only modify event nouns.
 重量計、顏色分析
 Object+ attribute attribute or value
 Object+ attribute attribute; e.g. 物價
 Object+ attribute value, if all object have the
same value. E.g. 星形、西式
 Value+ attributevalue; e.g. 紅色、快速
 Attribute+value Vp; e.g.色紅、速快
 Advantages of E-HowNet
• Feature representation is precise and incremental.
 Great dane|大丹狗 Def=:
{dog|狗:
place={German|德國},
telic={hunt|狩獵:instrument={~},
size={big|大型},
evaluation={gentle|溫和},
color={black white|黑白}}}
 A pure taxonomy approach, such as WordNet, does not provide detail
description of a concept.
 Advantages of E-HowNet
Features are criteria for new classifications.
Great dane|大丹狗 is also classified as：
1) Hunting instruments|狩獵工具：
 firearm|獵槍  def: {gun|槍:telic={hunt|狩獵:instrument={~}}}
 trap|陷阱  def: {facility|設施:telic={hunt|狩獵:instrument={~}}}
2) Animals with black/white colors|黑白色系的動物 ：
 panda|熊貓  def: {beast|走獸:place={China|中國}, predication={eat|吃:
patient={bamboo|竹子},agent={~}},color={黑白}}
 Zebra|斑馬  def: {horse|馬:color={黑白},size={small|小型}}

 cf. HowNet definitions are very rough; for examples all dogs are
defined as: {livestock|牲畜}.
 Advantages of E-HowNet
 Achieves near canonical meaning
representation.
 機長機敏地抓獲女搶犯 vs. 飛機駕駛員敏捷的逮捕女強盜
 Syntactic parsing
 Def:{抓獲:agent={機長},patient={搶:gender={女}},manner={機
敏}}
 Def:{逮捕:agent={飛機正駕駛},patient={強
盜:gender={女}},manner={敏捷}}
 E-HowNet Expansion →
 Advantages of E-HowNet
 Def: {catch|捉住:
agent={human|人:HostOf={Occupation|職位},modifier={official|官},
predication={manage|管理:agent={~},patient={aircraft|飛行器}}},
patient={human|人:modifier={guilty|有罪},predication={rob|搶:agent={~}},
gender={female|女}},
manner={clever|靈}}
 Def: {catch|捉住:
agent={human|人:HostOf={Occupation|職位},modifier={official|官},
predication={manage|管理:agent={~},patient={aircraft|飛行器}}},
patient={human|人:modifier={guilty|有罪},predication={rob|搶:agent={~}},
gender={female|女}},
manner={nimble|捷}}
Advantages of E-HowNet
 Multi-level representations
 Tailor store|裁縫店
def: {store|店:telic={tailor|裁縫:place={~}}}
 cf. HowNet def: {InstitutePlace|場所:{produce|製造:
PatientProduct={clothing|衣物},location={~}}}
 Hownet concepts are defined by primitive concepts. For
instance, in the above example, the basic concept
InstitutePlace|場所 lost the information of “commerce” in
「店」.
 Advantages of E-HowNet
 E-HowNet is language independent.
 E-HowNet uses WordNet synsets as description
language.
 W_C=公佈欄
 W_E=bulletin board
 DEF={facilities|設施:{put|放
置:location={~},patient={text|語文:{announce|發
表:content={~}}}}}
 DEF3={[(establishment)]:{[(put,set,place)]:location={~}
,patient={[(text,textual_matter)+(command_language,qu
ery_language,search_language)]:{[(announce,denote)]:c
ontent={~}}}}}
 Advantages of E-HowNet
 E-HowNet did not create a completely
new ontology, but accommodates other
ontologies.
 Links are established between different
ontologies.
 WordNet synsets will be an intermediate
language.
Outline
 What is E-HowNet?
 Lexical sense representation
 Compositional semantics
 Applications of E-HowNet
 Future research
Difficulties and future research
 Semantic representation
 Domain specific concepts
 Domain terms: 質數|prime number 、二氧化碳
|carbon dioxide …
 Relative entities:他人|others、外野| out field …
 Fine-grained features
 Aspects and viewpoints
 Difficulties and future research
 Semantic composition
 Word identification- word segmentation
and unknown word identification
 Sentence parsing- syntactic structure
analysis and semantic role assignment
 Word sense disambiguation
 Meaning facet determination
 Generic or instance
 Difficulties and future research
 Semantic composition
 Anaphoric references
 Fine-grained semantic relations and gaps
 Construction meaning and metaphoric
inferences
 View point normalization
 Buy 買: Sell 賣
 Borrow 借: Lend 借
 Cause 因為: Result 所以