ABSTRACT

A tunnel is an underground passage.Tunnels in general, however, are at least twice as long as they are wide. In addition,
they should be completely enclosed on all sides, save for the openings at each end.Tunnels are used in transportation sector
for conveyance of highway and railway traffic. A tunnel may be for pedestrians or cyclists, for general road traffic, for motor
vehicles only,They also serve as a means of conveyance of water in irrigation and hydroelectric power projects.Some civic
planners define a tunnel as 0.1 miles (0.16 km) in length or longer, while anything shorter than this should be called an
underpass or a chute.For example,the underpass beneath Yahata Station in Kitakyushu,Japanis only 0.08 miles (0.13 km)
long and therefore should not be considered a tunnel During construction of tunnels variation of strata is often encountered.
This poses various problems in tunnelling.Also.

When England and France decided to link their two countries with a 32-mile rail tunnel beneath the English Channel,
engineers were faced with a huge challenge. Not only would they have to build one of the longest tunnels in the world; they
would have to convince the public that passengers would be safe in a tunnel this size.

The Channel tunnel, also known as Chunnel tunnel or Eurotunnel, is a railroad tunnel beneath the English Channel
connecting Coquelles, Pas de Calais region in France and Cheriton, Kent in England.The tunnel has a length of
approximately 50 km, of which 37 km are under the English Channel.The tunnels were mainly constructed in a Chalk Marl
layer about 40 m under the sea bed. Chalk Marl has high clay content and is relatively impermeable to water, which provides
the ideal condition for a underwater tunnel.

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INTRODUCTION

The Tunnel

A tunnel is an underground passage.Tunnels in general, however, are at least twice as long as they are wide. In
addition, they should be completely enclosed on all sides, save for the openings at each end.Tunnels are used in
transportation sector for conveyance of highway and railway traffic. A tunnel may be for pedestrians or cyclists, for general
road traffic, for motor vehicles only.They also serve as a means of conveyance of water in irrigation and hydroelectric power
projects.Some civic planners define a tunnel as 0.1 miles (0.16 km) in length or longer, while anything shorter than this
should be called an underpass or a chute.For example,the underpass beneath Yahata Station in Kitakyushu,Japanis only
0.08 miles (0.13 km) long and therefore should not be considered a tunnel During construction of tunnels variation of strata is
often encountered. This poses various problems in tunnelling.Also.

When England and France decided to link their two countries with a 32-mile rail tunnel beneath the English Channel,
engineers were faced with a huge challenge. Not only would they have to build one of the longest tunnels in the world; they
would have to convince the public that passengers would be safe in a tunnel this size.

The Channel tunnel, also known as Chunnel tunnel or Eurotunnel, is a railroad tunnel beneath the English Channel
connecting Coquelles, Pas de Calais region in France and Cheriton, Kent in England. The tunnel has a length of
approximately 50 km, of which 37 km are under the English Channel.The tunnels were mainly constructed in a Chalk Marl
layer about 40 m under the sea bed. Chalk Marl has high clay content and is relatively impermeable to water, which provides
the ideal condition for a underwater tunnel.

The Channel Tunnel comprises 3 separate tunnels.Two of the tubes are full sized and accommodate rail traffic. In
between the two train tunnels is a smaller service tunnel that serves as an emergency escape route. There are also several
"cross-over" passages that allow trains to switch from one track to another. Just one year after the Chunnel opened, this
engineering design was put to the test. Thirty-one people were trapped in a fire that broke out in a train coming from France.
The design worked. Everyone was able to escape through the service tunnel. The outer North and South Running Tunnels of
7.6 m diameter are 30 m apart, with each containing a single lane railroad line. The middle Service Tunnel of 4.8 m diameter
is for maintenance and emergency. The Running Tunnels are connected to the Service Tunnel by cross passages at every 375
m. The two Running Tunnels are also connected by Piston Relief Ducts of 2 m diameter at every 250 m to balance the air
pressure due to the "piston effect" caused by the passage of trains.

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 Most part of the tunnels is lined with precast high strength reinforced concrete lining rings of 1.5 m wide, with a
thickness varying from 400 to 800 mm depending on the loading conditions. Where concrete lining was inappropriate, cast
iron lining rings were used.It is interesting to note that due to a poorer impermeable soil condition, the French undersea
tunnels were lined with a water-tight bolted and gasketed segmental concrete lining. The English tunnel lining was a concrete
expanded segmental lining with grouted voids to control water ingress.

Machinery is being constructed by which this 7 feet hole can be enlarged to 14 feet by cutting an annular space, 3 feet 6
inches wide, around it. This will be done by machinery furnished with an upper bore head. One machine will follow the
other, at a proper intervall; and the debris from the cutting by the first will be passed out through the second machine, The
compressed air, likewise, which is necessary to work the advanced machine, will be similarly passed through the machine
coming behind; only two men are at present needed for each machine.
At the end of the tunnel the visitors found one of the Beaumont compressed air boring machines at work. The length of
this machine from the borer to the tail end is about 33 feet.Its work is done by the cutting action of short steel cutters fixed in
two revolving arms, seven cutters in each, the upper portion of the frame in which the borer is fixed moving forward 5/16ths
of an inch with every complete revolution of the cutters, In this way a thin paring from the whole face of the chalk is cut
away with every turn of the borer, A man in front shovels the crumbled debris into small buckets, which, traveling on an
endless band, shoots the dirt into a skip tended by another man. The skip when filled is run along a tramway to the mouth of
the shaft. At present these trolleys, each holding about one third of a cubic yard, are drawn by men; but before long it is
hoped that small compressed air engines will be used for traction. The rate of progress is about one hundred yards per week,
but will soon be much accelerated. As worked at present, the number of revolutions it makes is two or three per minute,
which amounts to being nearly an inch a minute while the machine is at work. But Colonel Beaumont anticipates no
difficulty in making the machine cut its way at the rate of 3/8ths of an inch per revolution, and getting five revolutions per
minute, which would give a rate of advance of two inches per minute…The boring has now advanced to the length of 1,250
yards and it is going on at the rate of three miles a year, which speed of working, as we said, will be increased. Simultaneous
borings from the French

side at the same rate would give six miles a year, or a complete tunnel underneath and across the Channel in three years and a
half.It took just three years for tunnel boring machines from France and England to chew through the chalky earth and meet

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hundreds of feet below the surface of the English Channel. Today, trains roar through the tunnel at speeds up to 100 miles per
hour and it's possible to get from one end to the other in only 20 minutes

Photo:Part of the 1880 tunnel intersected by the later excavation in 1988

The shape which the completed tunnel will assume will probably be a circle, 14 feet in diameter, but flattened at the
bottom to receive the rails.It will be lined with two feet thickness of cement concrete; not that this is necessary to ensure the
stability of the work, but to prevent accidental falls of chalk. The concrete will be made of shingle from Dungeness, and of
cement formed from the grey chalk excavated from the tunnel itself. In this manner, the tunnel will afford the means of its
own lining at a cheap rate. The gradients will be 1 in 80, on each side, until the depth of 150 feet below the bottom of the sea
is reached; after which the line may be said to be level, subject only to a very slight inclination from the centre outwards, to
preventthelodgings of water.

Photo:The only remaining accessible section of the tunnel at Shakespeare Cliff, as the tunnel dips downwards the water eventually

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Photo:The entrance to the tunnel in 1984. The entrance has now been rebuilt and replaced by a secure steel door.

ORIGIN

In 1802, French mining engineer Albert Mathieu put forward a proposal to tunnel under the English Channel, with
illumination from oil lamps, horse-drawn coaches, and an artificial island mid-Channel for changing horses. In the 1830s,
Frenchman Aimé Thomé de Gamond performed the first geological and hydrographical surveys on the Channel, between
Calais and Dover. Thomé de Gamond explored several schemes and, in 1856, he presented a proposal to Napoleon III for a
mined railway tunnel from Cap Gris-Nez to Eastwater Point with a port/airshaft on the Varne sandbank aa cost of 170 million
francs, or less than £7 million.[14]

After 1867, William Low and Sir John Clarke Hawkshaw promoted ideas, but none were implemented. An official Anglo-
French protocol was established in 1876 for a cross-Channel railway tunnel.

FAST FACTS

• At the time it was being built, the Chunnel was the most expensive construction project ever conceived. It took $21
billion to complete the tunnel. That's 700 times more expensive than the cost to build the Golden Gate Bridge
• Many of the tunnel boring machines used on the Chunnel were as long as two football fields and capable of boring
250 feet a day.
• When construction began in 1988, British and French tunnel workers raced to reach the middle of the tunnel first. The
British won.
• In the first five years of operation, trains carried 28 million passengers and 12 million tons of freight through the
tunnel.

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TYPES OF CHANNEL TUNNEL

• A. Tunnel Types

This section describes the various types of highway and rail transit tunnels. These tunnel types are described by their
shape, liner type, invert type, construction method, and tunnel finishes. As a general guideline a minimum length of
100 meters (~300 feet) was used in defining a tunnel for inventory purposes.

1. Shapes

a) Highway Tunnels

As shown in Figures 2.01 to 2.04, there are four main shapes of highway tunnels - circular, rectangular,
horseshoe, and oval/egg. The different shapes typically relate to the method of construction and the
ground conditions in which they were constructed. Although many tunnels will appear rectangular
from inside, due to horizontal roadways and ceiling slabs, the outside shape of the tunnel defines its
type. Some tunnels may be constructed using combinations of these types due to different soil
conditions along the length of the tunnel. Another possible highway tunnel shape that is not shown is a
single box with bi-directional traffic.

Figure 2.01 - Circular tunnel with two traffic lanes and one safety walk. Also shown is an alternative ceiling slab. Invert
may be solid concrete over liner or a structural slab

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 Figure 2.02 - Double box tunnel with two traffic lanes and one safety walk in each box. Depending onlocation and loading
conditions, center wall may be solid or composed of consecutive columns.

Figure 2.03 - Horseshoe tunnel with two traffic lanes and one safety walk. Also shown is an alternative ceiling slab. Invert
may be a slab on grade or a structural slab.

Figure 2.04 - Oval/egg tunnel with three traffic lanes and two safety walks. Also shown is alternative ceiling slab.

• b) Rail Transit Tunnels

Figures 2.05 to 2.09 show the typical shapes for rail transit tunnels. As with highway tunnels, the shape
typically relates to the method/ground conditions in which they were constructed. The shape of rail
transit tunnels often varies along a given rail line. These shapes typically change at the transition
between the station structure and the typical tunnel cross-section. However, the change in shape may
also occur between stations due to variations in ground conditions.

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Figure 2.05 - Circular tunnel with a single track and one safety walk.Invert slab is placed on top of liner.

Figure 2.06 - Double box tunnel with a single track and one safety walk in each box. Depending on location and loading
conditions, center wall may be solid or composed of consecutive columns.

Figure 2.07 - Single box tunnel with a single track and one safety walk. Tunnel is usually constructed beside another
single box tunnel for opposite direction travel.

Figure 2.08 - Horseshoe tunnel with a single track and one safety walk. This shape typically exists in rock conditions and
may be unlined within stable rock formations.

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 Figure 2.09 - Oval tunnel with a single track and one safety walk.

2. Liner Types

Tunnel liner types can be described using the following classifications:

 Unlined Rock
 Rock Reinforcement Systems
 Shotcrete
 Ribbed Systems
 Segmental Linings
 Placed Concrete
 Slurry Wall

• Unlined Rock

As the name suggests, an unlined rock tunnel is one in which no lining exists for the majority of the
tunnel length.This type of liner was common in older railroad tunnels in the western mountains, some
of which have been converted into highway tunnels for local access.

• b) Rock Reinforcement Systems

Rock reinforcement systems are used to add additional stability to rock tunnels in which structural
defects exist in the rock. The intent of these systems is to unify the rock pieces to produce a composite
resistance to the outside forces.

• c) Shotcrete

Shotcrete is primarily used as a temporary application prior to a final liner being installed or as a local
solution to instabilities in a rock tunnel.The inside surface can be finished smooth as with regular
concrete.

• d) Ribbed Systems

Ribbed systems are typically a two-pass system for lining a drill-and-blast rock tunnel. The first pass
consists of timber, steel, or precast concrete ribs usually with blocking between them. This provides
structural stability to the tunnel. The second pass typically consists of poured concrete that is placed
inside of the ribs.

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 • e) Segmental Linings

Segmental linings are primarily used in conjunction with a tunnel boring machine (TBM) in soft
ground conditions. The prefabricated lining segments are erected within the cylindrical tail shield of
the TBM. These prefabricated segments can be made of steel, concrete, or cast iron and are usually
bolted together to compress gaskets for preventing water penetration.

• f) Placed Concrete

Placed concrete linings are usually the final linings that are installed over any of the previous initial
stabilization methods. They can be used as a thin cover layer over the primary liner to provide a
finished surface within the tunnel or to sandwich a waterproofing membrane. They can be reinforced
or unreinforced.

 g) Slurry Walls

Slurry wall construction types vary, but typically they consist of excavating a trench that matches the
proposed wall profile. This trench is continually kept full with a drilling fluid during excavation, which
stabilizes the sidewalls. Then a reinforcing cage is lowered into the slurry or soldier piles are driven at
a predetermined interval and finally tremie concrete is placed into the excavation, which displaces the
drilling fluid.

3. Invert Types

The invert of a tunnel is the slab on which the roadway or track bed is supported. There are two main methods
for supporting the roadway or track bed; one is by placing the roadway or track bed directly on grade at the
bottom of the tunnel structure, and the other is to span the roadway between sidewalls to provide space under
the roadway for ventilation and utilities. The first method is used in most rail transit tunnels because their
ventilation systems rarely use supply ductwork under the slab. This method is also employed in many highway
tunnels over land where ventilation is supplied from above the roadway level.

The second method is commonly found in circular highway tunnels that must provide a horizontal
roadway surface that is wide enough for at least two lanes of traffic and therefore the roadway slab is
suspended off the tunnel bottom a particular distance. The void is then used for a ventilation plenum and other
utilities.

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 Figure 2.10 - Circular tunnel with a structural slab that provides space for an air plenum below.

Figure 2.11 - Single box tunnel with a structural slab that provides space for an air plenum below.

Figure 2.12 - Horseshoe tunnel with a structural slab that provides space for an air plenum below.

o 4. Construction Methods

As mentioned previously, the shape of the tunnel is largely dependent on the method used to construct the
tunnel. Table 2.1 lists the six main methods used for tunnel construction with the shape that typically results.

Table 2.01 – Construction Methods

Circular Horseshoe Rectangular
Cut and Cover X
Shield Driven X
Bored X
Drill and Blast X X
Immersed Tube X X
Sequential Excavation X
Jacked Tunnel X X

• Cut and Cover

This method involves excavating an open trench in which the tunnel is constructed in the rectangular
shape.

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 • b) Shield Driven

This method involves pushing a shield into the soft ground ahead. The material inside the shield is
removed and a lining system is constructed before the shield is advanced further in circular shape.

• c) Bored

This method refers to using a mechanical TBM in which the full face of the tunnel cross section is
excavated at one time using a variety of cutting tools that depend on ground conditions (soft ground or
rock).It construct the tunnel in circular shape

 d) Drill and Blast

An alternative to using a TBM in rock situations would be to manually drill and blast the rock and
remove it using conventional conveyor techniques.

 e) Immersed Tube

When a canal, channel, river, etc., needs to be crossed, this method is often used. A trench is dug at the
water bottom and prefabricated tunnel segments are made water tight and sunken into position where
they are connected to the other segments.

 f) Sequential Excavation Method (SEM)

Soil in certain tunnels may have sufficient strength such that excavation of the soil face by equipment
in small increments is possible without direct support. This excavation method is called the sequential
excavation method.

 g) Jacked Tunnels

The method of jacking a large tunnel underneath certain obstructions (highways, buildings, rail lines,
etc.) that prohibit the use of typical cut-and-cover techniques for shallow tunnels has been used
successfully in recent years. This method is considered when the obstruction cannot be moved or
temporarily disturbed.

o 5. Tunnel Finishes

. The finishes must meet the following standards to ensure tunnel safety and ease of maintenance:

 Be designed to enhance tunnel lighting and visibility

 Be fire resistant
 Be precluded from producing toxic fumes during a fire
 Be able to attenuate noise
 Be easy to clean.

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 A brief description of the typical types of tunnel finishes that exist in highway tunnels is given below. Transit
tunnels often do not have an interior finish because the public is not exposed to the tunnel lining except as the
tunnel approaches the stations or portals.

 a) Ceramic Tile
 b) Porcelain-Enameled Metal Panels
 c) Epoxy-Coated Concrete.
 d) Miscellaneous Finishes

Some of the systems are listed below:

 (1) Coated Cementboard Panels

 (2) Pre-cast Concrete Panels
 (3) Metal Tiles

CONSTRUCTION OF CHANNEL TUNNEL

Eleven tunnel boring machines, working from both sides of the Channel, cut through chalk marl to construct two rail tunnels
and a service tunnel. The vehicle shuttle terminals are at Cheriton (part of Folkestone and Coquelles, and are connected to the
British and French motorways (M20 and A16 respectively).Tunnelling commenced in 1988, and the tunnel began operating
in 1994.[19] In 1985 prices, the total construction cost was £4650 million (equivalent to £10501 million today), an 80% cost
overrun. At the peak of construction 15,000 people were employed with daily expenditure over £3 million.Ten workers, eight
of them British, were killed during construction between 1987 and 1993, most in the first few months of boring.

Construction of channel tunnel include the following

• Track

The track system contains the following critical components:

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 Figure 2.20 - Typical Third Rail Insulated Anchor Arm

• Rail

The rail is a rolled, steel-shape portion of the track to be laid end-to-end in two parallel lines that the
train or vehicle's wheels ride atop.

• b) Rail Joints

Rail joints are mechanical fastenings designed to unite the abutting end of contiguous bolted rails.

• c) Fasteners/Bolts/Spikes

These fasteners include a spike, bolt, or another mechanical device used to tie the rail to the crossties.

• d) Tie Plates

Tie plates are rolled steel plates or a rubberized material designed to protect the timber crosstie from
localized damage under the rails by distributing the wheel loads over a larger area. They assist in
holding the rails to gage, tilt the rails inward to help counteract the outward thrust of wheel loads, and
provide a more desirable positioning of the wheel bearing area on the rail head.

• e) Crossties

Crossties are usually sawn solid timber, but may be made of precast reinforced concrete or fiber
reinforced plastic. The many functions of a crosstie are to:

 Support vertical rail loads due to train weight.

 Distribute those loads over a wide area of supporting material.
 Hold fasteners that can resist rail rotation due to laterally imposed loads.
 Maintain a fixed distance between the two rails makingV up a track.
 Help keep the two rails at the correct relative elevation.
 Anchor the rails against both lateral and longitudinal movement by embedment in the ballast.

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  Provide a convenient system for adjusting the vertical profile of the track.

• f) Ballast

Ballast is a coarse granular material forming a bed for ties, usually rocks. The ballast is used to
transmit and distribute the load of the track and railroad rolling equipment to the sub-grade; restrain the
track laterally, longitudinally, and vertically under dynamic loads imposed by railroad rolling
equipment and thermal stresses exerted by the rails; provide adequate drainage for the track; and
maintain proper cross-level surface and alignment.

• g) Plinth pads

Plinth pads are concrete support pads or pedestals that are fastened directly to the concrete invert. These
pads are placed at close intervals and permit the rail to span directly from one pad to another.

BENDING MOMENT AND NORMAL FORCES

Very important topic of tunneling are load on lining.To investigate realistic values of bending moment and normal forces a
full 3D analysis is needed.In order to calculate realistic values from a circlular tunnel we devide a block of 100*40*28 into
8840 volume element with a total of 28809 nodes.For the parameter of the Mohr-Coulomb(MC) model.we took a young
modulus of E=42Mps,a Poissons ratio of v=.25,a cohesion of c=20Pa ,a ftiction angle of A=20,a dilatancy angle G=0 and
k=1sina.The NATM tunnel with a diameter of 8m medelled in a systemetric half with an unsupport axcavation length of
2nd.Each computational phase consist thus of d=2m of axcavatio in which one slice of soil element is switched off.Within the
same phase a ring of lining element is switched on to support the previous excavation.The lining has a thickness of 30m,
Young Modulus of 20MPa

• Vertical displacement occure after 80m of stepwise excavation and the steady state settlement is 4.5cm
after the excavation is 35m
• The stepwise-step installation of tunnel lead to zigzagging normal force in the ring direction of lining
and compression is positive
• The stepwise-step installation of tunnel lead to the relistic zigzagging Bending moment in the ring
direction of lining

VENTILATION SYSTEMS

The ventilation of the tunnel is, perhaps, the simplest matter in connection with it, but as some doubts have been expressed

15
upon this, it may be here shortly explained. During the construction of the tunnel, the air necessary for ventilation will be
more than enough supplied by that used to drive the boring machines. When the tunnel is opened for traffic, the trains will
run through by means of Beaumont compressed-air locomotives.The Channel Tunnel locomotive will weigh from sixty to
seventy tons, and will be charged with 1,200 cubic feet of air, compressed to the density of seventy atmospheres, the
equivalent of which is over 80,000 cubic feet of free air. This will give power sufficient to draw a train of 250 tons gross
weight (including the engine) the distance of twenty-two miles under the sea, Assuming that the rate of traveling be thirty
miles an hour, the air discharged by the engine would give a supply of free and pure air to the amount of 2,000 cubic feet,
approximately, which will be far in excess of what is needed by the passengers in the train. Reservoirs will be placed at
convenient intervals, so that the engines, should they need it, may be replenished with compressed air. It will, therefore, be
seen that Colonel Beaumont's system of compressed-air engines affords equal advantages with the ordinary steam
locomotives, and with no increase in weight."

o 1. Types

Tunnel ventilation systems can be categorized into five main types or any combination of these five.

• Natural Ventilation
• Longitudinal Ventilation
• Semi-Transverse Ventilation
• Full-Transverse Ventilation
• Single-Point Extraction.

 a) Natural Ventilation

In naturally ventilated tunnel the movement of air is controlled by meteorological conditions and the
piston effect created by moving traffic pushing the stale air through the tunnel. This effect is
minimized when bi-directional traffic is present. Many naturally ventilated tunnels over 180 m (600 ft)
in length have mechanical fans installed for use during a fire emergency.

Figure 2.13 - Natural Ventilation

 b) Longitudinal Ventilation

Longitudinal ventilation is similar to natural ventilation with the addition of mechanical fans, either in
the portal buildings, the center shaft, or mounted inside the tunnel. Longitudinal ventilation is often
used inside rectangular-shaped tunnels that do not have the extra space above the ceiling or below the
roadway for ductwork. Figure 2.14 - Longitudinal Ventilation

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 Figure 2.14 - Longitudinal Ventilation

 c) Semi-Transverse Ventilation

Semi-transverse ventilation also makes use of mechanical fans for movement of air, but it does not use
the roadway envelope itself as the ductwork. A separate plenum or ductwork is added either above or
below the tunnel with flues that allow for uniform distribution of air into or out of the tunnel. This
plenum or ductwork is typically located above a suspended ceiling or below a structural slab within a
tunnel with a circular cross-section.

ssFigure 2.15 - Semi-Transverse Ventilation

• d) Full-Transverse Ventilation

Full-transverse ventilation uses the same components as semi-transverse ventilation, but it incorporates
supply air and exhaust air together over the same length of tunnel. This method is used primarily for
longer tunnels that have large amounts of air that need to be replaced or for heavily traveled tunnels
that produce high levels of contaminants.

Fig 2.16-Full=Transverse Ventilation

• e) Single-Point Extraction

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 In conjunction with semi- and full-transverse ventilation systems, single-point extraction can be used
to increase the airflow potential in the event of a fire in the tunnel. The system works by allowing the
opening size of select exhaust flues to increase during an emergency.

2. Equipment

• Fans

 (1) Axial

There are two main types of axial fans - tube axial fans and vane axial fans. Both types move
air parallel to the impellor shaft, but the difference between the two is the addition of guide
vanes on one or both sides of the impellor for the vane axial fans.

Figure 2.17 - Axial Fans

 (2) Centrifugal

This type of fan outlets the air in a direction that is 90° to the direction at which air is obtained.
Air enters parallel to the shaft of the blades and exits perpendicular to that. For tunnel
applications, centrifugal fans can either be backward-curved or airfoil-bladed. Figure 2.18 -
Centrifugal Fan

• b) Supplemental Equipment

(1) Motors

Electric motors are typically used to drive the fans. They can be operated at either constant or
variable speeds depending on the type of motor.

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 (2) Fan Drives

A motor can be connected to the fan either directly or indirectly. Direct drives are where the fan
is on the same shaft as the motor. Indirect drives allow for flexibility in motor location and are
connected to the impellor shaft by belts, chains, or gears. The type of drive used can also
induce speed variability for the ventilation system.

(3) Sound Attenuatore

Some tunnel exhaust systems are located in regions that require the noise generated by the fans
to be reduced. This can be achieved by installing cylindrical or rectangular attenuators either
mounted directly to the fan or within ductwork along the system.

(4) Dampers

Objects used to control the flow of air within the ductwork are considered dampers. They
are typically used in a full open or full closed position, but can also be operated at some
position in between to regulate flow or pressure within the system.

LIGHTING SYSTEMS

1. Types

• Highway Tunnels

There are various light sources that are used in tunnels to make up the tunnel lighting systems. These
include fluorescent, high-pressure sodium, low-pressure sodium, metal halide, and pipe lighting, which
is a system that may use one of the preceding light source types. Systems are chosen based on their
life- cycle costs and the amount of light that is required for nighttime and daytime illumination. Shorter
tunnels will require less daytime lighting due to the effect of light entering the portals on both ends,
whereas longer tunnels will require extensive lighting for both nighttime and daytime conditions.
Fluorescent lights typically line the entire roadway tunnel length to provide the appropriate amount of
light. At the ends of the roadway tunnel, low-pressure sodium lamps or high-pressure sodium lamps
are often combined with the fluorescent lights to provide higher visibility when drivers' eyes are
adjusting to the decrease in natural light. The transition length of tunnel required for having a higher
lighting capacity varies from tunnel to tunnel and depends on which code the designer uses.

• b) Rail Transit Tunnels

Rail transit tunnels are similar to highway tunnels in that they should provide sufficient light for train
operators to properly adjust from the bright portal or station conditions to the darker conditions of the
tunnel.

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.POWER(THIRD RAIL/CATENARY) SUPPLY

Power is delivered to the locomotives via an overhead line (catenary)at 25 kV 50 Hz

• Third Rail Power System

A third rail power system will consist of the elements listed below and will typically be arranged as
shown in Figures 2.19 and 2.20.

 (1) Steel Contact Rail

Steel contact rail is the rail that carries power for electric rail cars through the tunnel and is
placed parallel to the other two standard rails.

 (2) Contact Rail Insulators

Contact rail insulators are made either of porcelain or fiberglass and are to be installed at each
supporting bracket location.

 (3) Protection Board

Protection boards are placed above the steel contact rail to "protect" personnel from making
direct contact with this rail. These boards are typically made of fiberglass or timber.

 (4) Protection Board Brackets

Protection board brackets are mounted on either timber ties or concrete ties/base and are used
to support the protection board at a distance above the steel contact rail.

 (5) Third Rail Insulated Anchor Arms

Third rail insulated anchor arms are located at the midpoint of each long section, with a
maximum length for any section limited to 1.6 km (1 mile).

Figure 2.19 - Typical Third Rail Power System

(Note: Dimensions indicate minimum clearance requirements)

Figure 2.20 - Typical Third Rail Insulated Anchor Arm

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  b) Catenary Power System

The catenary system is an overhead power system whereby the rail transit cars are powered by means
of contact between the pantographs on top of the rail car and the catenary wire. A typical catenary
system may consist of some or all of the following components: balance weights, yoke plates, steady
arms, insulators, hangers, jumpers, safety assemblies, pull-off arrangements, back guys etc. Since the
methods used to support a catenary system within a tunnel can vary, a detailed description of the
individual components is not given in this section.

SIGNAL/COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

a) Signal System

The signal system is a complex assortment of electrical and mechanical instruments that work together
to provide direction for the individual trains within a transit system. A typical signal system may
consist of some or all of the following components: signals, signal cases, relay rooms, switch
machines, switch circuit controllers, local cables, express cables, signal power cables etc.

b) Communication System

The communication system consists of all devices that allow communication from or within a tunnel.
Examples of these systems would be emergency phones that are located periodically along a highway
tunnel and radios by which train controllers correspond with each other and central operations.

GEOLOGY

Figure 2.17 - Axial

Successful tunnelling under the channel required a sound understanding of the topography and geology and the
selection of the best rock strata through which to tunnel.Characteristics include:

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 • Continuous chalk on the cliffs on either side of the Channel containing no major faulting,
• Four geological strata, marine sediments laid down 90–100 million years ago; pervious upper and middle chalk above
slightly pervious lower chalk and finally impermeable Gault Clay. A sandy stratum, glauconitic marl (tortia), is in
between the chalk marl and gault clay
• A 25–30-metre (82–98 ft) layer of chalk marl (French: craie bleue) in the lower third of the lower chalk appeared to
present the best tunnelling medium. The chalk has a clay content of 30–40% providing impermeability to
groundwater yet relatively easy excavation with strength allowing minimal support. Ideally the tunnel would be bored
in the bottom 15 metres (49 ft) of the chalk marl, allowing water inflow from fractures and joints to be minimised, but
above the gault clay that would increase stress on the tunnel lining and swell and soften when wet.

On the English side of the channel, the strata dip less than 5°, however, on the French side, this increases to 20°. Jointing and
faulting is present on both the English and French sides. On the English side, only minor faults of displacement less than
2 metres (7 ft) exist. On the French side, displacements of up to 15 metres (49 ft) are present owing to the Quenocs anticlinal
fold. The faults are of limited width, filled with calcite, pyrite and remoulded clay. The increased dip and faulting restricted
the selection of route on the French side. To avoid confusion microfossil assemblages were used to classify the chalk marl.
On the French side, particularly near the coast, the chalk was harder, more brittle, and more fractured than on the English
side. This led to the adoption of different tunnelling techniques on the French and English sides.

No major geological hazards were identified; however, the Quaternary undersea valley Fosse Dangaered, and Castle Hill
landslip located at the English portal, caused concerns. Identified by the 1964–65 geophysical survey, the Fosse Dangaered is
an infilled valley system extending 80 metres (262 ft) below the seabed, 500 metres (1,640 ft) south of the tunnel route,
located mid-channel. A 1986 survey showed that a tributary crossed the path of the tunnel, and so the tunnel route was made
as far north and deep as possible. The English terminal had to be located in the Castle Hill landslip, which consists of
displaced and tipping blocks of lower chalk, glauconitic marl and gault debris. Thus the area was stabilised by buttressing
and inserting drainage adits.The service tunnels were pilot tunnels preceding the main tunnels, so that the geology, areas of
crushed rock, and zones of high water inflow could be predicted. Exploratory probing took place in the service tunnels, in the
form of extensive forward probing, vertical downward probes and sideways probing.

SURVEYING

Marine soundings and samplings by Thomé de Gamond were carried out during 1833–67, establishing the seabed depth at a
maximum of 55 metres (180 ft) and the continuity of geological strata (layers). Surveying continued over many years, with
166 marine and 70 land-deep boreholes being drilled and over 4000 line kilometres of marine geophysical survey
completed.Surveys were undertaken in 1958–59, 1964–65, 1972–74 and 1986–88.

Tunnelling

Tunnelling between England and France was a major engineering challenge, with the only precedent being the undersea
Seikan Tunnel in Japan. A serious risk with underwater tunnels is major water inflow due to the water pressure from the sea

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above under weak ground conditions. The Channel Tunnel also had the challenge of time—being privately funded, early
financial return was paramount.

The objective was to construct: two 7.6-metre (25 ft) diameter rail tunnels, 30 metres (98 ft) apart, 50 kilometres (31 mi) in
length; a 4.8-metre (16 ft) diameter service tunnel between the two main tunnels; pairs of 3.3-metre (11 ft) diameter cross-
passages linking the rail tunnels to the service tunnel at 375-metre (1,230 ft) spacing; piston relief ducts 2-metre (7 ft)
diameter connecting the rail tunnels at 250-metre (820 ft) spacing; two undersea crossover caverns to connect the rail tunnels.
The service tunnel always preceded the main tunnels by at least 1 kilometre (0.6 mi) to ascertain the ground conditions. There
was plenty of experience with tunnelling through chalk in the mining industry. The undersea crossover caverns were a
complex engineering problem. The French cavern was based on the Mount Baker Ridge freeway tunnel in the USA. The UK
cavern was dug from the service tunnel ahead of the main tunnels to avoid delay.

OPERATION

Usage and services

Passenger traffic volumes

It include the movement of passenger from one one place to another

Freight traffic volumes

It include the transfer of goods from one place to another

TERMINAL

The terminals sites are at Cheriton (Folkestone in the United Kingdom) and Coquelles (Calais in France). The terminals
are unique facilities designed to transfer vehicles from the motorway onto trains at a rate of 700 cars and 113 heavy vehicles
per hour. The UK site uses the M20 motorway.The terminals are organised with the frontier controls juxtaposed with the
entry to the system to allow travellers to go onto the motorway at the destination country immediately after leaving the
shuttle.

Incidents.

Fire Protection System

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The fire protection systems of the Channel Tunnel at the time of the 1996 fire are listed as follows:

Fire Protection
At the Time of Fire in 1996
System
Fire protection to No
concrete lining
Compartmentation • Airlocks at the entrances to the Service Tunnel
• Exit of each cross-passage into the Running Tunnel has a fire-resistant door which is
normally closed
• Piston Relief Ducts have dampers which are kept open during normal operations

The undersea crossovers have fire-resistant doors which separate the tracks in the two
•
Running Tunnels
Fire detection systems The system comprises 33 detection stations in each Running Tunnel. Each detection station
comprises:

• Ultraviolet and Infrared flame detectors

• Optical and ionization smoke detectors
• Carbon monoxide (CO) detectors
• Aspiration tubes around the circumference of the tunnels directing gases to the analysis
units
• An unconfirmed alarm is triggered by the activation of a single ionisation or optical
detector
• A confirmed alarm results from the activation of either a flame detector or from both an
ionic and an optical detector

• Such two alarm levels is used to reduce false alarms

Water pipe system • 250 mm diameter wet main along the Service Tunnel
• 100 mm diameter wet main along both Running Tunnels
• Wet mains inter-connected at cross passages, supplying hydrants at every 125 m in the
Running Tunnels

• Total capacity of 4000 m3/hr

Ventilation system • The air pressure in the Service Tunnel is maintained at a higher level than that of the
Running Tunnels to prevent smoke from entering the Service Tunnel and allow a
"bubble effect" to be created at the opening of a cross-passage door

• The Supplementary Ventilation System functions to clear smoke away from any area in
the tunnel to enable any emergency service
Emergency response • First Line of Response (FLOR) teams are stationed at the Emergency Centres near to the
teams Service Tunnel portals

• Second Line of Response (SLOR) teams are the Kent Fire Brigade and the Fire and
Medical teams in the Pas de Calais region.

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The Fire Developement

On 18 November 1996, a truck fire on Heavy Goods Vehicles (HGV) shuttle No 7539, travelling from France to England,
forced the train to stop in the South Running Tunnel at about 19 km from the French entrance. The fire emitted intense smoke
which rapidly engulfed the Amenity Coach and the front locomotive, preventing immediate evacuation of the 31 passengers,
2 crew members and the driver onboard. The evacuation could only commence about 23 minutes later.

The original drive-through strategy allowed the fire developed substantially while the train was still moving in the
tunnel. After the train had stopped, fire development rapidly accelerated, first towards the front of the train due to the "piston
effect". The fire spread towards the rear after the Supplementary Ventilation System had been activated.

A brief account of the fire development is given as follows:

Time Fire Development

21:48 • The train entered the South Running Tunnel.
(French time)
• A 1~2 m fire flame was seen beneath a lorry abroad the train by some security guards and reported
to the Terminal Control Centre in the French terminal.
21:49 • The Terminal Control Centre informed the Rail Control Centre.

• Tunnel fire detection system gave first "unconfirmed" alarm.

21:50~21:52 • Four further "unconfirmed" alarms.
• The Rail Control Centre informed the train driver of the possible onboard fire and the train would
be diverted to the emergency siding in the UK terminal.

• The onboard fire alarm system warned the driver of a fire in the rear locomotive.
21:53 • A fire on the rear locomotive was confirmed by both onboard and tunnel fire detection systems.

• The train had travelled 10 km into the tunnel.

21:56 The French First Line of Response (FLOR) team comprising 8 firefighters left the French Emergency
Centre.
21:58 The train stopped adjacent to the cross-passage at PK 4131.
22:01 The train driver was trapped in his cab and the passengers could not be evacuated due to dense smoke.
22:02 The French FLOR team entered the Service Tunnel. One minute later, the UK FLOR team also entered the
Service Tunnel.
22:22 • Supplementary Ventilation System had been reconfigured to move smoke along the South Running
Tunnel towards France.

• The train passengers were evacuated.

22:28 • The French FLOR team arrived at cross-passage 4131 and saw the evacuated passengers.

• The train driver was later rescued from his cab.

22:53 • The UK FLOR team entered the South Running Tunnel to inspect the exact location and extent of

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 the fire.

• It was found that the fixed tunnel equipment had been damaged and five wagons were involved in
the fire at the rear rake of the train.
23:39 • Fire was confirmed between cross-passage doors 4163 and 4201.

• In the following 5 hours, the fire was attacked by the combined force of the French and UK
firefighters.
05:00 • The centre of the fire was extinguished. Minor fires were extinguished during the early morning.

• Smouldering debris continued to be dealt with until 03:00 on 20 Nov.

THE DAMAGE

The fire caused considerable damage over 480 m long of the tunnel structure including:

Damage Zone Length Extend of Damage to Concrete Lining

• In many places, the lining thickness was reduced to an average of 17 cm
• In a few places, as much as 40 cm thick concrete spalled, leaving only 51
50 m between
Extreme damaged mm of concrete remaining and exploding all steel reinforcement
PK 4186 and
zone • No damage to concrete grouting and rock
PK 4191
• The whole section was reinforced and rebuilt
290 m between • In many places, the depth of concrete spalling was between 5 and 20 cm,
Severely damaged exploding the first layer of steel reinforcement
zone PK 4180 and
PK 4209 • The lining was repaired without replacing the steel reinforcements
• Superficial damage to concrete in some places, but the steel reinforcement
480 m between
Substantially was not exposed
PK 4172 and
damaged zone
PK 4220
• The lining was repaired without replacing the steel reinforcements

Besides the concrete lining, the cross-passages and Piston Relief Ducts near to the fire, the walkways and the concrete track-
bed were largely undamaged.

In addition, the tunnel equipment over a considerable distance was seriously damage by the high temperatures and smoke,
including:

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 • Over 500 m of railway track and supporting track blocks
• Over 800 m of traction power catenary
• Several kilometres long of electrical supply and fibre optic communications cables, together with some lighting
systems, fire detection stations, signalling systems, and electromechanical equipment for cross-passages and Piston
Relief Ducts

The fire had little effect on the front rake of the freight train but the rear rake was very severely damaged. Ten HGV wagons
and their contents and the rear loading wagon were completely destroyed. Three wagons and the rear locomotive were
seriously damaged.

TRAIN FAILURE

The large number of failed trains meant that both running tunnels were blocked. Five Class 373 trains had departed from
Brussels and Paris and encountered cold temperatures in Northern France, the coldest for eight years.A Eurotunnel
spokesperson explained that the problem had arisen because of 'fluffy snow' in France,which had evaded the 'winterisation'
shields designed to stop snow getting into the electrics.Electrical failure was then caused by the transition from the cold air in
France to the warm atmosphere inside the tunnel.

ASYLUM AND IMMIGRATION

Immigrants and would-be asylum seekers have been known to use the tunnel to attempt to enter Britain. Most migrants who
got into Britain found some way to ride a freight train, but others used Eurostar. Though the facilities were fenced, airtight
security was deemed impossible; refugees would even jump from bridges onto moving trains. Local authorities in both
France and the UK called for the closure of Sangatte, and Eurotunnel twice sought an injunction against the centre.

SAFETY

The service tunnel is used for access to technical equipment in cross-passages and equipment rooms, to provide fresh-air
ventilation, and for emergency evacuation. The Service Tunnel Transport System (STTS) allows fast access to all areas of the
tunnel. The service vehicles are rubber-tyred with a buried guidance wire system. Twenty-four STTS vehicles were made,
and are used mainly for maintenance but also for firefighting and in emergencies. "Pods" with different purposes, up to a
payload of 2.5–5 t (2.8–5.5 tons), are inserted into the side of the vehicles.

CHOICE OF TUNNEL Vs BRIDGE

For water crossings, a tunnel is generally more costly to construct than a bridge. Navigational considerations may limit the
use of high bridges or drawbridge spans intersecting with shipping channels, necessitating a tunnel.

Bridges usually require a larger footprint on each shore than tunnels. In areas with expensive real estate, such as Manhattan
and urban Hong Kong, this is a strong factor in tunnels' favor. Boston's Big Digproject replaced elevated roadways with a
tunnel system to increase traffic capacity, hide traffic, reclaim land, redecorate, and reunite the city with the waterfront.

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The 1934 Queensway Road Tunnel under the River Mersey at Liverpool, was chosen over a massively high bridge for
defence reasons. It was feared aircraft could destroy a bridge in times of war. Maintenance costs of a massive bridge to allow
the world's largest ships navigate under was considered higher than a tunnel. Similar conclusions were met for the 1971
Kingsway Tunnel under the River Mersey.

Examples of water-crossing tunnels built instead of bridges include the Holland Tunnel and Lincoln Tunnel between New
Jersey and Manhattan in New York City, and the Elizabeth River tunnels between Norfolk and Portsmouth, Virginia, the
1934 River Mersey road Queensway Tunnel and the Westerschelde tunnel, Zeeland, Netherlands.

Other reasons for choosing a tunnel instead of a bridge include avoiding difficulties with tides, weather and shipping
during construction (as in the 51.5 km Channel Tunnel, aesthetic reasons (preserving the above-ground view, landscape, and
scenery), and also for weight capacity reasons (it may be more feasible to build a tunnel than a sufficiently strong
bridge).Some water crossings are a mixture of bridges and tunnels, such as the Denmark to Sweden link and the Chesapeake
Bay Bridge-Tunnel in the eastern United StatesThere are particular hazards with tunnels, especially from vehicle fires when
combustion gases can asphyxiate users, as happened at the Gotthard Road Tunnel in Switzerland in 2001. One of the worst
railway disasters ever, the Balvano train disaster, was caused by a train stalling in the Armi tunnel in Italy in 1944, killing
426 passengers.

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 CONCLUSION
So last but not least construction of rail channel tunnel is very important for the development of the country because it easily
link the one country to another country,one state to another state.As Bridges usually require a larger footprint on each shore
than tunnels.Its construction is so much important this system increases traffic capacity, hide traffic, reclaim land, redecorate,
and reunite the city with the waterfront.Other reasons for choosing a tunnel instead of a bridge include avoiding difficulties
with tides, weather and shipping during construction (as in the 51.5 km Channel Tunnel, aesthetic reasons (preserving the
above-ground view, landscape, and scenery), and also for weight capacity reasons (it may be more feasible to build a tunnel
than a sufficiently strong bridge).

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 REFERENCES

• Robie S. Lange (February, 1993), National Register of Historic Places Inventory-Nomination:

St. Clair River Tunnel St. Clair Railroad Tunnell, National Park Service,
http://pdfhost.focus.nps.gov/docs/NHLS/Text/70000684.pdf
• Glenbrook Tunnel - Alcatraz Down Under - History Channel
• Author lifts lid on chemical wartime history - Local News - News - General - Blue Mountains
Gazette
• Anderson, Graham; Roskrow, Ben (1994). The Channel Tunnel Story. London: E & F N Spon.
ISBN 041919620X

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 European Commission Directorate-General for Regional Policy and Cohesion. (1996). The
regional impact of the Channel Tunnel throughout the Community. Luxembourg: European
Commission. ISBN 9282688046.
 Flyvbjerg, B. Buzelius, N. Rothengatter, W. (2003). Megaprojects and Risk. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press ISBN 0521009464.
 Institution of Civil Engineers (1989). The Channel Tunnel. London: Thomas Telford.
ISBN 0727715461.
 Kirkland, Colin J., ed. (1995). Engineering the Channel Tunnel. London: Chapman and Hall.
ISBN 0419179208
 Whiteside, Thomas (1962). The Tunnel under the Channel. Rupert Hart-Davis. ISBN
0684832437.
 Wilson, Jeremy; Spick, Jerome (1994). Eurotunnel — The Illustrated Journey. HarperCollins.
ISBN 0002555395.

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