c



  




 Observable Behaviors
’p Behavior
’p Àaterial Objects
’p Àeasurement
’p ate

 
 How to explain Behavior

’p a eas
’p concepts
’p Hypothesis
’p aheories

cm Variables in theories. Also is an inferre cause of measurable events or processes. Shoul have effects
logically relate to it where the effects are logically relate to each other. as also a way to think about cause-effect
relationships when we cannot see causes.


 m aaking a psychological construct an fin ing someway to measure it.
 m A tentative statement about the relationship between 2 or more variables
 m A system of interrelate i eas that is use to explain observations base on research. Purpose is to organize
observations; un erstan the nature of phenomena; explain relationships; an make pre ictions

 
   

’p 0 
 m Experimental metho s
’p a
 m correlation metho s.
’p c

 m case Stu ies

  Foun ing father of psychology. Foun things out by experimentation an focuse on 
,
which analyzes conscious experience into its basic elements.


 Foun ing father of psychology. Foun out the ͞why͟ in psychology. anvestigate the purposes an
meanings behin consciousness.
JB Watsonm
!"!
m Behaviorist who believe that behavior is a function of the environment or experience


 cognitive an Neuroscience psychologist who believe that behavior is a functional of internal mental
processes.

" Believe behavior results from unconscious esires. Non-aca emic an not research base . Focuses on
curing mentally ill

  
   
’p è
  m Figure out if you͛ve explore all possibilities
’p c
!

m correlation esigns on͛t permit causation
’p "
 
#m as the evi ence capable of being isprove

’p è
#m Fin ings can be repeate
’p 0 

c
m Extraor inary claims require extraor inary evi ence
’p 
$è
%m Simplest explanation is usually right

c
&


 escribing the worl as it is. 
’p a entifying key variables
’p correlation metho sm Use statistics to explore connections between characteristics an events
'  
’p Ñ

#
m Watching behavior unfol in the real worl
’p
m Using questionnaires an other means to etermine attitu es
’p c

m Fin ing out things about an in ivi ual helps us un erstan some issue or characteristic.


Ñ
 '  
+ Surveys can provi e lots of information
+ case stu ies allow us to stu y rare or unusual phenomenon
-p case stu ies take a long time an on͛t allow us to infer causation

c
 Use statistics to explore connections between characteristics an events.

’p Utilizes the correlation coefficient to show a relationship between variables
’p ahe stronger the correlation is, the greater the correlation coefficient is ( from zero
’p ‰.0 = strong  correlation
’p ½‰.0 = strong 
 correlation
’p ahe problem of a 3r variable, confoun ing variable, is that it makes the correlation unclear. ahe thir or secon
in epen ent variables coul have cause the change/correlation.
’p ac
 Seeing a correlation where none exists. as an illusion.

0 
' m Àanipulating events to etermine 
an   relationships


""
 0  
’p Àanipulates a variable(cause) to etermine the results (effect)
’p one un er controlle con itions
’p etermine cause A effect relationships
’p uikely to occur after we have gathere information via the other research metho s

c
 Àeasure of the ͞central͟ scores in a ata set, or where a group ten s to cluster. Àeasures
of central ten ency arem
’p '
m Average
’p '
m Ài le score of ata
’p 'm Where group ten s to cluster




 Àeasure of ispersion that takes into account how far each ata point if from the mean. as a bell
curve

Ñ
c     
  34% 34%
‰4% ‰4%
>2% >2%



 Numbers that escribe ata. ahere are two major setsm
’p central aen ency
’p Variabilitym A sense of how loosely or tightly bunche the scores are. anvolves range.

a 


 Àathematical metho s that allow us to etermine whether we can generalize fin ings
from our sample to the full population.
] A fin ing can be statistically significant with no real worl importance. Practical significance questions if material is
useful.

'
t ahe process of quantifying observations on psychological variables for applie or research purposes.
è
# consistency of measurement. Reliability is necessary for vali ity because we nee to measure something
consistently before we can measure it well. i.e. aest-retest reliability
)
m Extent to which a measure assesses what it purports to measure.

 Àental shortcut that helps us to streamline our thinking an make sense of our worl . Humans use heuristics
to have a shortcut in thinking.
’p 

# Heuristic that involve estimating the likelihoo of an event base on the ease which it
comes to our min s. i.e. asking about number of mur ers in etroit vs. Àichigan
’p è
 Heuristic that involves ju ging the probability of an event by its superficial similarity
to an event.

c 
 
 ahe ten ency to seek out evi ence that supports our beliefs an eny, ismiss, or istort evi ence
that contra icts them.

è
 How common a characteristic or behavior is in the general population

c 
 Systematic errors in thinking
’p   
 aen ency to overestimate how well we coul have successfully forecaste known outcomes
’p   aen ency to overestimate our ability to make correct pre ictions


 
Ñm
’p Ñm Nerve cell specialize for communication.
Functioning of brain epen s on cross talk of neurons.
Neurons contain about ‰00 billion neurons an ‰ 0
trillion connections.
’p m Extensions on neurons. Sprea out to
͞listen͟ in on inform from neighboring neurons an
pass it on to the cell bo y.
’p

m cell bo y that contains the nucleus.
’p  m Very thin, long, tail-like extensions protru ing
from the cell bo y. Sen s signals an creates trigger
zone. ancase in myelin sheath.
’p 
"m anformation is conveye into other
cells form here.
’p '

 m Protective covering of axons.

aÑ
a*
+ 

‰.p Electrical impulse triggers the release of neurotransmitters. When this occurs, the neuron is either firing or not
firing.
2.p Originate in trigger cells of cell bo y an continue own axon to axon terminal Positive charge particles flow
rapi ly into axon an quickly out causing a spike in positive charge an su en ecrease in charge. ansi e charge
en s up slightly negative to original resting value.
3.p When electrical charge reaches axon terminal, it triggers the release of neurotransmitters -- chemical messages -
- into a synapse

è
 Electrical charge ifference (- 0 millivolts) across the neuronal membrane, when the neuron is not
being stimulate or inhibite . Àore negative particles insi e than outsi e the neuron.

0 


 
a # 

%
 

%
 

 Ñ



c
Ñ  
Ñ

*cÑ
+
*Ñ
+
Part of the nervous system that contains
the brain an spinal cor that controls Nerves in the bo y that
min an behavior. Sensory info comes
in an ecisions come out.
exten outsi e the cNS.



 anvoluntary movements
Brain Spinal cor Fight, flight, feeling, an an sensation. Rest an
repro uctive behavior. igest. Reflexes


 



 
Action, energy
Rest, energy storage
mobilization


è  
 &
 

Sense Organ

Sensory Neuron

Àotor Neuron
anterneurons
Àuscle










# 
," 
’p 
 Back part of cerebral cortex responsible for vision
’p 
 Object recognition as well as hearing, un erstan ing, language, an memory. as separate from the
rest of the cortex by lateral fissure.
-p c m Part of cortex evote to hearing
-p $
m uanguage area of temporal responsible for un erstan ing speech.
-p 
m efect in the ability to recognize objects
-p 

m isability in etecting faces.
’p 

m Spatial attention specializing in touch an perception.
-p

c m Sensitive to touch, inclu ing pressure, pain, an temperature.
-p 
#
m capability to feel lost limb.
-p Ñ
m Neglect of half of space following injury to parietal cortex on one si e of brain.
’p "
m ͞Executive Function͟
-p 
$
m uanguage area in prefrontal cortex responsible for speech pro uction.
-p 'c m Responsible for bo y movement
’p #
m Emotional center of brain that processes internal states. SÀEuu

-p 

m Key roles in fear, excitement, an arousal
-p 

m Gateway from the sense organs to the primary sensory cortex. Àain oor to limbic system
organs.
’p #
m Region below the Ài brain that contains the organs of the brain stem
-p c#m Responsible for our sense of balance an enables us to coor inate movement an learn
about motor skills. contributes to executive, spatial, an linguistic abilities
-p m connects the cortex with the cerebellum. reams
-p '
m anvolve in heartbeat an breathing.
’p cc uarge ban of fibers connecting the 2 cerebral hemispheres. Allows communication between
both lobes of brain.
’p
-

Helps control movement. Allows us to perform movements to obtain rewar s.
’p 
-
 Àanufactures a renaline an cortisol, emergency glan s. cortisol regulates bloo pressure an
car iovascular functions.


 



%Ñ
c

 

 
’p Nerve impulses arrives at synapse
’p Neurotransmitter molecules release
 ’p Neurotransmitter molecules bin to receptor molecules
’p channel molecules open up to let in positively or negatively charge ions
’p ahis generates a small positive or negative current in postsynaptic cell
’p Neurotransmitter molecules egra e , or recapture by presynaptic cell

Ñ
 Are release from presynaptic cell into the postsynaptic cell.
’p Each neurotransmitter acts on multiple receptors, an has ifferent effects epen ing on which receptor is
activate . rugs work by increasing or ecreasing the effectiveness of neurotransmitters.
’p ancrease neurotransmitter release (ÀAOas)
’p Block neurotransmitter clearance (cocaine, aricyclics, SSRa͛s)
’p Active agonist , mimics the neurotransmitter molecule (heroine)
’p ecrease neurotransmitter
’p Block receptor, antagonist
’p Block channel

Ñ
,
&  

’p m Relate neurotransmitters are serotonin & noepinephrine. Block reuptake of neurotransmitter
molecules. Prozac keeps more serotonin aroun .
’p
 % 
m

##$è cells that fire together, wire together.


*+ A cellular phenomenon with high frequency stimulation increasing the ability of cell A to
fire cell B. ahere are two stages, in uction an maintenancem
’p Placing high frequency stimulation in cell A, also calle tetanus, in uces uaP
’p Biological changes involve in long term maintenance of uaP are growth of new en rites, enlargement of
en ritic ͞spines,͟ an an increase in the number of excitatory receptors.
’p ahe relationship between uaP an long term memory are that enhancing uaP enhances long term memories
while blocking uaP will prevent the formation of new memories.

'
m Showe how ifficult it was to remember episo ic memories with a isor er calle Amnesia.
’p 

' A type of long term memory that is the conscious memory for information an facts.
ahere are two formsm Semantic an episo ic memory.
’p 
 ahe hippocampus helps evelop an form new memories. Helps us learn by looking at cues to
remember where something is. Evi ence to support this is the Àorris Water Àaze which prove that an animal
eventually learne how to fin a submerge platform over time with spatial memory.

½ 
0  When the corpus collosum is severe an the one si e of the working brain learns an acquires the
functions of the unusable brain if proce ure is one at a young age; is usually one with patients suffering from seizures.
When you see something in your right si e you won͛t see it if that part of the brain is unusable.

c
"

"
 
’p Visionm Eye
’p Au itionm Ear
’p aastem aongue All parts go into the brain
’p aouchm Bo y
’p Olfactorym Nose


m Receiving (sensing) physical signals

m Receptors that convert physical energy to electrical signals


  0 
c
Part of the eye containing transparent cells that ben s light to go to the retina.
m circular hole through which light enters the eye. Pupils ilate when we try to process complex info.
m changes curvature to keep image in focus. Ben s light an is completely transparent, allowing light to pass
through.
è
m Responsible for converting light into neural activity
"
m central portion of the retina an is responsible for acuity, sharpness of vision.
Ñ Nerve that travels from the retina to the brain. contains axons of ganglion cells.

m Parts of the visual fiel we can͛t see because of the absence of ro s an cones.
èm Photoreceptor cells in the retina allowing us to see low levels of light. uong an narrow allowing us to see basic
shapes an forms. uocate in receptor cells in retina. Sensitive to movement an vision in im light.
cm Photoreceptor cells in the retina allowing us to see in color. uess numerous than ro s. Use in aylight vision an
not as sensitive to light. Goo for spatial vision

#   uowest level of a stimulus nee e for the nervous system to etect a change 50% of the time.
Ñ
# *Ñ+ ahe smallest change in the intensity of a stimulus that we can etect. i.e. when you
can start hearing music on iPo .
#$
& ahere is a constant proportional relationship between the JN an original stimulus.

 
’p
 Process of selecting one sensory channel an ignoring others. Biases an personalities
contribute to false alarms or misses, response bias or observer bias. A liberal response bias woul pro uce many
false alarms.
’p a
  Failure to etect stimuli that are in plain sight when our attention is focuse elsewhere.
’p 

 Sets forme when expectations influence perceptions.

m ahe brain͛s interpretation of raw sensory inputs

’p Orientation occurs in the receptive fiel . Neurons only respon to preferre signals, then firing when it
is signale .
’p uocation occurs
’p color is represente by hue, saturation, an lightness. certain neurons respon to ifferent colors
’p Àotion as seen by a front en receptor sensing g light an excites , elays, an then fires if both
neurons are firing.
½

#" A figure can pro uce multiple illusions. Brain tries to figure out what the image is exactly.

"
  ,c 
’p  
  a ea that color vision is base on our sensitivity to 3 primary colors. coinci es with theory
regar ing 3 kin s of cones, each maximally sensitive to ifferent wavelengths of light.
’p c  aheory that we perceive colors in terms of 3 pairs of opponent colors; re & green,
blue & yellow, or black & white. After images arise from the visual cortex͛s processing of information from our
ro s an cones.

a 
’p 'am When the moon looks like its closer to the Earth, when it
really is all in the current position in the moon.
’p èm Room is shape o ly like picture.

#
m is the processing of sensory information that occurs below
the level of conscious.
c
" c

"
 è0'

’p reams in REÀ are more complex
’p REÀ sleep is important for health
’p Rapi eye movements occur
’p Ài le ear muscle activity (ÀEÀA) increases
’p Bo y is paralyze (para oxical sleep b/c brain is active but bo y is paralyze )

 
0  Severing the corpus collosum to re uce the sprea of epileptic seizures. When info is elivere to one
si e of the brain it can͛t transfer to the other si e.
’p cc Sharing of information to the left to right si e of the brain. connect the info together.
’p 
$
uanguage area in the prefrontal cortex that controls 
’p $
uanguage area in the prefrontal cortex
 !
’p An object seen on the left fiel of vision is processe in the right si e of the brain

c

 '


' Sustains sensations for i entification. Has a large

capacity an has a very short uration lasting ½ - 3 secon s.
’p a' Visual sensory memory. uasts about ‰
secon
’p 0 ' Au itory sensory memory. uasts 5-‰0
secon s


'*&+ oes conscious work in

memory an thinks where construction occurs. capacity is 7 +/- 2
an uration lasts aroun ‰0-‰5 secon s.
’p c m Organizing info into meaningful groupings allowing us to exten the span of short term memory.
Form of elaborative rehearsal.
’p c ' 
-p  Selects info from sensory memory
-p 0 Sen s info to uaÀ
-p è
 Brings info from uaÀ to working memory
-p è 

 Àaintains info to working memory
©p '

è 

 Repeating stimuli in their original form to retain memory.
©p 0
#
è 

 uinking stimuli to reach others in a meaningful way to improve retention

] $stu ie memory by giving subjects lists with three letter stings an asking them to recall these three letter
strings. ahey ma e some subjects wait longer than others but ma e both count backwar s from time given. ahey foun
out that SaÀ lasts only about ‰0-‰5 secon s.

' aies together past with present with relatively en uring retention. anfo store regar s our facts,
experiences, an skills. capacity is huge an is usually permanent.
 uong aerm Àemory

0 '
Àemories we recall a'
intentionally of of which we Àemories we on't reflect
have conscious awareness or remember consciously.
of. SPEcaFac

0'

'
Àemories of events (‰th b-
ay, etc) anclu es flashbulb
memory. Right Frontal

' c

c
Our knowle ge for facts
Knowing how to o UcS w/ cS creates UcR & cR
aroun the worl . Names,
something ( riving a car) (Pavlov & ogs)
ates, etc. ueft Frontal



#

Our ability to i entify a
A apting to something or
stimulus more easily or
making something become
quicker when we've
a habit
encountere similiar stimuli

   

’p 0 Process of getting info into our memory banks. Àany memory failures are a fail ue to enco ing.
-p ao enco e something we must atten to it
-p Not every etail gets enco e into our brains
’p

m Process of keeping info in memory. How we store things epen s on our interpretations an
expectations.
’p è
m Reactivation or reconstruction of experience from our memory stores. Àemory retrieve is usually
not ‰00% the same as memory enco e . Àemories are reconstructive, transforming our recollections to fit our
beliefs an expectations.
-p è
m Generating previously remembere info. (Open en e response)
-p èm Selecting previously remembere info from options (Àultiple choice)
-p è
m Reacquiring knowle ge that we͛ previously learne but largely forgotten over time. Also
calle metho of savings. as the most sensitive retrieval metho .

] 0##
 foun e the concept of learning. Forgetting curve showe that most forgetting occurs almost imme iately
after learning new material, with less an less forgetting after that. Also foun that when relearning material, it was
quicker.



0 .-
 Graph epicting primacy an recency effects on people͛s ability to recall items on a list.
’p èm aen ency to remember wor s at the  of a list well
’p 
m aen ency to remember wor s at the # of a list well



a  
’p 
m Fa ing of information of memory over time
’p a m uoss of info from memory because of competition from a itional incoming info
-p 
a m anterference with the acquisition of &  ue to previously learne info
-p è
a m anterference with retention of   ue to acquisition of new information.
] Retro = Ol /Past

è  
' 
’p 

Where emotional components of these an other memories, especially those of fear provoking
events are
 ’p 
 Retaining of actual events. When amage affects our retention of learning new memories.
consoli ates memories
’p 
*+ Gra ual strengthening of connections among neurons from repetitive
stimulation. ͞Neurons that fire together, wire together.͟


 
’p 

anability to enco e & from our experiences. can result from physical
trauma.
’p è

uoss of memories from our 
.

 "
' 

’p "
 ##' 0
  that is extraor inary vivi an etaile . Àany times our flashbulb
memory is
, especially after a long perio of time.
’p
'c uack of clarity about the  of memory. People o so by seeking clues about
how we enco e memories.
’p ' 
0  creation of
 memories by 
  about an event after it takes place.

]0%
#   con ucte a ͞uost in the Àall stu y͟ where she emonstrate that we can implant elaborate
memories of a ma e-up event that never happene . She use suggestive questioning an statements to con uct this
stu y. Also foun out misinformation effect.

c
0  





m uargely flexible system of communication that combines symbols, such as wor s or gestural signs, in rule-
base ways to create meaning. Soun s, wor s, an sentences bear no clear relation to their meaning.
’p  *a+m Soun s of our language
-p categories in soun our vocal apparatus pro uces
-p anfluence by elements of vocal tract, inclu ing lips, tongue placement, etc.
-p About ‰00 phonemes in the worl
’p ' *'a+m ahe 
 units of meaningful speech.
-p Smallest units of 
 a language
-p create by stringing phonemes together
-p convey info about meaning from wor s/sentences
-p Ex. Re = repeat/re o
’p

*'
 +m Grammatical rules that govern how we compose wor s into meaningful strings.
-p èof language
-p Wor or er, morphological markers, sentence structure (formal language)
’p 0 
a 
m Elements of communication that aren͛t part of the content of language but are
critical to the meaning.
-p Ñ#
inclu ing bo y language, tone, posture, gestures, etc.

]

m Àeaning erive from wor s or sentences





a
 
/!p Babies first begin to learn language in their mother͛s womb
Ô!p
## antentional vocalization without any specific meaning. amportant for language evelopment. All babies
initially share the same phonemes at first.
0!p anfants acquire soun s of language uring their first year of life. By  ,
chil ren learn language before they speak it. chil ren start to speak their first wor s aroun their first birth ays.
First major milestone is combining wor s into phrases.
1!p 

 Early stage of language evelopment when chil ren use one wor to convey thoughts.
!p awo Wor Stage an so on to eventually making sentences
!  
m ͞Rules of thumb͟ that pro uce quick solutions at the cost of possible errors. People use heuristics every ay.
’p 

# What͛s easier to recall
Frequency that you see something.
’p è
 What o a expect
Prototypes. (Stereotypes)
 m Proce ure that always pro uces a correct solution. computers execute algorithms.

è
 
aè
 Specific A General
’p Biases in in uctive reasoning are ignoring base rates, confirmation bias, prior knowle ge, the representative an
the availability heuristic.
è
m General A Specific
’p Flaws inclu e prior knowle ge an imagery.
’p Use for syllogisms, starts with major premise an a s minor premise to vali ate a claim
’p Ex. proofs in math


 è
 

è
 How  a characteristic or behavior is in the general population
c 
 
 Seeking out information that  our beliefs

0 
Ñ Ñ iffer in their use of weak metho s. ahey   in omain knowle ge.
’p 

  'is when experts cannot tell you how they get to the goal state after they are extremely
goo at something.

#
 Generating a cognitive strategy to accomplish a goal
’p "
"  ifficulty in realizing that one object may have many uses

  View that all thoughts are represente verbally an that, as a result, our language
efines our thinking. "


è
.

½    characteristics of language shape our thought process. amplication is that
people who speak ifferent languages perceive, think about, an remember the worl ifferently.
’p c is that language can influence our ability to perceive, remember, an solve problems. ahe ability of
language to etermine how we perceive, remember, an solve problems is limite . 
limite remains to be
seen

c

 



 change in an organisms thought an behavior as a result of experience.

’p 
#
m ahe process by which we respon  over time to a 
.
-p Simplest an earliest form of learning.
-p Aplysia shows sensation an habituation
’p
%
m Same as habituation

c

cA





m con ucte research on ogs an salivation where he stumble upon classical (Pavlovian) con itioning. Place
ogs in a harness an inserte a cannula, collection tube, into their salivary glan s to measure salivation responses to
meat pow er. Foun that ogs salivate with foo an neutral stimulus, which le to classical con itioning.
’p 0½0
 Associating 2 events together.
’p 
& c 2 events have to be relate to each other in time with UcS an cS.




èc

c 

’p D
*Dc
+ A stimulus that elicits an

response.
’p Dè*Dcè+ An

 response to a stimulus that oesn͛t nee to be learne
 ’p c
*c
+ a
 
 stimulus that comes to elicit a response ue to an association with an
uncon itione stimulus
’p cè*cè+ A response previously associate with a 
 stimulus that comes to be
elicite as a neutral stimulus

] classical con itioning can be use to pro uce a fear response by associating a UcS with a negative cS to receive a
negative cR that coul soon be associate with a UcR
-p Amyg ala is associate with fear con itioning
-p classical con itioning can lea us to evelop avoi ance reactions to foo s. an a con itione taste aversion, we
only nee to try a foo once to know we on͛t like it. ahis is what makes it ifferent than other mo els because
it only takes one interaction. ahe elaye association between the cS an UcS is a aptive. contra icts the
assumptions of equipotentiality, claim that we can classically con ition all cSs equally well to UcSs.

 c

c 

/!p 2m Gra ually learning a con itional response. as strengthene when time interval between UcS an cS
is short.
Ô!p 0 m cR ecreases in magnitu e an eventually isappears when the cS is repeate ly presente alone
without the UcS. ] like forgetting occurs when we stop reinforcing behaviors
0!p

èm A weaker cR appears when a cS is presente again
-p
-
%
 ahe process by which cSs that are similar elicit the same cR.
-p

 Exhibit a less apparent cR to a ifferent cS

] uittle Albert is the baby who was expose to rats an evelope a phobia with them as he was given a negative cS with
the rat. He eventually evelope a phobia for all furry animals, also known as stimulus generalization.
] uearning epen s upon the particulars of the situation, inclu ing specific factors, prior learning history, stimulus
novelty, stimulus salience. uearning is a  


c uearning controlle by the consequences of the organism͛s behavior. anvolves reinforcement an
punishment. A ahorn ike an Skinner ]opamine is the neurotransmitter associate with operant con itioning
’p ahorn ike A anstrumental con itioning, uaw of Effect,& ansight
-p a
c uearning from the relationships between learning an its consequences
-p 
& 0  af we͛re rewar e for a response to a stimulus, we͛re more likely to repeat it. S-R theorists
believe that almost everything we o voluntarily results from the gra ual buil -up of S-R bon s.
-p a  Grasping the un erlying nature of a problem
’p Skinner A Shaping, chaining, Skinner Box
-p

m Progressively reinforcing behaviors that become closer an closer to the target. Skinner an
stu ents iscovere shaping on acci ent at the UofÀ.
-p c
m uinking behaviors together
-p
  m A box that electronically recor s an animal͛s response an prints out a cumulative recor ,
or graph, of the animal͛s activity.
 ©p
$ 

 Behavior changes ue to ABcs A Antece ents, Behaviors, an
consequencesRespon ent is stimulus with stimulus
©p Operant A Environment plays a role

 Any stimulus that signals the presence of reinforcement. Signals/antece ents that occurs after

classical Operant
Both
con itioning con itioning
ͻElicite automatically ͻ Have aquisition, extinction, ͻEmitte voluntarily
ͻRewar is provi e an spontaneous recovery ͻRewar is contingent on
uncon itionally behavior
ͻBehavior epen s on autonomic ͻBehavior epen s on skeletal
nervous system muscles

behavior. Ex. Waving at someone an getting a wave back.

è 
  
’p è  Any outcome that   the probability of a response to occur in the future
-p è  Presentation that   the probability of a behavior
-p Ñ
è  è
 of a stimulus that   the probability of a behavior
©p 
è m Something that isn͛t learne an 
 the target behavior.

 learne /known. 
©p

è  Neutral object that becomes

 with a primary reinforce
’p   Outcome or consequence of behavior that &
 the probability of a behavior
-p  m Getting something you on͛t want
-p Ñ
  aaking something away that you on͛t want taken away
’p 


  
-p aells only what not to o
-p creates anxiety
-p Encourages sneaky behavior
-p Ào el for aggressive behavior

  è  Pattern of elivering reinforcement

’p cè  Reinforcing a behavior  it occurs. Allows behaviors to a apt 2
’p 

è  Reinforcing behaviors only  !uea s to

to extinction


è 
  
’p " è
*"è+
  Provi ing reinforcement after a 
# of responses
’p " a
*"a+
  Pattern in which we provi e reinforcement for pro ucing the response at least
once after a  

’p )

#è
*)è+
  Pattern in which we provi e reinforcement after a  # of responses
on average with the #
 ran omly
’p )

#a
*)a+
  Reinforcement for pro ucing the response after



 with
the actual 

ran omly.

3Ratio sche ules yiel higher rates of respon ing than interval sche ules. Variable is more resistant to extinction


 Something is
 Something is 


5è  5 

½è  ½ 
 Something is  Something is 

&




&½"

  con itional an anstrumental con itioning in interaction with one another.
’p Situation (cS), paire with trauma (UcS-UcR), lea s to fear (cR) A the con itione fear is an aversion
motivational state
’p Examplesm
-p Rat sees light turn on an electrical shocks turn on. ahe rat escapes to the other si e to avoi shocks,
which is a negative reinforcement.
-p A person is in the environment where they take rugs (cS) this signals a (cR) which is the with rawal
symptoms. ahe person experiences the with rawal symptoms an take the rug (UcS) to relieve the
with rawal symptoms (UcR)

c' 
 

’p 0
suspecte that reinforcement wasn͛t necessary for learning. Applie concept of 

4
learning that isn͛t irectly observable.
-p c'
m Spatial representations of how a physical space is organize .
-p #


m uearning by watching others. uearn by watching mo els, parents or role mo els
who influence us.
-p 'Ñm cells in the prefrontal cortex that becomes activate by specific motions when an
animal both performs an observes that action.
’p #

emonstrate how chil ren can learn to act aggressively by watching aggressive role mo els.
con ucte a Bobo oll experiement where he showe preschoolers vi eos of a ults with a large Bobo oll. He
showe some ki s with a mo el abusing a oll while others i not show this. Prove that chil ren copy mo el
behaviors, goo or ba . ahis coinci es with the me ia an violence

c
0 0


0
$
0 
’p "ear, appiness, isgust, nger,
a ness,
urprise *"

+

] We can stu y emotions by testing on ro ents, asking humans, etc. Usually can͛t measure emotion by faces.
- Fear potentiate startle (going from a relaxe state to another such as fear. Being fearful) as a reliable source to
measure in humans an animals.

a

 

*a
+


%or stimuli presente to people. Àeasures how
pleasant an arousing the pictures are. 00+ ratings of valence (present vs. unpleasant & arousal)
’p 

m Puppies, babies
ë
 

’p D

m Spi ers, spoile foo , snakes, gross
   
’p 
m Hot people, romantic, intimacy

 #
 are things that you are extremely

scare of that initiate your fear potentiate
startle


6#  
!7 Role is project stimulates to the brain to coor inate the responses in a state of fear or anxiety.
Helps potentiate startle.
’p When amyg ala is lesione our sense of fear is lost.
’p Symptoms associate with anxietym Breathing, panting, sweating,

0  
 ' 
 for anxiety where you expose people to the phobic object an they
gra ually become comfortable with their phobias.
’p can treat PaS or fear of flying with virtual reality goggles to relive experiences that are ifficult to replicate

0  "
è Pairing the scare stimulus with something positive.

’p Acquisition of Fearm cS A Shock
Fear response  
’p Extinction of Fearm cS A No Shock
’p Àemory  erase . at is just replace with the neutral response that is positive an safe. Extinction brings in
& memories.
’p cS (-cycloserine) is an antibiotic that can be use to 
  by spee ing up learning to inhibit fear.
’p "
 ##' Storage an /or retrieval of memories is
enhance by a high state of arousal at the time of enco ing.
’p Beta Blockers can be use to treat PaS by #
 , which is important for stress relate
situations, release when arouse so you are able to
remember better. People who have PaS report having less
stressful isor ers because they aren͛t in stresse states.

è&
m Stimuli that 
 behavior. 
 is the neurotransmitter associate with rewar . Rewar pathway
goes from VaA ( opamine hol er) A Nucleus Accumbens A Prefrontal cortex. aypical rewar s for humans are foo ,
money, sex, positive behaviors.
’p Primary Rewar sm Fulfill our nee s
’p Secon ary Rewar sm Extra things

 
#
, espite a verse affects on health

an social life an , generally, espite efforts to quit. Occurs when rugs
͞hijack͟ the brain͛s rewar s system.
’p Àechanism for a iction ism
-p High
-p craving
-p With rawal

&"
  0 aheory propose by


 

, proposing that emotions are pro uce by an
 

 

 along with an attribution (explanation) of that arousal. awo psychological events are
require to pro uce an emotionm
’p After encountering an emotionally provoking event we experience an arousal that is un ifferentiate (same
across all emotions).
’p Once we have an arousal we explain it by labeling an emotion with it. uacks Replicability

'0 0  Propose by 89, repeate exposure to a stimulus makes us more likely to 

#
towar it.

"

"#
  Propose by 89, you͛re more likely to feel 




; also a theory that bloo vessels in the face fee back temperature info to the brain, altering our experience of
emotion.
 
'

 
’p Àarriage, frien ships, college, religion, politics, exercise, health, gratitu e, giving, an flow. (‰‰.5-‰‰. )

è  Formulate by  an ##. certain , like hunger, thirst, an sexual frustration,

%

. All of these rives are unpleasant, but the satisfaction in them results in
pleasure. aheory is motivate by effort to maintain homeostasis.

 
 

’p  m Physical 
’p

m ahe extent to where we have   with others
’p èm ahe rule of 



c
Ñ a

 a
  Area of psychology evote to investigating the nature, origin, an consequences of
in ivi ual ifferences in behavior. Àajor omains inclu em
’p antellectual Achievement
’p Personality & Emotion
’p anterests & Values
’p Psychopathology

Nature vs. Nurture controversym

 
 c 

’p casual interference from observational research A correlation  imply causation
’p challenging cherishe beliefs

0' Àovement in the 20th century to 

$ by having people with positive
genetics repro uce. Galton was a strong supporter, such as with Hitler. Problems inclu e m
’p a test takers i n͛t consi er intelligence of non-English speakers
’p States sterilize people with low as

"
-
m cousin of Believe that nature prevails enormously over nurture. Propose that intelligence is a by-
pro uct of sensory capacity. coine the role of eugenics.

   Starte intelligence testing. Relie on higher mental processesͶreasoning, un erstan ing, an ju gments.
Ha high positive correlation.

:& 
 

-

 
’p '%
&*'8+ a
 twins that are reare

 from one another
’p '% &*'8+ a
 twins that are raise  .
’p %
&*8+ awins that are reare

 from one another
’p % &*8+ awins that are raise  .
’p 
D

#*Dè+ Siblings that are #

 but 
 !
] ahis metho can be use to stu y nature vs. nurture because you can compare the results between the twin stu ies,
which woul account for the same nature an nurture, an compare it with UaR siblings, where similaries woul result
‰00% by the environment an not genetics.
] uooking for converging lines of evi ence is similar to the

a 
’p ao un erstan an use complex i eas
’p ao a apt effectively to the environment
antelligence is a theoretical construct because it is
unobservable, ifficult to measure, an has no
universal efinition.
 ’p ao learn from experience
’p ao engage in of abstract reasoning
] Some things that correlate with intelligence are how well people o in school, ability to a vance or follow complex
arguments, an ability at mental arithmetic

-
a*+ Hypothetical factor that accounts for 
  in intellect among people. People who
are usually smart at one concept are usually smart in many aspects of their lives. Propose by


.

'a aheory that people have intelligence in specific 6 
 7where each frame
is ifferent an fully in epen ent. Àa e about  intelligence types. as criticize because this theory is  
 !
Propose by -
.

a #
c
 

’p c
%a 
& of the worl over time. Get better as we age.
’p "a capacity to 
&&
 of solving problems. Àore likely to ecline with age.

a;*a;+ Stern͛s formula for . Shows ifferences in intelligence with people.
antelligence is calculate with formulam

Àental Age (ÀA) x ‰00 ]Àental Age is the age your abilities are at where chronological
a =
age is th
chronological Age (cA) the actual age of a person

0

 
-'
 

)
m oes a test measure what it  to measure

è
#m oes the test pro uce  scores

] a is generally stable over short time perio s but can have ran om spurts as we age.

"0  Fin ing that a scores increase about 3 points per eca e, by environmental influences. Possible
explanations inclu em
’p ancrease test sophistication
’p ancrease complexity of the mo ern worl
’p Better nutrition
’p changes at home an school

a;  
'm Usually have   as than women by about 3 points. Àore variable with more people in high an low en s.
Better at 

 abilities.
m Generally better at #
% an 
 abilities.
] Socialization theory may explain these ifferences because there are stereotypes explaining appropriate gen er
behaviors that are encourage / iscourage by society. As a consequence we evelop gen er schemas, which gui e our
behavior
] Biological theory may be ifferent sex hormones that each gen er has that may contribute to ifferences.



a  Sex that invests 
 in offspring rearing will be . Sex that
 in offspring rearing will  
. Explains the ifferences between men an women because
women are generally more nurturing so ki s connect with mother more but go to father for fun since they are usually
more physical an frien ly with ki s. Example is with 
 or   

c



*c+ Genetic con ition where a renal glan s ½
. anfo is sent to
fee back loop to tell a renal glan s when to shut off. cAH oes 
 #
 so there is an overpro uction of
an rogens. Females expose to cAH are expose to male hormones prenatally. can reorganize structures in brain,
genital region, grow ambiguous bo y regions ect.
 ’p an twin stu y, the boy who ha his genitalia cut off to become a female still ha male thoughts but was in a
female external.
Shows that rearing gen er in the   
 in shaping a chil ͛s psychosexual ifferentiation
an the ultimate outcome of a female or male gen er i entity

'
è

 con ition characterize by an onset 
 , a;#&<=, an an 
#
 in
a equate aily functioning. as classifie into four levels with Àil (e ucatable stage) having 5% of those iagnose in
this stage.


$
 aerman selecte ‰,500 high school juniors with as about ‰35 to track these in ici uals, ͞aerman͛s
aermites,͟ for several eca es. Àost of his termites ha octoral, Ph s, Às, or law egrees.
] Someone who is gifte has an a in the top 2% of the population, usually aroun ‰0.
] ao attain remarkable intelligence, ‰0 years of evout research/stu y is require , or ‰0,000 hours.

½

#
 as behavior controlle by personality or the situation

’p 
' looke at links between certain personality traits an their outcomes an foun that 

$
 that well. Variants of behavior are because of the situation you are in that provokes
your behavior.


 

 ½è'
 irect, face vali measures. Are usually very goo at measuring things, although sometimes
people lie to make themselves look goo .
’p 'Ñ'

a*''a+ Wi ely use structures personality test esigne to assess
 
, consiste of ‰0 basic scales. esigne empirically. as generally vali but many
tests are highly correlate , pro ucing results that are not very useful.
’p c 
a*ca+ uike the ÀPa but is esigne primarily 

 



 in the normal range, such as ominance, flexibility an sociability. Àost cPa tests are reliable an vali
except many cPa test are highly correlate with each other.
9 Use in irect measures to get at eeper, unconscious aspects of personality. an this process of
projecting ambiguous stimuli, examinees project aspects of their personality onto a stimuli.
’p  
 aest requiring examinees 
 in response to ambiguous pictures
’p è
 m ahe first projective test evelope . Àeasures some of the more 

such as sexual esire. aest consists of ‰0 car s that are ambiguous. Because it is ifficult to score, it is not
reliable. Sometimes the test oes a successful job at pre icting some things, but shoul be use in accompany
with other tests.

"

 ahe way we i entify traits in personality. Analyzes the correlations among responses on personality
inventories an other measures. as useful to i entify personality traits such as the Big 5.


 
 
a
 
 Focuses on i entifying the 2 
 of characteristics an    experiences
within a person.
’p -
 
 
½p c

m Extremely pervasive ispositions that escribe what a person oes in almost 

  !
½p c
 A &
 that stan out in a person.
½p

 characteristics that only appear in 

 of our lives.
Ñ 
 Focuses on i entifying  

& that govern the behaviors of all in ivi uals.

 
  Proposes that the most crucial features of personality are embe e in our language.
’p Ex. af a wor is represente with many more wor s in a language, it is likely that the wor is important for that
culture. ahe wor ͞snow͟ has 50 ifferent wor s that mean the same thing in the anuit language.
 "*""
'+ 5 traits that have surface repeate ly in factor analyses of personality measures. escribes


 #
 an is organize heirarhically.
’p 0 
m  = 0  & = antroverte
’p 
#m  = 
# & = Not Agreeable
’p cm  = c
 , conscientious & = careless, Not conscientious
’p Ñm  = crazy, Perfectionist, Àoo y,   & = Poise , Stea y, Relaxe
’p  to Experiencem  = curious, creative, D
 & = ara itional, anflexible
"

 
’p è
m

# over time where others agree with them
’p 
m 0 consistently in



’p D
m c across many cultures
’p 
#m ue to our  in some aspects
] ahe Big Five are generally heritable. Has a !=

!


" Believer in the  

 theory for personality. Assume that all psychological events
have a 
. Symbolism in everything. Also believe that we aren͛t free to choose our actions because we͛re at
the mercy of powerful inner forces. A ult personality in influence by chil hoo experiences.
’p     
½p a Reservoir of our most primitive impulses that provi es the riving force for much of our
behavior. ͞evil on our shoul er͟
½p 0 Psyche͛s  
. as governe by the 
, ten ency of the ego to
postpone gratification until it can fin an appropriate outlet. We use efensive mechanisms here
when we are overwhelme .
½p
 Sense of morality. contains our senses of right an wrong.
 '
 Unconscious maneuvers inten e to %
 . istortions of reality.
’p èm " emotionally threatening memories
’p èm Returning psychologically to a 

’p 9m Putting 

# onto others
’p 
m 
 from a socially unacceptable target onto a safer an more
socially acceptable target

ѽ"
 Place more emphasis on 
 versus sexual rives. ahey were more optimistic than
Freu an looke into the conscious personality of people.
  Believe that the striving force in humans is  ! Our overri ing goal in life is to
be better than others. We aim to accomplish this goal by crafting our istinctive   , longstan ing
pattern of achieving superiority over our peers. Sai that people who have neurotic ifficulties in chil hoo are
at risk for an   , being prone to low self-esteem an ten to overcompensate for this feeling.
c
 One of Freu ͛s former stu ents that argue that there is a  in people,
comprises the memories that ancestors have passe own to us from generations.  , cross culturally
universal symbols, in the collective unconscious explain similarities between people an why they o things.
Also believe in the 
, which is Freu ͛s unconscious of not un erstan ing why we o things.


6 "7
 Embrace the notion   & an view human nature as constructive.
Believe that the core motive in personality is  

%
, the rive to evelop our innate potential to the
fullest possible extent.
c
è Humanist theorists that believe that we coul all achieve our full potential if society allowe it.
Believe that personality consiste of 3 major componentsm
’p 
m a
 an genetically influence blueprint. Rogers viewe the organism as helpful an
positive towar s others
’p
 m Self-concept an #  about who we are.
’p c  m 0 
 we place on ourselves for





#
!Result in , inconsistencies between our personalities an innate ispositions.
 #

'
& Focuse on in ivi uals who were self-actualize . Self-actualize people ten to be create,
spontaneous, an
  
 . Focus on real worl intellectual problems an have a
few eep frien ships. aypically 



 
. ahey͛re also prone to
 ,
transcen ent moments of intense excitement an tranquility marke by a past foun sense of & 
 &!



a  
’p compare to other species, human babies are born 6
!7an the EEA, the survival of human chil ren
epen e on the investment of both parents

c
" 0
 


-  
’p Women are picker than men in who they mate with because 
 


& 
!
’p '
 
½p Women who can have viable chil ren
½p Are not likely to mate with other men
’p "
 
½p Will pass esirable traits onto their offspring
½p Will invest resources in them/their offspring
’p "

  Women tra e off  for  when
choosing mates
’p '

  Àen on͛t have goo genes attributes. ahe best way for
them to attract a mate is to provi e for goo provisions.

a" You share a   of genes with a  
!

c
 


&
a
c

 
’p c 0  Effects ue to the fact that sets of people who live uring
, cohort, can   in some systematic way from sets of people who live uring a  
.
’p c

 Research esign that measure people of ifferent ages at
.
’p 
 Research esign that examines evelopment in the same group of people on 

 over time.
½p Allows us to measure true  
½p Only sure way to go

   !
½p consm attrition, long, costly, can͛t etermine cause an effect.


#
 
 to a stimulation with  

’p as use to stu y 

# because they can see their early abilities. can stu ym
½p Pattern iscrimination, face perception, learning an memory, emotion expression, an responsiveness.
½p Babies are born with facial expressions, physical reflexes (sucking, grasping, stepping), an emotional
expressiveness (interest, isgust, istress, contentment)

#
  
’p 

."
 anfants nee to protect themselves from strangers. Only know primary
caregivers at birth
’p 

' Nee to remember how to rink milk to attain bo ily nee s
’p 00 .è Nee to isplay if they are content or angry
0c  
 
’p anterest, isgust, istress, & contentment
Ô½ '  
’p Anger, Sa ness, Surprise, & Fear


è   
’p Newborns 
 facial expressions an 
 on eyes to track gaze.


 
#
c  

 c 

 that can reach the embryo or fetus an 

.
’p Ex. arra iation, rubella, cortisone, alcohol
"
 
*"
+ ampaire growth an neurological abnormalities resulting from 
 

 

’p Occurs within 0  of fetal evelopment
’p  rinks per ay

0 & c  

)
c Psychological apparatus for stu ying  . Has shown that infants that just start crawling o
not have epth perception at first but as time progresses, they   an sometimes a fear of
heights

'a When 3 month ol babies who ha not acquire the concept of grasping were given Velcro
mittens to grab Velcro objects. Results were that 0 
   ol s because they gaine
grasping concept faster than normal babies.
] 2 Experiences show that infants experiences can influence their perceptions.


$
 aaught infants to turn hea s whenever they etecte a ifferent phoneme or soun in a wor .
Whenever they ha a correct hea turn they were rewar e with a toy. Foun that infants are 



(capacity of infants to etect all soun s of speech) an are able to learn languages better.



 a


 

‰.p
##m comes to soun like 



2.p ½

 Babies start by saying what they can 
3.p &½

 " wor s are omitte (a, the, of)
4.p ancreasing 




 " to present a comprehensive account of cognitive evelopment. Showe that chil ren aren͛t miniature
a ults. ahey also are not passive learners. ahey are actually

&  
# the
consequences of their actions. Piaget was a 
  who agree with the 
½

 (cross cutting
changes in ki s cognitive skills that affect most/all areas of cognitive evelopment at once) propose that change is
marke by 2#
 (maintain a balance between our experience of the worl an our thoughts about it).
’p 
m Process of absorbing new experience into current schemas. cognitive skill an worl views remain
unchange , & & 
 !
’p 
m  
 
to make 
# with experience. Forces people to change
view on the worl .
’p
 
m cognitive 
& or concept that helps organize an interpret information. Allows us to take
shortcuts when interpreting information.


$

  
‰.p


 (Birth-2 years) Focuses on   
&. Ñ  #
 

 ! chil ren lack #9
 (the i ea that objects continue to exist when out of view)
Baillargeon i an experiment with a block an a car hi en behin a screen. Showe that since infants as young
 as age 3.5 stare at the car when it was impossible for it to pass the roa block. anfants are able to reason with
hi en objects.
2.p 

 (2-7 years) Able to think #  
&, but
, an inability to see the worl from others point of view, an unable to
perform mental transformations. Fail 

, a test chil ren͛s ability to 5 5
perform mental operations. an a stu y of pouring water into ifferent size cups that mu mu
were equal in volume, most faile to pass this because they eeme the cups as
having ifferent volumes.
3.p c
 (7-‰‰ years) Able to  

 
, tests such as sorting coins, setting
up a battle scene, etc, but only on  
#9
4.p "

 (‰‰ years-a ulthoo ) Able to perform  


#
, ifficult questions with no
efine answers such as the meaning of life, reasoning.

  ' Ability to reason about &
 &#. Some chil ren evelop this at
/Ô
years ol .
"
  
 aests chil ren͛s ability to un erstan that #  &#&!
chil ren usually hear a story, such as hi ing a can y bar somewhere, an later have the mom move the can y bar
without their knowle ge.

AaaAcHÀENa



 
’p Permissive- uenient, lots of free om, little iscipline, show affection
’p Authoritarian- strict, little free om, lots of punishment, little affection
’p Authoritative- combine permissive an authoritarian, supportive but have set rules an limits
’p Uninvolve - ignore ki s, no attention to negative or positive behavior
Stu ies foun that authoritative show the best social an emotional a justment an lowest levels of behavioral problem

c
& 


c
  that prepares is to  to stressful circumstances. Occurs in the stress as a
response category.



 cana ian physician who publishe a 
 
 that unveile the effects of prolonge stress on the
bo y. Believe that too much stress lea s to break owns. Argue that we͛re equippe with a sensitive physiology that
respon s to stressful circumstances by kicking us into high gear. calle the pattern to 




*-
+!

-



*-
+ Stress Response patterns propose by 

 that consists of 3 stagesm
’p 
m Excitation of the autonomic nervous system, the ischarge of stress hormone a renaline, an physical
symptoms of anxiety (seate within the limbic system). A min bo y link known as the 

½
½


*+
 is when the 

*+ receives signals of fear, the sympathetic nervous system
activates the


*+4 which secretes stress hormones epinephrine (a renaline) an norepinephrine
(nora renaline). ahe hypothalamus an 

*+ activate the a renal glan ͛s release of cortisol to
floo recipient of energy.
’p è
m A apting to stressors an fin ing ways to cope with it.
’p 0
m When our personal resources are limite an we lack goo coping measures, our resistance may
break own an cause our levels of

#!

" ½½"  First escribe by 
c
 in ‰‰5, physical an psychological 
 allowing us to   

 

!Occurs in the


 in GAS syn rome


 

 Personality type that escribes people who are 44 4

#
 
 Personality type that escribes people who are244
&
3Anger an hostility are two traits that are the most pre ictive of coronary heart isease.

c
"   
 

' #
 
 
' #
, hearing voices, or talking to oneself that is attribute to evil spirits infesting the bo y
'
' Physical isor er 2

. House people in asylums, institution for people with
mental illness, create in the ‰5th century.

'
 '
 





'
 '
*
'+ 
 containing the American Psychiatric
Association (ASA) criteria for 
!as the  criteria of abnormality, eviance,
mala aptive, behavior, an personal istress.
’p octors shoul think of natural causes first
’p People who may have a mental isor er nee to have 5/ criteria to be iagnose
’p SÀ looks at prevalence, the percentage of people with a specific mental isor er
’p SÀ looks at axis, imension of functioning.


'½a)

 
a.p Àajor mental isor ers
aa.p Personality isor ers an mental retar ation
aaa.p Associate mental con itions
aV.p uife stressors
V.p Overall level of aily functioning

 % 

’p
 
½p *#
# #

 Ñ# + Hallucinations (false sense
perceptions), elusions (fixe false beliefs), an grossly isorganize behavior
½p Ñ
*#
#
# #

 # + Avolition ( isinterest), alogia
( ecrease speech), asociality
’p Ñ 

 
½p Àost patients were unmarrie , unemploye , ha no chil ren, on welfare, with rawn, talking to oneself,
etc. š<>&
#
&
!
½p ahe frequency of schizophrenia in the general population is
#/>
’p 
##
 
½p Enlarge cerebral ventricles
½p Small misshapen neurons
½p Ba smooth pursuit eye tracking
’p Ñ 
½p Neuroleptics #
 so they remain tin the synapse or post-synaptic cell. 7% of
people improve on neuroleptics.
½p Si e effects of neuroleptics inclu e Parkinson͛s si e effects such as  an . Others inclu e


 
(restlessness), an lea to 

½p 

*+ #



 

 

! Usually occurs within 4 months of taking me ication an effects 4-‰5% of patients. Usually
subsi es if rug use is stope .
’p 
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½p 
  %
½p
# ‰0%
 ©p '8c½& 4 %
½p c m ‰3%
©p Ô
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©p &
c  -‰7%

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9 

’p
m
½p )
m Sleep, appetite, sex rive, speech/motor, lack of energy
½p cm concentration, isinterest, guilt/worthlessness, suici ality
½p Exhibit  s as if un er chronic stress.
’p 
 
½p Àost SSRas 
 levels at the 
 to block reuptake of serotonin. ueaves more
serotonin available at the cleft.
½p Other rugs work on norepinephrine or opamine
’p 
# 
½p 
 but transmission patterns are inconsistent an run in families
½p Other isor ers that are common with families with epression are #
4
 .4


 .
½p Suici e rate is about/š>
’p c'  aheory that epression is cause by 
#  an expectations. Have
epresse feelings about the worl , oneself, an the future. Have a generally bleak outlook on the worl .
Attribute problems inm
½p 
 aen ency to feel helpless in the face of events we can͛t control. epresse
people lack internal confi ence.
©p -#
,

# aen to see problems as general an fixe aspects of their personality
©p a
 Problems are ue to internal conflicts whereas successes are ue to external stimulus
’p


  epression uring the winter months of the year that may be ue to a 
 

  !areatment for seasonal affective isor er is usually half an hour of  
 
 aily
’p 0 
 Patients receive # 
 to the brain that pro uce a % to treat
serious psychological problems. Àost effective in treating .
½p Stu ies show that many people #  from Ecas
½p a
 the levels of  in the brain
½p '# can occur shortly after
½p Safer for 

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’p
 
½p Elation or irritability, ancrease goal irecte activity, ecrease nee for sleep, Hyperactivity or
restlessness, Pressure of speech; flight of i eas, istractibility ,Hypersexuality, Gran iosity, Reckless
behavior
½p Elevate /expansive moo
Symptoms
General

½p Usually angry when thwarte

½p Àuch less nee for sleep
½p Pressure speech erailments, ͞Flight of i eas͟
½p /=½/> 
##

’p 
# 
½p Runs  within in families
½p <=> for À twins. Àost heritable psychological isease.
½p Suici e rate is about /=>#  

’p 
 
 ½p   An element that involves a secon  that operates in the post-synaptic
neuron that transmit the nerve impulse to the en of the molecule that goes to the new neuron. uithium
influences the way the chemical stages in this process. è

# &!
½p 
 Alternative to lithium. Given usually to pregnant women.

'#
 
’p Suici e is almost always complete with no warning
’p aalking to a persons with epression about suici e often makes them more likely to commit the act
’p As a severe epression lifts, people͛s suici e risk ecreases
’p Àost people who threaten suici e are seeking attention
’p People who talk a lot about suici e almost never commit it

  
’p -
% *-
+ continual feelings of &4
 4 
4

#
across many areas of life functioning. Àay be the 
  that others arise off from.
’p  #
a 
 of an object or situation that͛s greatly out of proportion to its actual threat. '
 

 !
½p 
 #
"
 #


 #

 to escape when a panic attack
occurs.
’p 
 è

 


 along with either about future
attacks or change in personal behavior in an attempt to avoi them.
’p 


*
+ Àarke by 
#
 after experiencing or witnessing a
severely stressful event.
’p #c*c+ con ition marke by 

 #,
compulsions, or both.
½p # Persistent i ea, thought, or impulse that is unwante an inappropriate, causing marke
istress
½p c Repetitive behavior or mental act performe to re uce or prevent stress
½p cè
 è
  if oors are locke ,  
 in a specific way,



 an rearranging objects, &
 

, , an 
.
½p 
 Exposure an cognitive therapy
’p  
D 
½p #m Someone who 

 overuses alcohol
½p m Someone who is  on alcohol
½p -
m
©p  # ! Àales have a higher risk than women to evelop abuse problems. About 25-50%
of being passe own.
©p Female relatives usually on͛t get alcoholism
©p Environmental effects of alcoholism are family members using alcohol, , etc.
½p 
 
©p 
# (alcohol antagonists)m Anticonvulsant for cravings of other rugs
©p /Ô

 (AA)

’p 
 con ition in which 

, appearing first in a olescence are inflexible, stable,
expresse in a wi e variety of situations, an 

. Are 

#
.
½p ½0 istrust, intense iscomfort, etachment from social relationships
½p  ½"
  Avoi ant, epen ent, an obsessive
½p 

½0
 Seeking attention, antisocial behavior, sense of self importance, instability in
various areas.
½p ½


 Antisocial behavior, violate or isregar s the rights of others, lying,
stealing, irresponsibility, an lack of remorse.
] ahese iffer than abnormal isor ers because these are long stan ing personality traits that color the
expression of these isor ers.
 c

  
  


 

 Goal is to 

 
 an make the  by bringing to awareness
previously represse impulses, conflicts, an memories.
’p c# 
 
½p causes of abnormal behaviors are unconscious conflicts, wishes, an impulses, that stem from traumatic
or other a verse chil hoo experiences.
½p Strive to analyzem (a) istressing thoughts an feelings clients wish to avoi (b) wishes an fantasies (c)
recurring themes an life patterns ( ) significant life patterns (e) the therapeutic relationship
½p Believe that when clients achieve insight into previously unconscious material, the causes an the
significance of symptoms will become evi ent, often causing symptoms to isappear.
’p 
  
½p "
 aechnique in which clients express themselves &  of any sort
½p a
m 0 
 # or meaning of reams an other events
½p 

m anterprets the clients reams
½p è
m Attempts to
 
 an anxiety associate with uncovering previously
represse thoughts, emotions, an impulses
½p 
 m 9 intense, unrealistic feelings an expectations from the past 
 
.




 Focus on specific behaviors an problems that maintain problematic thoughts, feelings, an
behaviors.
Goo for anxiety

’p

%
 clients are taught to relax as they are gra ually expose to what they fear in a
isor ers

stepwise manner. First type of exposure therapy.

’p 0  
 aherapythat  & &
  
 with the goal of re ucing fear.
’p  
 areatment that uses punishment 
  2of un esirable behaviors
’p 0 Àetho in which 
##

&
 with tokens that clients can exchange
for tangible rewar s.

c 


 m areatments that attempt to 





  with more
a aptive, rational, cognitions.
’p c

 
½p cognitions are i entifiable an measurable
½p cognitions are the key players in healthy an unhealthy psychological functioning
½p arrational beliefs or catastrophic thinking can be replace
’p #0 evelope the  c


½p (a) 0 (b) Reponses to an event is ue to #  (c) c2
½p a

#  are associate with unrealistic eman s about the self.

] Accor ing to meta analysis many  

2
# 
 except for a few exceptions. About 0% improve
well.

] Empathetic listening, instilling hope, establishing a strong bon with clients, provi ing clear rationale for treatment,
an implementing new techniques of thinking, feeling, an behaving are 
 that help therapies work.

c
  

 

:& 
’p A German Jew who fle the Nazis an was influence by Gestalt
’p Worke to a ress how to execute Worl War aa A Recycling, purchases
’p è
 ahe use of  scientific metho s an theories in the  
#
outsi e the normal issues.
’p ahe oing of social psychology 
 after the :


aa. Àove from casual to highly controlle
research in laboratories. Focuse more on larger problems to help others.


c How &

#
 
Ͷabout ourselves an other people. Ask what is
the nature of human social cognitive nature.
’p "
&
 af you give us something to figure out we͛ll go an take the time to figure it out. Use three
types of informationm
½p cm How o people #

as their behavior consistent over time
½p m ahe extent to which the  to a similar or ifferent way
½p ca 
m How have  
 to the situation
’p c' We͛re likely to look for something  

 to maker sure something is
accurate.
’p '


 
#  it epen s on the situation

# Process of

#
. Usually when we on͛t have enough information. aypes of
Attributions arem
½p 0 
# Situation
½p a
# How the person really is
’p "

#0 aen ency to be #
& &
  
 about other
people.
’p # 
 We ten to attribute   action to their 
 attributions versus external (situation)
when talking about ourselves.
] Attribution iffers by culture because more in epen ent cultures (USA) because we have a esire to be right an feel
right versus Eastern cultures such as china

  

’p 
m D, unintentionally, involuntary,  . ahe tool of . Also atten ing to
just specific shortcuts (male vs. female knowle ge, talking fast, etc.)
’p cm c, intentionally, 
, making an effort. aool of 
& (are facts accurate,
reasonable)


 2 

’p "½½ ½ Àarking a 
2 before making a #
’p ½½ ½"
 Àaking an unreasonably 
2 before making the 
2 we͛re hoping to have
grante
’p &½
 ahe seller of a pro uct starts by 2
&
4
 
  6
½7
costs once the customer has agree to purchase the pro uct


a  
’p a  c influence
’p aa  ahe mere   
½p

"

 ahe ten ency for people to #

 versus complex tasks & 
   
©p an 8
9$ stu y with cockroaches, most i #

  when others were
watching when they coul escape &
, but i &&  &2 to
escape the light with an au ience.
©p an the 
,  
#& 

 where #
& with an au ience.
©p Arousal  performance on  ½


©p Arousal 
 performance on &






 Phenomenon whereby in ivi uals become 

’p m We feel 
#  a goo job. contributions are anonymous an we
usually perform worse
 ’p 
#m When we are

# 
. aen to contribute more when we know we͛re
accountable.
’p 0

m When we 

 &&


. Were they accountable
Groups can be
structure to get higher performance by making group members evaluate one another


0  When we $
 &  

!

’p 
a
 Error of assuming that 
 
&
’p   è# è  
# in the presence of others
’p 0 0  uearning about psychological 
 


&#
 for the better
’p Other influences that can stop the bystan er effect are extroverts, traine lifesavers, altruistic behavior, etc.

c  aen ency of people to
 #


 . as influence by unanimity,
ifferences in answers, an the size of a group
#m       
 . as essential for life, but can be contra icting in
some aspects.
’p -
%
 aen ency of   
 hel by in ivi ual
group members. as ba because it enforces original views without nay rebuttal
’p 
%
m aen ency of people to 


#
 when they are strippe of their
usual i entities. We conform more here.
’p a
0 m Propose by ÀcGuire, an approach to 
  about
something by first 
&   might be correct an then  &
’p -  Emphasis on 
 at the expense of critical thinking. Usually gives off ba results
because it &. Best treatment is to assign a evil͛s a vocate to counter all responses

 Stu ie conformity by having a participant sit in a room with confe erates to tell what line is the longest.
confe erates all sai the wrong answer an the test measure if the participant conforme to the confe erates. <> 
 

!
’p Foun that there are three social factors that make people conformm
½p Unanimity, ifference in the wrong answer, an size
½p conformity is associate with ifferences in the occipital an parietal lobes of the brain as well as
anxiety

'm Stu ie obe ience by having participants give shocks to learners on memory. af they were wrong they receive
a shock with its intensity increasing more each time. Foun that Ô> 

 with teacher
an elivere shocks to XXX stage an /==> 


 !
’p Foun that people who are more moral efie the experimenter an stoppe the shocks
’p People who value authoritarianism, people who view people as a social hierarchy, were more likely to comply
with the experimenter

8#
m con ucte the


 0  where he wante to see if people͛s actions in prisons stemme
from their personalities or the roles they were require to fulfill. Ha 24 men fulfill these roles for 2 weeks for his
experiment an foun that guar s began to treat prisoners cruelly an subject them to harsh punishment. Once he
en e the stu y early he foun that some were relieve an some guar s were sa .
 
#

&

 
 9
  !

c
 D


  of tension resulting from Ô    or beliefs.

c   that inclu es an 


’p 9m rawing 
 about a person, group of people, or situation 



½p è##c

 Stu ents were ivi e into two groups an were very hostile to one another at
summer camp. ao combat this, Robbers gave the two groups one   to focus on where
they can come together.
 ½p ao re uce preju ice people can implement a 9
&
, teachers assign stu ents to separate
tasks that all nee to be fitte together to complete a project. can also employ equal status contact,
secure sanction by authorities, an work together
’p 
m Ñ
#
 towar members of out groups
½p c2m uess chance of acquiring jobs, unequal treatment, etc.
’p
m A belief, positive or negative, about the 

 # 




# 
!People make stereotypes because it͛s easier to ju ge people as a while
versus in ivi ually. (cognitive misers)
’p è
m
½p 'è
m aie to cognitions (beliefs & stereotypes)
½p è
m aie to automatic processes (unconscious affect an behaviors)

a½- 
 aen ency 

&  over those from outsi e our group. View as

½- aen ency to &

 our group as highly 
!View as more


]People feel the # because humans have a personal nee to have interpersonal connections with others.
Without it, people can become self estructive an anxious, as well as engage in unhealthy behaviors. People who are
rejecte feel pain in their cingulate cortex, just like physical pain


c
  We seek to 


#
# #
 &    !
’p D&


c
 comparing with people above us
’p &&


c
 comparing with people below us to make us feel better