The Injection Molding of Quality Molded Parts

ATI 1146e Increasing Productivity through

Process Optimization

Plastics
Business Group
 Increasing Productivity through Process Optimization

Contents Page

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Quality criteria and factors influencing productivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Influence of the material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Influence of the molded part geometry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Influence of the mold. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Influence of the injection molding machine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Influence of processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Environmental influences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Optimization strategies and concepts for process optimization . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Fault diagnosis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

The difference between process optimization and fault diagnosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

Fault diagnosis procedure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Fault diagnosis aids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Example of fault diagnosis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Selecting the most appropriate remedies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Prospects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

2
 Increasing Productivity through Process Optimization

Introduction Output Input

The injection molding process has long been
established as a highly cost-efficient process Number of units produced Outlay on time and material
for the production of high-grade, complex
molded parts. The constantly increasing de-
mands placed on plastics parts in terms of
quality, deadlines and costs make it essential

!
se
for plastics processors to adopt appropriate
rea
procedures to analyze and optimize the pro- inc
cessing operation and the factors that influ-

red
ence it [1].

The development of improved, automated
quality assurance systems has brought ad-
vances in process monitoring for injection
molding machines, thanks to new open-loop
and closed-loop control facilities. This has
been made possible through rapid advances
in microelectronics and sensor technology.
Today therefore, it is feasible to achieve
comprehensive (100 %) monitoring of the
injection molding process on the basis of
target/actual comparisons. In order to keep
the amount of data involved to a manage-
able level, however, it is wise to restrict this
monitoring to a number of process parame-
ters that affect quality [2].
An increase in productivity can be achieved
by increasing the output-to-input ratio. If it
proves possible to produce a greater num-
ber of units (the output) while simultane-
ously lowering the cost of molded-part pro-
duction (the input), then this will have ful-
uce
!
Fig. 1: Increasing productivity
Figure 2 shows an example of a clear in- In order to achieve cost-optimized produc-
crease in productivity. Continual improve- tion with a high level of productivity (cost-
ments to the different segments of the efficient production), the next step involves
process chain have made it possible to re- optimizing the processing operation from
duce the cycle time for CD production from the angle of quality and reliability. Process
more than 20 s at the start of the 1980s to optimization generally forms part of the
approximately 3 s today. The clear reduc- start-up process for a new mold.
tion in the price of CDs since then has been
due not least to this development.
25
22
20
Share of machine and mold technology
Cycle time (s)

15
∆ tz = 19 s

filled the aim of achieving as many good-

quality, fault-free parts as possible which Share of processing technology
conform with the specifications (Fig. 1). 10

Share of material
5 Cycle time
3
0
1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000
Year
Fig. 2: Example of CD production

3
Increasing Productivity through Process Optimization

The aim is to produce the specified molded

part quality within the stipulated or agreed
tolerances in as cost-efficient a manner as
possible. The outlay on optimization and
monitoring must, of course, be commensu-
rate with the level of the quality require-
ments and, where appropriate, with the
scope of the overall order and the batch size
of the individual series that are to be sup-
plied.
In addition to this, both the prevailing com-
petition and the proof of quality capability
that customers generally require will pro-
vide an added incentive to take further steps
in the direction of process optimization. The
more intense the competition, the greater
care processors must take to produce as
cheaply as possible while at the same time
ensuring a reputation for reliability in re-
spect of quality and meeting deadlines.
Proof of quality capability to DIN ISO 9000
ff. is provided by an audit carried out by the
customer or through certification by an au-
thorized institute. Documentation of process
control and quality monitoring is essential
in all cases.
Quality criteria and factors
influencing productivity
Before a start can be made on process opti-
mization, it is necessary to determine which
quality criteria are of relevance for the
process and what possibilities exist for in-
fluencing these. The most important mold-
ed part properties in the first instance are:
● appearance
- color, transparency
- surface
- absence of faults
● mechanical and physical properties
- toughness
- stiffness
- strength
and
● dimensional and shape accuracy
These properties are influenced directly
or indirectly by the following parameters
(Fig. 3):
● the material employed (selection, pro-
cessing characteristics)
● the design of the molded part (design
suitable for plastics, optimum wall thick-
nesses)
● the mold (gate design, thermal layout,
mechanical characteristics)
● the machine (size, rigidity, speed, costs,
selection, setting)
● the processing operation (process con-
trol)
● the environment (location, peripheral
units such as a dryer, employee skills,
etc.)

Material Molded part design Molds

Molded part

Machine Processing Environment

Fig. 3: Influences on quality and productivity

4
 Increasing Productivity through Process Optimization

In order to achieve cost-efficient produc-
tion, it is necessary to take a close look at
each individual link in this process chain
and then to optimize it, making due al-
lowance for the interaction between the dif-
ferent parameters. Figure 4 shows just how
important it is to observe and optimize each
individual segment at the earliest possible
stage.
The majority of faults have their origins in
the development phase, but these faults are
generally not rectified until the parts are in-
spected after production, since it is only then
that the faults are discovered.
The correlation between the point of origin These individual points will now be looked
of a fault and the impact of this fault is also at, taking a number of practical examples.
described by the 'rule of ten'. This states, on
the one hand, that the outlay required to rec-
tify a fault increases tenfold with each step
from the idea for the part through to its de-
ployment and, on the other hand, that the
potential for influencing the production costs
falls to a level of 10 %. This shows just how
important it is to clarify in good time the in-
fluence that the individual segments of the
process chain have on quality and produc-
tivity.

Phases in the product life cycle

60
Rectification of fault
50

40 Origin of fault
Frequency (%)

30

20

10

0
Definition Development Operational Production Inspection Deployment
planning
Fig. 4: Origin and rectification of faults [3]

5
Increasing Productivity through Process Optimization

Influence of the material

Processing window of materials for optical data media
The material provides the first opportunity (cycle time = 3.5 s)
for increasing productivity. The potential
that the material holds in this respect can be • Makrolon CD 2005 • Makrolon DP 1-1265
illustrated with two examples. Optical data (standard) (15 % improvement in flowability)
media such as CDs and DVDs have estab-
50 50
Cooling water temperature (°C)

Cooling water temperature (°C)

lished a market as the storage media of
choice. The market success of these discs is
due, firstly, to the high-quality sound re-
production of audio CDs and, secondly, to 40 40
the low cost of CD-ROMs as storage me-
dia. This development has been accompa-
nied by a steady increase in productivity in
the manufacturing process, brought about 30 30
320 330 340 350 320 330 340 350
in no small measure by the optimization of
Melt temperature (°C) Melt temperature (°C)
the material. The example of "CD produc-
tion" illustrates how the cycle time for in- Fig. 5: Material optimization – a broad processing window
jection molding has been continuously re-
duced from more than 20 s at the start of the
1980s to around 3 s at present, thanks to op-
timization of the material. The two-shell overmolding technique pro- orate fusible core technique, since the burst-
vides a further example of how productivi- ing pressures attainable in welded parts
Apart from optimization of the material, this ty can be increased through optimization of made of standard PA6 GF30 were not high
clear reduction in cycle time has addition- the material. This process involves a number enough. Only when selective improvements
ally been achieved through optimization of of individual shells being produced by in- were made to the weldability of the materi-
the machine and mold, and also the pro- jection molding and then welded together. al did it become possible to join together
cessing operation itself (Fig. 2). Materials Figure 6 shows an air-intake manifold for two half-shells produced by the traditional
with a broad processing window offer the Mercedes A-Class in Durethan® KU 2- injection molding process using conven-
greater scope for adjusting the processing 2140/30 H2.0 (PA6 GF30). Previous air-in- tional welding methods (heated tool or vi-
settings, and the interaction of the different take manifolds were produced by the elab- bration welding).
parameters is readily evident here. Figure 5
illustrates the broader processing window
of Makrolon® DP 1-1265 compared with
Makrolon® CD 2005. Selective optimization
of the material (a 15 % improvement in Welding Injection
flowability) has contributed towards in- Extrusion molding
creased productivity and thus towards con-
Viscosity

siderably reduced costs. Non-Newtonian PA

Durethan®
KU 2-2140/30 H2.0

Standard PA
Durethan® BKV 30 H2.0

Shear

Fig. 6: Material optimization – weldability

6
 Increasing Productivity through Process Optimization

Adjusting this product to give it more pro-
nounced non-Newtonian characteristics led
to a broad processing window, less flash at
the weld and a reduced tendency to adhere
to the heating element during heated tool
welding [4]. The bursting pressure was in-
creased by some 40 % in the course of ma-
terial optimization, and it also proved pos-
sible to further extend the processing win-
dow in response to frequent requests from
welding engineers. In addition, it was only
by virtue of this optimization that produc-
tion by the two-shell overmolding technique
was possible at all. Further success factors
included improved potential for rheological
and mechanical computation.
Influence of the molded part
geometry
The design of the molded part marks a fur-
ther link in the overall process chain. Para-
meters such as wall thickness, rib-to-wall-
thickness ratio, positioning of ribs, bosses
and perforations, surface requirements and
permitted tolerances play a part in deter-
mining the requisite component quality and
hence the productivity. Figure 7 shows an
example of how productivity can be clearly
increased through the selective optimization
of wall thickness.
In its original wall thickness of 4 mm, the
lawnmower chassis shown below weighed
1.83 kg and required a cycle time of 95 s.
The target set by the customer for achiev-
ing more economical production was a wall
thickness of between 3.0 and 3.5 mm and
hence a weight of approximately 1.6 kg. The
cycle time was not to exceed 80 s. Working
on the basis of rheological and mechanical
calculations, a design suitably tailored to the
stress pattern was established, which not on-
ly permitted the target to be attained but al-
so led to further improvements. The opti-
mized wall thickness was ultimately 2.5 –
3 mm, bringing the weight down to only
1.45 kg, while the cycle time was reduced
to 65 – 70 s. The additional 10 % reduction
in weight thus produced significant materi-
al savings, and the reduction in cycle time
led to a further increase in productivity.

Lawnmower Weight Wall thickness Cycle time

chassis: kg mm s
Current model 1.83 4.00 95
Successor model
Customer target: 1.6 3.0–3.5 80
Result after 1.45 2.5–3.0 65–70
optimization: -10 %

Fig. 7: Molded part design – optimization of the wall thickness

7
Increasing Productivity through Process Optimization

Influence of the mold

The quality of the mold, together with its
temperature control, ventilation, number of
gates, gate design, type of hot runner and
mold rigidity are just a few of the key factors
that influence productivity. Uniform tem-
perature control, for example, will permit
both an improvement in part properties and
a reduction in cycle time, and the level of
inherent stress due to uneven cooling will
also be reduced. One means of achieving
conformal cooling is to employ the
CONTURA® heating/cooling system patent-
ed by Innova Engineering GmbH (Fig. 8).
This involves cooling channels being con-
figured to match the geometry of the mold-
ed part with the aid of the vacuum solder-
ing technique.
Figure 9 shows the potential that this sys- Fig. 8: The CONTURA® temperature control system
tem offers for cooling a door liner. The top
picture shows the temperature distribution
with conventional cooling while the bottom
picture shows this same door liner in a mold
equipped with the Contura system. It is clear
that the temperature distribution is consid-
erably more uniform and the temperature
level considerably lower with Contura. This
technology permits both a significant re-
duction in cooling time and an improvement
in part quality. As a general rule, the sav-
ings potential for improved mold cooling
works out at between 10 and 40 %, de-
pending on the part in question. Door liner with conventional cooling

Fig. 9:
Door liner with Contura Mold optimization –
cooling
8
 Increasing Productivity through Process Optimization

A further element of the mold that has a pro-

nounced influence on the quality of the
molded part and the amount of waste, and
which thus also affects the cost-efficiency
of the production process, is the gate with
the sprue. The gate must be large enough to
avoid excessive shear acting on the melt and
prevent the melt temperature from rising to
a critical level. The gate should also not
place any restrictions on the processing win-
dow – in other words, it must be possible
for the holding pressure to be applied for a
sufficiently long period.
At the same time, cost-efficient production
means that the gate must not dictate the cy-
cle time, that sprue waste must be kept to a
minimum and that the sprue should be cut
off automatically if possible.
The design of the gate is one of the factors
that contribute towards trouble-free pro-
duction. One problem that frequently occurs
with direct pin-point gating on high-gloss
surfaces is the "matte circle". This is caused
by excessive shear and too great an increase Fig. 10: Gate system for graded injection
in temperature during the injection phase.
The thin layer of melt that has already so-
lidified close to the gate is torn apart again
by the hot melt flowing in afterwards, and
the surface takes on a matte appearance. The
remedy here can be to adopt a graded injec-
tion profile (slow –> fast). Figure 10 shows
a system that can be used to achieve graded
injection in a natural manner while keeping
the screw advance speed on a constant set-
ting.

9
Increasing Productivity through Process Optimization

The transverse bar fitted just upstream of To ensure that complex cavities can be uni- and positioned (Fig. 11). The outlay on sub-
the gate causes the melt flow to divide into formly filled via a number of different gates, sequent alterations to the mold will be kept
three part-flows at the start of the injection it is important for a rheological calculation to a minimum, series production can com-
phase. This then reduces the speed at the to be performed at the mold design stage. mence sooner, and component properties
gate. Once the transverse bar has been com- This will enable errors and problems to be will be improved and the cycle time reduced.
pletely filled, the compound continues to pinpointed right at the planning stage, and
flow at the higher injection speed set on the permit the gates to be optimally designed
machine. The lower speed of the melt at the
start of the injection phase serves to reduce
the shear and the temperature increase, and
the thicker layer of melt then freezes on the
mold wall and can no longer be torn apart
by the melt flowing in afterwards. A flaw-
less, glossy surface results.

Fig. 11: Rheological layout of the mold

10
 Increasing Productivity through Process Optimization

Influence of the injection molding
machine
The injection molding machine must be ad-
equately dimensioned for the requirements.
The chief selection criteria are:
● clamping force
● metering volume
● permitted mold size
If the metering stroke is below this range
(<1D), the residence time will rise to inad-
missibly high levels and there will be a con-
siderably increased danger of silver streaks
due to decomposition. The reproducibility
of the production process will also suffer on
account of the short screw displacement. If
1D 2D
the metering stroke is above this range
(>3D), then there is a danger that air will be
introduced together with the molding com-
pound, which will once again lead to streaks
on the surface of the molded part. The opti-
mum screw diameter for a specific part weight
can be estimated with the aid of Fig. 13.
3D 4D

Apart from these fundamental selection cri-

Screw
teria, the following factors play a key role
in ensuring cost-efficient production:
● machine rigidity
● the type of open-loop or closed-loop con-
trol
● the reproducibility of all the machine
<1D >4D
movements
● machine costs (purchase cost and oper-
ating costs) 1D to 3D optimum range
3D to 4D possible in exceptional cases
<1 D and >4D not recommended
Apart from this, it is also important to se-
lect the appropriate screw with regard to the Fig. 12: Optimum metering displacement [6]
melting behavior and the residence time,
since the melt compounding has a direct in-
fluence on the quality of the molded part.
The screw size should be selected such that
the metering stroke is between a minimum 10,000
of 1D and a maximum of 4D. The best range
for achieving optimum melting is between
1D and 3D (Fig. 12). 1,000
e
Metering volume cm3

m rang
Optimu
100

10

1
10 20 40 60 80 100 200 mm
Screw diameter

Fig. 13: Optimum screw size

11
Increasing Productivity through Process Optimization
Influence of processing
Once all the requirements have been ful-
filled in respect of the optimum material,
the molded part design, the mold and ma-
chine, this still leaves the processing opera-
tion to be optimized in a bid to ensure cost-
efficient production. The first step here is to
establish which process parameters have a
bearing on quality. The processing parame-
ters with the greatest influence on the prop-
erties of the molded part and the production
costs are the mold and molding compound
temperature, the injection rate or injection
profile, the point of switchover to holding
pressure, the level and duration of holding
pressure, the cooling time and the residence
time of the melt at high temperatures. The
process parameters that are of relevance will
depend on the geometry of the molded part
and the requirements placed on this part.
Influencing variables
Injection phase:
– injection speed
– melt and mold temperature
– melt viscosity
Influencing of:
a) material parameters:
– viscosity
Cavity pressure
– molecular degradation
– crystallinity
– orientation in surface layer
b) molded part properties:
– surface quality
t0
Injection phase
Packing phase
Fig. 14: Factors that influence quality characteristics
12
These parameters must therefore be estab-
lished during the initial processing trials that
are conducted.
Apart from determining which process pa-
rameters affect quality, it is also necessary to
know how these parameters affect individ-
ual quality characteristics, such as appear-
ance, mechanical properties, and dimen-
sional and shape accuracy. The only para-
meters that have a direct impact on molded
part quality during production are the pres-
sure level, the pressure profile, the temper-
atures, and the flow front velocity inside the
mold. The remaining parameters have only
an indirect influence. It is possible to at-
tribute key quality characteristics to the in-
dividual phases of the injection molding
Influencing variables
Packing phase:
– switchover to holding pressure
– pressure limit setting
Influencing of:
a) material
parameters:
– crystallinity
– anisotropies
b) molded part properties:
– extent to which part is filled out
– flash formation
– weight
t1 t2
Holding pressure phase
Time
process (Fig. 14). It is of decisive impor-
tance to achieve the correct machine setting
and to ensure that this setting is reproducible
[7]. The machine settings for the injection
and compression phase have a very clear in-
fluence on viscosity, molecular weight re-
duction, crystallinity and state of orienta-
tion, and this essentially affects the me-
chanical and physical properties of the in-
jection molded part. The surface finish,
shaping and weight are also clearly influ-
enced during this phase, as is flash forma-
tion. The holding pressure phase essential-
ly affects crystallinity, orientation inside the
molded part, shrinkage and hence dimen-
sional stability, weight, and also voids, sink
marks and demolding behavior.
Influencing variables
Holding pressure phase:
– level and duration of holding pressure
– mold wall temperature
– mold deformation
– level of clamping force
Influencing of:
a) material parameters:
– crystallinity
– orientation inside molded part
– shrinkage
b) molded part properties:
– weight
– dimensional stability
– voids
– sink marks
– relaxation
– ejection characteristics
t3
 Increasing Productivity through Process Optimization

By measuring the cavity pressure it is pos-

sible to highlight the individual process
phases that are important for the quality of
the molded part and then to use the corre-
sponding pressure curve to optimize the Too early Too late Correct
process. In order to achieve an optimum
Cavity pressure

pressure curve like the one shown in Fig. 14

(with a gentle transition from injection pres-
sure to holding pressure), it is important to
select the correct switchover point from the
injection phase to the holding pressure
phase. Figure 15 shows the potential pres-
sure curve for different switchover points.
If the switch to holding pressure is made at
too early a stage, it is possible for molten Time
plastic to flow back into the space in front of
the screw again, and the cavity will only be Fig. 15: Cavity pressure profiles for different switchover points
completely filled when holding pressure is
applied. This will lead to surface defects. If
the switchover is performed at too late a
stage, the pressure will increase to an ex-
cessively high level during the injection Apart from these switchover types, there are good results will be achieved with all three
phase and, after the switch to holding pres- also further ways of performing the switchover types. Their advantages and
sure, it will be possible for melt to flow back switchover, all of which have their advan- drawbacks are set out in Table 1.
into the space in front of the screw again. tages and drawbacks. Generally speaking,
High inherent stresses will then develop in
the area around the gate, and overfilling may
occur. Switchover type Advantages Drawbacks
Screw Simple to set, accurate, Reproducibility depends on
displacement- independent of injection the sealing characteristics of the
A distinction is drawn between three com- dependent velocity non-return valve and accurate
mon types of switchover: positioning of the metering
● screw displacement-dependent unit, sensitive to wear
● time-dependent Time-dependent Can be set highly accurately, Correction required if the
independent of wear and injection time is altered,
● pressure-dependent fluctuations in metering sensitive to wear
displacement
Cavity pressure- Independent of screw Reacts sensitively to viscosity
dependent displacement and fluctuations and to changes in
injection time the processing parameters
Table 1: Advantages and drawbacks of different types of switchover to holding
pressure

13
Increasing Productivity through Process Optimization

The injection velocity should normally be

set as high as possible. The installed injec-
tion capacity (injection pressure x volume
flow) must be high enough for the set in- vs,max
500
jection velocity not to be restricted by too
low an available injection capacity, since mm/s
vs,target = 500 mm/s
Screw advance rate vs

this would mean that the desired injection 400

velocity was not attained. Figure 16 shows
the injection velocity that can actually be at-
tained on an injection molding machine as a
function of the injection pressure required
(in this case, hydraulic pressure). It is clear
that the injection velocity is restricted by the
performance limit of the injection molding
machine.
The permitted injection pressure must be set
at a sufficiently high level for the desired
injection velocity to be attained without this
setting having to be exceeded. If this is not
the case, the injection velocity will be re-
stricted by the injection pressure. This is
why it is necessary for the set injection ve-
locity to be compared with the injection ve-
locity actually attained. A high injection ve-
locity will facilitate mold filling and ensure
better reproduction of the cavity surface. At
the same time, relaxation processes will en-
sure that orientation and inherent stresses
are eliminated more reliably. It may, how-
ever, be necessary to limit the injection ve-
locity if excessively high shear develops in
narrow gates or if the molded part incorpo-
rates localized thin walls.
400 mm/s
300
300 mm/s
200
100
0 40
Hydraulic pressure pH
Fig. 16: The performance limit of the machine
The holding pressure should be set just high
enough for voids and sink marks to be
avoided on parts of a flawless design and to
ensure that other quality criteria, such as di-
mensional stability, etc. are similarly
achieved. In addition to the holding pres-
sure level, the time for which the holding
pressure acts also plays a decisive role. The
holding pressure can only act until the gate
is frozen. The optimum holding pressure du-
ration can be established by determining the
sealing point (Fig. 17).
80 120 bar 160
The holding pressure is then increased until
no further weight increase occurs in the
molded part, and there is no longer a kink
in the cavity pressure curve [7]. If the hold-
ing pressure is maintained for too long, the
cycle time will be lengthened unnecessarily
and, if the cycle time is kept constant, only
a shorter metering time will be available.
An excessively short holding pressure du-
ration will lead to voids, sink marks and a
non-reproducible molded part quality.

Too early Too late Correct

Pressure

tN Recommended

Cavity pressure
Time
Hydraulic pressure

Fig. 17: Sealing point and the set holding pressure time
14
 Increasing Productivity through Process Optimization

The melt and mold temperature affect the
quality of the molded part, the amount of
waste that results, the cooling time and
hence the productivity. The melt tempera-
ture should be established from the pro-
cessing data provided by the raw materials
producer and kept as constant as possible
during processing, as well as during opti-
mization. The mold temperature has a con-
siderable influence on both the attainable
cycle time and the quality of the molded
part. A higher mold temperature will gen-
erally be required in cases where stringent
requirements are to be met in terms of the
surface finish, the inherent stress level, and
Figure 18 shows the pronounced differences file then adopts a saw-tooth profile due to
that can emerge here. While the inflow tem- the heating during the injection phase and
perature can be kept constant over the en- the cooling during the holding pressure and
tire processing operation, the actual mold cooling phase.
wall temperature increases as production
progresses on account of the hot melt, and
settles at a high level. The temperature pro-
70
1
2
Temperature (°C)

60
the dimensional accuracy and stability of
the molded part. It should be borne in mind
that all material-specific figures and rec- 3
ommendations given for the cavity temper- 50
ature relate to the cavity wall temperature 4
and not to the melt inflow temperature or
the temperature set on the cooling unit.
40
0 5 10 15
Time (min)

1: Molded part surface 3: Surface of cooling channel

2: Center of wall 4: Inflow

Fig. 18: Cavity temperature profiles after start-up

15
Increasing Productivity through Process Optimization
It is a good idea to measure the actual cav-
ity wall temperature (via the surface tem-
perature of the molded part immediately af-
ter demolding, for example) and to have this
temperature monitored during optimization
and processing. At all events, it is important
to be aware of the correlation that exists be-
tween the inflow temperature and the actu-
al cavity temperature. If malfunctions oc-
cur, for instance (causing interruptions to
production), or if the mold wall temperature
is altered by a change in the inflow temper-
ature or the cycle time, then this can result
in dimensional and weight changes (Fig.
19). It is then essential to wait until the equi-
librium temperature has become established
Cavity-pressure-controlled process
115.50
Dimensions (mm)
115.45
115.40
115.35
44.90
Weight (g)
44.80
44.70
44.60
0 10 20
Fig. 19: Influence of external factors
16
again, and it may be necessary to optimize
other parameters once more in order to make
corrections to dimensions and weight. This
will ultimately take a great deal of time and
incur costs that have a negative impact on
productivity. This makes it clear just how
important it is to maintain the optimum op-
erating point during the start-up phase, and
to keep to this during production. Interrup-
tions to production and subsequent correc-
tions to processing parameters should be
avoided as far as possible, and the melt and
cavity temperature should be taken as the
basis for all optimization steps.
30 40 50 60
Cycle
Environmental influences
The environmental influences acting on the
injection molding process include
● drying and material conveyance
● the machine location
● cleanliness
● ambient temperatures and relative hu-
midity
● the energy, air and water supply
● the handling of the injection molded
parts
● the skill level of the work force.
Each of these points has a significant influ-
ence on the quality of the molded parts and
on productivity, since each one can interact
with the process parameters. The residual
moisture in the material, for instance, can
influence both the surface finish and the me-
chanical properties of a molded part. In ad-
dition to this, the location of the machine
(ambient temperature, relative humidity,
cleanliness, etc.) is of paramount impor-
tance. This is because the control response
of the temperature control systems can be
adversely affected by constant changes in
ambient temperature if a machine is posi-
tioned near to the door of a production shop
that is always being opened and closed.
 Increasing Productivity through Process Optimization

Optimization strategies and

concepts for process optimization α
Working on the basis of the quality criteria
and influencing factors that have been dis- Set: ϑ1, ϑ2,...ϑD, pSt, pSp, pN, (tS), vS, tN, tK, tP, FS, T1, T2, SD, Sp, nS
cussed above, it is possible to derive the fol-
lowing start-up and optimization strategy Start-up
for new molded parts and molds (Fig. 20):
First of all, the machine and mold must be G = constant
pre-heated in order to ensure that a state of
equilibrium is attained as rapidly as possible. Change ϑ1, ϑ2,...ϑD
The requisite temperature settings can be Measure ϑM
found in the processing data sheets provid-
ed by the raw materials producers or taken No
ϑM target ?
from the results of previous simulation cal-
culations (which can similarly be performed
by the raw materials producers). The settings G = constant ?
for the cylinder and mold temperatures should
Change T1, T2 on thermostat
be taken from the processing data sheets sup-
plied by the raw materials producers. Measure ϑW1 and ϑW2

The clamping force must be set at a suffi- No

ciently high level to avoid flash. Mold ϑW1 and ϑW2 = ϑW target ?
breathing additionally influences both the Correct vS
dimensions of the molded part in the clamp- Monitor vS
ing direction and the weight of the molded
part. It is important for the granules to have No
been correctly prepared in respect of dry- ϑ1, ϑ2,... = Cylinder temp. vS = vS target ?
ing/pre-warming. ϑD = Nozzle temp.
pSt = Back pressure
Once the preparatory measures have been Optimize tN
pSp = Injection pressure
completed, a basic setting is selected (using pN = Holding pressure Correct pN
processing data taken from the product doc- tS = Injection time G = Gmax
umentation or from simulation calculations) vS = Injection velocity
and a series of shots is run with the metering tN = Holding pressure
displacement being gradually increased. An time Quality control
assessment of the short shots will provide tK = Cooling time
information on how the melt flows into the tP = Waiting time
G = constant α
mold, and a comparison can be drawn with FS = Clamping pressure
simulation calculations. The position of the T1, T2 = Heating/cooling
switchover point is also determined during agent, temperature Series production
this phase. SD = Metering
displacement
Taking the basic setting that has been es- No
Sp = Melt cushion Assessment x = xtarget ? Correct pN
tablished, the individual process parameters nS = Screw speed
should then be optimized by the concepts G = Part weight
set out below until such time as the quality Production
x = Mean dimensions
requirements are fulfilled in respect of sur-
face formation and freedom from voids and
sink marks. Fig. 20: Optimization strategy
17
Increasing Productivity through Process Optimization
To do this, the parameters are varied in the
following order (using the topmost value as
seldom as possible in a test series and the
lower values more frequently):
● melt temperature (by changing the cylin-
der temperatures); since changing the
melt temperature is a highly time-con-
suming process, this should be changed
as rarely as possible
● mold temperature – this is similarly a
highly time-consuming change
● injection velocity
● holding pressure level
● holding pressure time (to establish the
sealing time)
● cooling time.
Once a reliable setting has been attained
which will give flawless parts, the next step
involves checking the remaining quality cri-
teria, such as
● dimensional and shape accuracy
● stress status
● material degradation
● mechanical and physical properties
The associated parameters must then be cor-
rected, where necessary, making sure that
the optical properties are retained and that
production is not run with settings right on
their upper or lower limits.
18
There are different methods that can be
adopted for optimization. The chief targets
of process optimization are:
● production with a "robust" process set-
ting. Although this will not smooth out
inevitable disturbance factors such as
temperature fluctuations, control toler-
ances for velocities and pressures, or
batch-conditioned changes in molecular
weight, additives and filler contents, etc.,
it will nonetheless minimize the impact
that they have on molded part quality [8]
● improved cost efficiency through a re-
duced reject rate and a shorter cycle time.
Precisely this requirement for a high level
of process reliability can make it necessary
to perform subsequent corrections to the in-
jection mold. The most appropriate way of
establishing a robust process setting and de-
termining the changes required to the mold
is to use systematic optimization tools, such
as statistical test planning. The optimum op-
erating point can be established by means
of regression calculations or an assessment
aided by neural networks. These studies al-
so provide information on the potential cen-
tering parameters. A number of manufac-
turers [9] offer predictive models based on
these data which use the data documented
during the process to determine whether the
molded part will probably be of good qual-
ity, poor quality, or still needs to be assessed.
The subsequent outlay on measurement and
documentation can be reduced considerably
in this way.
It is important for the processing parame-
ters and all the measured data to be docu-
mented for each of the parameter variations.
The setpoint values and the actual values
obtained with these should be recorded for
the individual processing parameters, since
these two values can deviate from each oth-
er. Each time the setting is modified, it is
essential to wait for a state of equilibrium
to be established again. Only then will the
reproducible molded part quality be
achieved that forms the basis for stable pro-
duction. The dimensions of the molded part
should be checked both immediately after
cooling and after the time stipulated in DIN
16901 (24 to 98 h after production), since
the dimensions can still change a long time
after the injection molding process has end-
ed. A relationship can then be established
between the molded part dimensions directly
after cooling and the definitive dimensions
following an appropriate storage period,
which can be used in future start-up process-
es. Following this, all the setpoint values
and resultant actual values for the optimum
operating point should be recorded so that
they can be reproduced as rapidly as possi-
ble for future start-up processes. This will
keep downtime and waste to a minimum and
considerably improve productivity.

Different concepts can be employed for pur-
poses of establishing the optimum operat-
ing point as rapidly and reliably as possible
and hence for achieving optimum molded
parts. A number of these are listed here by
way of example:
● the evolution strategy (with the appro-
priate hardware and software)
- intelligent trial-and-error
- use of the evolution mechanisms
● statistical test planning (different methods)
- design of experiments
- planning by the Shainin method
- neural networks (for assessments)
- regression analyses (for assessments)
● start-up aids from machine builders or
raw material producers, some of whom
employ the concepts listed above.
Quality
Fig. 21: The evolution strategy [2]
The evolution strategy, for instance, is based
on the evolution theory (Fig. 21). This in-
volves the optimum operating point being
established automatically with the aid of
computer programs when a new mold is run
in or when production is already running.
The computer modifies the process para-
meters within meaningful limits to this end.
The quality results obtained in this way are
rated either automatically or manually and
notified to the computer. Drawing a com-
parison with the preceding settings and re-
sults, the computer repeatedly selects new
settings, thereby approaching the point of
operation that offers the most favorable
compromise between the individual quality
Parent
Offspring
Parameter 2
Increasing Productivity through Process Optimization
characteristics. The computer can then main-
tain the optimum operating point established
in this way within pre-set tolerance limits
[7]. If this approach is compared with the
heuristic method in which the parameters
are modified on an individual basis and the
impact of the modification assessed (trial
and error), then the evolution strategy has
clear advantages in that it is quicker to use,
since more than one parameter can be varied
at a time and the impact assessed automati-
cally [2]. A further advantage compared
with the single-point method is that the in-
teraction effects of the individual parame-
ters can be detected and assessed.
er 1
amet
Par
19
Increasing Productivity through Process Optimization

Apart from this system, which runs fully au-

tomatically with the appropriate hardware
and software, it is similarly possible to vary
more than one parameter at a time when us-
ing methodically-compiled test plans (sta-
tistical test design) that proceed from a "cen-
tral point". A parameter variation with eight
to sixteen machine settings and five to ten +
cycles per setting is sufficient to generate
informative process models for the individ-
ual case [9]. Figure 22 shows the method
used to compile a test design. Starting with
+
Parameter 2

a central point, such as the basic setting es-

tablished during start-up, both an inner ex-
periment (with just a slight change in the in- Central point
(basic setting)
r3

dividual parameters) and an outer experi-

ete
ram

ment (with large-scale changes in the indi-

Inner
Pa

vidual parameters) are performed. A test se- experiment

ries is first conducted with the central point
to this end. As the next step, the corner
points are approached by varying the three
previously-chosen parameters that have a
bearing on quality. This step is then repeat-
ed in order to check the reproducibility of
the central point. A total of 2 x 8 + 2 tests are
thus required for this example.
– Parameter 1
Fig. 22: Statistical test plan for three free parameters
Figure 23 shows the evaluation of the test
with the aid of multi-dimensional regression
analysis. In this example, which involves
the optimization of a length dimension, three
processing parameters (holding pressure lev-
el, holding pressure time and cooling time)
were varied around the central point in both
an inner and an outer experiment. The three-
dimensional parameter variation range is
worked through on a uniform basis, and the
impact of each parameter on the specific
+ Outer
experiment
characteristic taken for the evaluation. The
graphic shows the mean values that emerge
for the length dimension, the signal-to-noise
ratio and the variance within the individual
measurement series. The signal-to-noise ra-
tio constitutes a measure of the robustness of
the process and is calculated as follows [8[:
S/G = log (y2/s2) in [dB]
where: y = mean value of characteristic
s = variance of each test setting

20
 Increasing Productivity through Process Optimization

The ratio is expressed in decibels and is a

comparative value which is independent of 161.28
161.26
the units used for the characteristics. It can 161.24
Mean value [mm]
thus be taken as a quality index for all the 161.22
quality characteristics being observed at any SW 161.20
one time. If the correlations between pro- 161.18
161.16
cessing parameters and molded part prop- 161.14
erties become too complex, a high outlay
will be required to present these with the aid 90
of regression analysis. It then makes sense to 88
S:N [dB]

use neural networks both for describing the 86

correlations between the processing data and
the properties of the molded part and for 84
purposes of process optimization. 82
Figure 24 shows a test plan for five param- 0.00020
eters in which the number of tests required
is reduced to a minimum by applying the 0.00015
Variance

DoE method (Design of Experiments). In 0.00010

this plan, the settings are moved towards 0.00005
eight different points arranged around a cen-
tral point. Counting the control test con- 0
A– J– Z J+ A+ A– J– Z J+ A+ A– J– Z J+ A+
ducted on the basic setting at both the start
Holding pressure (hydr.) Holding pressure time Cooling time
and the end of the overall test series, only
ten tests need to be evaluated here. Fig. 23: Effect of parameter variation on the length characteristic
Stage plan
Parameter/unit Parameter 1 Parameter 2 Parameter 3 Parameter 4 Parameter 5
M M M M M M
Z Z Z Z Z Z
P P P P P P
Test plan
Parameter 1 Parameter 2 Parameter 3 Parameter 4 Parameter 5 Cycle time
1V Z Z Z Z Z
2V M M M M M
3V M M M P P
4V M P P M M
5V M P P P P
6V P M P M P
7V P M P P M
8V P P M M P
9V P P M P M
10V Z Z Z Z Z
Part removal
Number Assessment Designation
M minus lower limit
5 for coordinate measuring table xV1. xV5 Z central point mean value
10 for attributive assessment (overheating marks completely excluded) xV1. xV2 P plus upper limit

Fig. 24: Statistical test plan for five free parameters

21
Increasing Productivity through Process Optimization
Fault diagnosis
The different types of fault that can occur
in injection molding are just as varied as the
different factors that influence the injection
molding process. In view of the number of
potential faults, it is not the individual faults
or classes of fault that are set out below but
rather the basic procedure that should be
adopted for fault diagnosis, illustrated with
an example. At the same time, a number of
aids are listed which contain essential in-
formation on fault diagnosis.
Process optimization
Starting Stable production conditions
situation permitting reliable series
production
Target Improved cost-efficiency
Increased output-to-input ratio
Procedure Use of statistical experiment
planning or similar measures to
optimize the production conditions;
productivity then increased through
further adjustments to the injection
molding machine and mold
Table 2: Comparison between process optimization and fault diagnosis
22
The difference between process
optimization and fault diagnosis
While process optimization generally pro-
ceeds from a reliable process and sets out to
optimize this process, fault diagnosis is em-
ployed when too many non-conforming
molded parts are produced. The chief target
of fault diagnosis is thus to analyze the cause
of the fault as rapidly as possible and to find
and implement the production conditions
that will give conforming molded parts.
Maximum cost-efficiency in the process
then ranks behind the aim of eliminating the
fault as rapidly as possible. The different
targets and procedures for process opti-
mization and fault diagnosis are set out in
Table 2.
After the fault has been successfully diag-
nosed and eliminated, process optimization
can be conducted in order to increase pro-
ductivity once the process has sufficiently
stabilized.
Fault diagnosis
Production with a high percentage
of parts that do not meet
the specifications
Elimination of the fault,
establishment of reliable production
conditions
Cycle time and resource deployment
only of secondary importance
Determination of the cause of
the fault
Determination of remedial measures
Where appropriate, elimination of
the identifiable defect through
alternative measures
Fault diagnosis procedure
As with process optimization, it is worth-
while adopting a systematic approach to
fault diagnosis too. The causes of the faults
that occur must similarly be sought in all six
factors that have an impact on the quality of
the molded part (Fig. 3). The following step-
by-step approach can be taken as a guide to
fault diagnosis:
● Precise description and classification
of the fault
Photographs and descriptive texts constitute
essential aids for fault classification. The
causes of the fault can be further differenti-
ated by employing technical aids such as
moisture measurement units, balances,
calipers or measuring gauges, microscopes
and, where appropriate, chemical analyses.
● Establishment of boundary conditions
A description of the boundary conditions
makes a decisive contribution to fault diag-
nosis. These can be clarified with the fol-
lowing questions:
Where did the fault occur?
- close to the gate
- remote from the gate
- on ribs or bosses
- on perforations
- on weld lines
- ...
What does the fault look like?
When did the fault occur?
- during start-up
- during initial sampling
- after a production stoppage
- after a material or batch change
- suddenly, without any evident change in
the boundary conditions
- sporadically, or on every part
- ...

Which material was used?
- semi-crystalline or amorphous
- unfilled, fiber-reinforced, mineral-filled
- hygroscopic
- especially sensitive to processing
- ...
What mold structure was employed?
- with a hot runner
- a three-platen mold
- with direct gating
- ...
What measurements were recorded for the
actual processing conditions?
- melt temperature
- mold surface temperature
- injection time (injection velocity)
- fluctuations in the processing conditions
- ...
● Determination of potential causes of
the fault
The information that is established should
be compared with recommendations from
troubleshooting guides, start-up aids from
the machine builders or raw material pro-
ducers, or with the appropriate computer
programs or expert systems.
● Search for further detectable faults
In many cases, a closer inspection will re-
veal further faults on the reject parts. These
additional faults, known as symptoms as in
medicine, will provide further information
on the most probable causes of the fault and
thus permit a more reliable diagnosis.
Increasing Productivity through Process Optimization
● Classification of these additional faults Fault-diagnosis aids
The questions set out above regarding the
Machine operators can eliminate a large
boundary conditions should then be an-
number of faults very rapidly by virtue of
swered for these additional faults that have
their general experience of injection mold-
been established either on the molded part or
ing or their knowledge of the particular
during the production process, and the po-
tential causes of the faults determined. process employed. When it comes to recti-
fying more complex faults, the operator can
● Determination of the most probable call upon advice from experienced col-
causes of the faults leagues or from experts at the machine man-
ufacturer's or raw material producer's.
Determining the causes that most faults
would tend to suggest. More detailed information on troubleshoot-
ing can be found in both the printed litera-
● Establishment of the best remedial ture [10, 11, 12, 13] and the electronic lit-
measures erature [14]. Where several faults have oc-
curred simultaneously, the most probable
Allocation of remedial measures to the most cause can readily be established with com-
probable causes of the fault, selection of puter-based aids. Background information,
promising remedial measures on the basis such as integrated "Application Technolo-
of the following criteria: gy Information" can then be used to select
- efficiency the best corrective action.
- implementation outlay
- economic impact (cycle time, energy re-
quirement, finishing work).
The best solution is always to eliminate the
actual cause of the fault (due to the machine
or the mold, for example). Only in excep-
tional cases should the symptoms be elimi-
nated by adjusting the processing parame-
ters.
● Rectification of the fault and continu-
ation of production
23
Increasing Productivity through Process Optimization

An example of fault diagnosis

Figure 25 shows just how difficult it can be
to provide a precise description of a fault,
along with its probable causes.
All four faults would appear to be almost
identical at first sight. A more detailed ob-
servation and knowledge of the different
fault types is required before the faults can
be precisely allocated to the appropriate cat-
egories. Figures 26 to 28 show potential
types of fault, together with their causes and
remedies. In this case, the faults are classi-
fied on the basis of the subtle differences
that make it possible to give a precise de-
scription of the faults at all.
In the case of faults with a similar appear-
ance, further tests will frequently be required
before the fault and its most probable caus- Fig. 25: Different types of fault
es can be precisely classified. To assist in
classification, the TVI test can then be con-
ducted to determine the moisture in the gran-
ules, and the cycle time can also be extend- Cause
ed. Extending the cycle time increases the Excessive thermal stressing
probability of charred streaks occurring, of the melt
while the longer residence time in the dryer 1 Melt temperature too high:
will reduce the probability of moisture Optimize processing conditions
streaks. If the streaks are oriented in the di-
rection of demolding, this would suggest 2 Melt residence time too long:
that the surface is being damaged during de- Select a different machine
molding. 3 Screw speed too high:
Optimize processing conditions
4 Nozzle and flow channel cross-sections
too small:
Optimize machine or mold
5 Production interrupted without
the temperature being reduced:
Train personnel

Fig. 26: Needle-like streaks in the direction of flow

24

Selecting the most appropriate
remedial measures
Figure 26 shows a fault in the form of "nee-
dle-like streaks in the direction of flow" with
its key cause and the appropriate remedial
measures. Once the potential causes of "ma-
terial too moist" and "air incorporated dur-
ing plastication" have been excluded, the
most probable cause is that the melt is being
subjected to excessive thermal stressing.
This can be due to the following more de-
tailed faults and can be rectified by the ap-
propriate measures:
Melt temperature too high:
Optimize the processing conditions
Melt residence time too long:
Select a different machine,
Optimize the cycle time
Screw speed too high:
Optimize the processing conditions
Nozzle and flow-channel cross-sections too
small:
Optimize the machine or mold
Production interrupted without the temper-
ature being reduced:
Train personnel
These different remedial measures involve
varying degrees of time, trouble and ex-
pense. Optimizing the processing conditions
is generally the cheapest option, but per-
forming an optimization to remedy the fault
that has occurred can also have a negative
impact on other quality criteria or on the
cost-efficiency of production. The other fault
causes should therefore also be taken into
consideration for purposes of a detailed fault
rectification. A step-by-step approach will
frequently prove successful in these cases:
● rectification of the fault by implement-
ing the easiest remedial measure and
then continuing with production
Increasing Productivity through Process Optimization
Causes
● Excessive residual moisture in the
granules
Remedial measures
● Check the drying process
(temperature, time and hourly through-
put)
● Examine dryer filter for contamination
● Check direction of rotation of drive
motor
Fig. 27: U-shaped streaks open towards the flow direction
Causes
● Entrapped air
● Metering stroke of the plasticating unit
too long
Remedial measures
● Optimize the plasticating conditions
● Increase the back pressure (within accept-
able limits); reduce the screw retraction
● Position injection nozzle tight up against
the hot runner mold
● Use a larger plasticating unit to reduce
the length of the metering stroke (< 3D)
or
● Increase the temperature of the feed section, reduce the screw speed, increase the
cycle time and, as an additional, optional measure, increase the melt cushion by
1 D if possible
Fig. 28: Brush-shaped streaks over a large area
● rectification of the actual cause of the
fault during a production stoppage or
planned maintenance interval
● optimization of the process to achieve
an enhanced quality level and reduced
production costs
25
Increasing Productivity through Process Optimization

Prospects Summary The justifiable outlay on optimization is al-

Raising productivity levels will continue to
play a key role in the production of parts by
injection molding in future too. Advances
in machine and mold technology, new spe-
cial processes and combinations of existing
processes, plus tailor-made materials will
all ensure that the injection molding process
becomes more cost-efficient and that new
markets are opened up for thermoplastic in-
jection moldings at the same time.
Process optimization and control strategies
will also contribute towards achieving in-
creased productivity. Establishing the opti-
mum process conditions will assume greater
importance, as will automatic process mon-
itoring. Advances in data technology will
permit large quantities of data to be handled
in future and will make image data pro-
cessing accessible for commercial-scale ap-
plication. It will then be possible for both
the start-up process and fault diagnosis to
be largely automated. These measures will
permit
● less mold proving, with fewer alter-
ations to the mold
● higher product quality
● production close to the theoretically at-
tainable limits
The level of productivity that can be attained
in injection molding is conditioned by a
large number of different factors. While ob-
serving a process solely from the optimiza-
tion angle will certainly contribute towards
increasing its productivity, this will not be as
effective as a holistic observation of all the
factors in the process chain: the material,
molded part design, mold, machine, pro-
cessing and the environment. It is thus im-
portant for optimization to start at the de-
sign phase and continue right through to the
final quality inspection (Fig. 29).
1.
Audit of
high-potential articles
Material
Molded part design
Mold
so conditioned by the number of articles to
be produced. The extreme cases here are
packaging, on the one hand, where even the
injection molding machines are series-pro-
duced, and small series, on the other, where
production runs are so small that just the
few molded parts produced for a statistical
test plan will be sufficient to cover the an-
nual production requirement.
Where injection molding faults occur and
prevent the production of flawless parts, run-
ning production at the lowest possible cost
ceases to be the prime concern. The main
target in this case will be the re-establish-
ment of a reliable production process. Only
when this has been achieved can the process
be further optimized.
2.
Identification and
elimination of problems
Machine
Environment

Processing

Fig. 29: Increasing productivity through process optimization

26

References
[1] B. M. Bauer
[2] H. Offergeld, J. Lochner Darwinian optimization of operating points (in German),
Kunststoffe 85, Carl Hanser Verlag 1995
[3] H. Jahn
[4] Anon
[5] Anon
[6] A. J. Kaminski,
F. W. Lambeck
[7] S. Joisten
[8] R. Bourdon
[9] Hohenauer, Michaeli,
Vaculik, Savoie
Rapperswil, Wybitul
[10] K. Niemann (Ed.)
[11] M. Bichler
[12] P. Thienel, R. Sass,
C. Vitz, J. Wahle
[13] A. J. Kaminski,
F. W. Lambeck
[14] Anon
Increasing Productivity through Process Optimization
Investigations into the use of an automatic optimization
system for material assessment in injection molding,
Diploma Thesis (in German),
University of Erlangen 1996
Production quality, the logical consequence of the
quality of workmanship (in German), VDI-Z,
130 (1988) 4, pp. 4-12
Durethan® KU 2-2140/30 H2.0
Application Technology Information 0953e
Bayer AG 1996
CONTURA System, Presentation documents from
Innova Engineering GmbH
Relationship between screw diameter,
metered volume, density and shot weight
ATI 1103e, Bayer AG 1997
Injection molding: process optimization and control
PI 061e, Bayer AG
Quality optimization in injection molding through
robust process settings,
Seminar on optimum injection molds (German),
Süddeutsches Kunststoff-Zentrum, Würzburg 1999
Injection molding: reliably predicting the quality of each
dividual part (in German), QZ 39, Carl Hanser Verlag 1
Machine-setting strategy for thermoplastic injection
molding machines (in German),
Hüthig Verlag, Heidelberg 1992
Injection molding flawless plastic parts (in German),
Hüthig Verlag, Heidelberg 1999
Troubleshooting guide for surface defects on
thermoplastic molded parts (in German),
Kunststoffinstitut, Lüdenscheid 1992
Spritzgießen – Fehler, Ursachen, Abhilfen
Injection moulding – Faults, causes, remedies
Moulage par injection – Défauts, causes, remèdes
CD-ROM, Bayer AG 1999
Guide to Injection Moulding, CD-ROM,
Bayer AG 1999
27

Bayer plastics on the Internet:
www.plastics.bayer.com
This information and our technical advice – whether verbal, in writing
or by way of trials – are given in good faith butwithout warranty, and
this also applies where proprietary rights of third parties are involved.
Our advice does not release you from the obligation to verify the in-
formation currently provided – especially that contained in our safety
data and technical information sheets – and to test our products as to
their suitability for the intended processes and uses. The application,
use and processing of our products and the products manufactured by
you on the basis of our technical advice are beyond our control and,
therefore, entirely your own responsibility. Our products are sold in ac-
cordance with the current version of our General Conditions of Sale
and Delivery.
Bayer AG
Bayer Polymers
D-51368 Leverkusen
Unless specified to the contrary, the values given have been established
on standardized test specimens at room temperature. The figures
should be regarded as guide values only and not as binding minimum
values. Please note that, under certain conditions, the properties can be
affected to a considerable extent by the design of the mold/die, the
processing conditions and the coloring.
2002-09
KU 11829en