Current Harmonics in Modern Low Voltage Networks

Brunel University West London
Department of Mechanical Engineering
“Current Harmonics
In Modern Low Voltage Networks”
By
Patrick Maguire
(0530673)
Dissertation submitted in pursuance of
MSc Building Services Engineering Management
Brunel University
2010
Dissertation Tutor: Prof. Alan Reynolds
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Abstract
The causes, effects and consequences of current harmonics are not well understood by many
in the Building Services industry. Because of this, many of the indicators of harmonic
problems are ignored or misinterpreted, often until it is too late. The financial cost of this is
inestimable, but industry sources put the cost per individual commercial customer at many
hundreds, or thousand of Euro per year in cable energy losses alone.
This study aims to simplify the science behind current harmonics, such that their sources are
more easily identified, their consequences understood, and costly oversights averted.
Two discrete analysis approaches were taken: simple mono-phase loads were used to illustrate
the concepts, and more complex poly-phase systems were examined to illustrate the effects of
current harmonics in the field.
A simple computer model was developed to aid understating of both harmonic current
magnitudes and the effects of their displacement, and also as a model to help gauge the
benefit of systems and process to eliminate certain harmonics.
Finally, mitigating actions and recommendations will be discussed.
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Acknowledgments
Firstly, I must say a special thank you to the following people:
Professor Alan Reynolds, my dissertation tutor, for his advice, assistance and words of
encouragement.
Mrs. Mary Bridge, the MSc program administrator, who has been incredibly helpful
throughout my years of distance learning at Brunel University.
Mr. Richard Gallagher, my friend and manager who supported my work throughout.
Mr. Ray Walker, my friend and colleague who helped me with the set up many of my
field measurements.
Mr. Liam Carroll for putting me straight on a number of transformer-related issues.
Mr. Pat Waters and Mr. Jimmy Connolly, my friends of many years, for their advice
and suggestions when I need some direction.
Most especially, Karen, Fintan and Bebhinn Maguire, my wife and children, who have
helped and supported me in ways too numerous to count throughout the years, for
without their patience, encouragement and support I could not have completed this.
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Table of Contents
ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................................................... 2
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS..................................................................................................................................... 3
TABLE OF CONTENTS ...................................................................................................................................... 4
TABLE OF FIGURES .......................................................................................................................................... 5
TABLE OF EQUATIONS .................................................................................................................................... 6
LIST OF TABLES................................................................................................................................................. 6
GLOSSARY OF TERMS ..................................................................................................................................... 7
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................ 8
Context of the Dissertation Topic .................................................................................................................. 8
Aims and Objectives....................................................................................................................................... 9
Limitations of study...................................................................................................................................... 10
Methodology ................................................................................................................................................ 11
LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................................................................................ 12
Sources related to “Electrical fundamentals” ............................................................................................. 12
Sources related to “Causes of harmonics”.................................................................................................. 12
Sources related to “Mathematics” .............................................................................................................. 12
Sources related to “Harmonic identification and costs”............................................................................. 13
Sources related to “Transformers and Resonance” .................................................................................... 13
Sources related to “Living with harmonics” ............................................................................................... 14
Sources related to “Harmonic countermeasures and considerations” ....................................................... 15
MEASUREMENT EQUIPMENT: ............................................................................................................................ 15
Choosing a good quality RMS meter ........................................................................................................... 15
EQUIPMENT SETUP: ........................................................................................................................................... 17
CHAPTER 2: CURRENT HARMONICS ........................................................................................................ 20
WHAT ARE HARMONICS? ................................................................................................................................... 20
Basic electrical principles............................................................................................................................ 21
Power........................................................................................................................................................... 21
Active Power ................................................................................................................................................ 22
Reactive Power ............................................................................................................................................ 22
Linear loads ................................................................................................................................................. 23
Non-Linear Loads ........................................................................................................................................ 26
Where are current harmonics generated? ................................................................................................... 26
CHAPTER 3: CASE STUDY ............................................................................................................................. 31
ANALYSIS EQUIPMENT USED: ........................................................................................................................... 31
LOAD TYPES ANALYSED ................................................................................................................................... 31
Bench Tests .................................................................................................................................................. 31
Field Tests.................................................................................................................................................... 32
OBSERVATIONS ................................................................................................................................................. 32
1phase systems............................................................................................................................................. 34
3-phase systems............................................................................................................................................ 42
CHAPTER 4: MATHEMATICAL MODELLING.......................................................................................... 45
ANALYSIS OF FINDINGS ..................................................................................................................................... 48
Total Harmonic Distortion (THD)............................................................................................................... 49
CHAPTER 5: WHY ARE CURRENT HARMONICS A PROBLEM? ......................................................... 51
Electrical Issues........................................................................................................................................... 51
Mechanical issues ........................................................................................................................................ 56
CHAPTER 6: COUNTER MEASURES ........................................................................................................... 59
Living with Harmonics................................................................................................................................. 59
Reduction ..................................................................................................................................................... 59
Elimination .................................................................................................................................................. 62
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CHAPTER 7: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...................................................................... 66
Conclusions.................................................................................................................................................. 66
Main Findings.............................................................................................................................................. 66
Recommendations ........................................................................................................................................ 67
Suggested Further Reading.......................................................................................................................... 68
Management of Project................................................................................................................................ 69
GANTT CHART ................................................................................................................................................. 70
COPY OF TOPIC DEFINITION ...................................................................................................................... 75
APPENDIX 1 ....................................................................................................................................................... 76
APPENDIX 2 ....................................................................................................................................................... 77
REFERENCES .................................................................................................................................................... 78
Table of Figures
FIGURE 1 - THE NEED TO READ TRUE RMS ........................................................................................................ 16
FIGURE 2 - EQUIPMENT SET UP ............................................................................................................................ 17
FIGURE 3 - 1PHASE BACKGROUND HARMONICS ................................................................................................... 18
FIGURE 4 - WAVEFORM “A” ................................................................................................................................ 20
FIGURE 5 - WAVEFORM “B” ................................................................................................................................ 21
FIGURE 6 - WAVEFORMS “A” AND “B” TOGETHER ............................................................................................ 21
FIGURE 7 - VOLTAGE AND CURRENT IN PHASE ................................................................................................... 22
FIGURE 8 - VOLTAGE AND CURRENT OUT OF PHASE ........................................................................................... 22
FIGURE 9 - COMPOSITE LOAD .............................................................................................................................. 24
FIGURE 10 - COMPARISON BETWEEN COS PHI AND DISPLACEMENT FACTOR ................................................... 25
FIGURE 11 - HARMONIC CONCEPT ....................................................................................................................... 25
FIGURE 12 - "SQUARE WAVEFORM" ................................................................................................................... 27
FIGURE 13 - CURRENT FLOW ............................................................................................................................... 28
FIGURE 14 - CHOPPED SINUSOID GENERATED HARMONICS ................................................................................ 29
FIGURE 15 - HARMONICS IN PHASE ..................................................................................................................... 32
FIGURE 16 - HARMONICS OFFSET BY INDEPENDENT VALUES.............................................................................. 33
FIGURE 17 - SIGNIFICANT NEUTRAL CURRENT IN A BALANCED 3P SYSTEM ....................................................... 34
FIGURE 18 - NEUTRAL IMAX GREATER THAN IMAX PHASE ................................................................................ 34
FIGURE 19 - RESISTIVE LOAD .............................................................................................................................. 34
FIGURE 20 - INDUCTIVE LOAD (TRANSFORMER) ................................................................................................. 35
FIGURE 21 - ENTERTAINMENT CENTRE ............................................................................................................... 35
FIGURE 22 - HIGH FREQUENCY LIGHTING ........................................................................................................... 36
FIGURE 23 - COMPACT FLUORESCENT LIGHTING .............................................................................................. 36
FIGURE 24 - COMPOSITE LOAD OF TRANSFORMER AND ENTERTAINMENT CENTRE ......................................... 37
FIGURE 25 - DOMESTIC DWELLING AT REST DURING EVENING TIME ................................................................. 38
FIGURE 26 - DOMESTIC DWELLING AT EVENING MEALTIME .............................................................................. 39
FIGURE 27 - SIMULATED “BALANCED” APARTMENT BLOCK .............................................................................. 39
FIGURE 28 - UPS DISTRIBUTION BOARD .............................................................................................................. 42
FIGURE 29 - COMPONENT HARMONIC CURRENTS AND RESULTANT ................................................................... 45
FIGURE 30 - 3PH UPS LOAD AND RESULTANT NEUTRAL ..................................................................................... 46
FIGURE 31 - PREDICTION OF NEUTRAL CURRENT FOR BALANCED LIGHTING LOAD .......................................... 47
FIGURE 32 - COMPOSITE LOAD MODELLED AND MEASURED .............................................................................. 47
FIGURE 33 - INDIVIDUAL COMPONENT HARMONIC CURRENTS ........................................................................... 49
FIGURE 34 - DERATING OF TRANSFORMER ACCORDING TO K-FACTOR ............................................................ 54
FIGURE 35 - NEGATIVE SEQUENCE OF 5TH HARMONIC ....................................................................................... 57
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Table of Equations
EQUATION 1- RMS VALUE ................................................................................................................................... 16
EQUATION 2 - TIME FREQUENCY RELATIONSHIP ................................................................................................ 20
EQUATION 3- REACTIVE POWER FOR CHOPPED SINUSOID .................................................................................. 28
EQUATION 4- TOTAL HARMONIC DISTORTION (THD) ....................................................................................... 49
EQUATION 5 - EDDY CURRENT LOSSES PER GIVEN HARMONIC NUMBER ............................................................ 53
EQUATION 6 - TOTAL EDDY CURRENT LOSSES..................................................................................................... 53
EQUATION 7 - K-FACTOR ..................................................................................................................................... 53
EQUATION 8 - INDUCTIVE REACTANCE ............................................................................................................... 55
EQUATION 9 - CAPACITIVE REACTANCE .............................................................................................................. 55
EQUATION 10 - LOAD IMPEDANCE ....................................................................................................................... 55
EQUATION 11 - CURRENT VOLTAGE IMPEDANCE RELATIONSHIP ...................................................................... 56
List of Tables
TABLE 1 - HARMONICS ASSOCIATED WITH WAVEFORM ABOVE ......................................................................... 16
TABLE 2 - HARMONIC VOLTAGE LIMITS AS PER EN-61000-3-6.......................................................................... 18
TABLE 3 - CURRENT TRANSFORMER SERIAL NUMBERS....................................................................................... 31
TABLE 4 - HARMONIC SUMMARY TABLE............................................................................................................. 40
TABLE 5 - VSD HARMONICS: SUPPLY SIDE OF FILTER - AND MOTOR SIDE OF FILTER ....................................... 43
TABLE 6 - SAMPLE CALCULATIONS FOR "PEAK" "EQUIVALENT RMS" AND "TRUE RMS".......................... 46
TABLE 7 - FILTER HARDWARE COSTS .................................................................................................................. 64
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Glossary of terms
Term Description
A Amp (Ampere) - Unit of current
AC Alternating Current
AHF Active Harmonic Filter
Amplitude Measurement of a perioduc waveform from Peak-to-Peak
C/T Current Transformer
CFL Compact Fluorescent Light
Cos Phi Angle by which current leads or lags voltage
DC Direct Current
Eddy Current A ciculating current which produces no effecive work
Frequency Numer of periodic cycles in a given time period - normally measured in
seconds (see also Hz)
Fundemental A base, or reference frequency
Harmonic Waveform that is a in interger multiple of a given reference or
fundemental frequency
Hz Hertz. Number of cycles per second
IEC International Electrotechnical Commission
IEE Institute of Electrical Engineers
IEEE Institute of Electrionic and Electrical Engineers
K Factor A compensating factor for Transformers. A higher number is accociated
with operating with greater harmonic currents present
LV Low Voltage (<1000v AC in Ireland)
Negative Phase rotation order wich is in reverse to nominal supply rotation
Sequence
PLC Programmable Logic Controller
Power Effective work - Voltage x Current x Power Factor
Power Factor Raftio of Real Power (Kw) to Apparent Power (kVA)
PWM Pulse Width Modulation (used generally for speed control)
RCBO Residual Current Breaker with Overcurrent
RCCB Residual Current Circuit Breaker
RMS Root Mean Squared
Sinewave An geometric waveform that oscillates periodically, and is defined by the
function y = sin x.It is an s-shaped, smooth wave that oscillates above and
below zero.
Sinusoid See sinewave
SMPS Switch Moder Power Supply
SWA Steel Wire Armour
Trafo Transformer
UL Underwriters Laboratory - a USA standards authority
UPS Uninterruptable Power Supply
VFD Variable Frequency Drive (Same as VSD)
VSD Variable Speed Drive (Same as VFD)
V Volt - Unit of potential difference
XPLE Cross-linked Polyethelene - Cable insulation
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Chapter 1: Introduction
Context of the Dissertation Topic
For many years engineers in the Building Services industry have been aware of the existence
of Current Harmonics, and of their reputation as being a “bad thing”, and with often only
some vague awareness of where they came from. It is generally thought that large
semi-conductor loads create them; loads like Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS), motor
variable speed drives (VSDs), fluorescent lighting, computers etc.
What is not generally understood is why these loads appear to create current harmonics, what
effects these harmonic currents cause, and whether all current harmonics are inherently bad.
Most Building Services Engineering managers will know of reported cases of unexplained
catastrophic failures of major items of electrical and mechanical plant. Events such as:
failures of power factor correction banks, large motors wrecking their bearings, and of neutral
conductors overheating. In many cases, where no obvious external agent can be identified,
that mysterious electrical phenomenon – current harmonics – will field the blame.
Some will point out that current harmonics are unavoidable in the modern world, and that
there is simply nothing that can be done about them. Others are of the opinion that since
current harmonics are so random that if you have enough of them in your distribution system
that eventually they will all cancel each other out, and if not completely, then to some non-
harmful level. Some are of the opinion that harmonic currents can at least be reduced to
manageable levels.
The question is: is it all true, some of it, or none of it?
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Aims and Objectives
As there is so much misunderstanding, myth and supposition, this paper aims to clarify what
really is happening, and what can be done about it. The causes of current harmonics will be
discussed – how they are generated, and the kinds of loads and switching types that are
responsible. By knowing how current harmonics are generated, the building services manager
is now in a position to put certain failure modes, or previously unexplained events into a new
context.
If the presence of harmonics is indicated, how can they be measured? What are “THD” and
the “K-Factor”, and why are they significant? Is it possible to tell if harmonics are a problem
in an installation? By knowing the magnitude of the harmonic currents, what are the effects
they might cause in the system?
What are these effects doing to the network and the connected equipment, and are the
consequences all inherently bad? Can awareness of harmonics be used to predict equipment
failure, or diagnose latent issues, or explain previous failure events? Armed with this
knowledge, can the Building Services manager do anything about it, and if so, what are the
typical clean up methods and costs?
There is an abundance of highly technical literature available on the Internet and in printed
works, a great deal of which is aimed at a learned and specialist audience. Many of these
approach the issue of harmonics as a sub-section of “Power Quality”, “Variable Speed
Drives”, or “Non-Linear Loads”. The technical detail contained in these works is generally
quite comprehensive. However, discussion on the subject tends to develop quite quickly, such
that it can soon become difficult to retain a grasp on that discussion, unless the reader is
already highly competent in the area of electrical engineering.
Finding a source that deals with the matter of harmonics in terms that can be readily
comprehended the non-specialist has always been difficult. Indeed, there are well-respected
Building Services reference books such a Chadderton (2000), which do not address the issue
at all. Yet in practice, it is frequently not the electrical engineer, but the Building Service
Engineer who first encounters the negative influence of current harmonics. How then, can the
matter be made accessible to the Building Service Engineer, who must be conversant in so
many aspects of engineering, and whose background is frequently from one of the mechanical
disciplines?
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It is easy to become overwhelmed by the sheer quantity and variety of results when using
typical Internet search engines. The challenge is deciding which of the information can be
trusted, and whether it is properly referenced. It is therefore advisable to refrain from using
sources unless the primary data can be traced and verified. Therefore where I have referenced
Internet sources they have been from reputable international equipment manufacturers, such
as Schneider Electric, trade associations such as the Copper Development Association (CDA),
as well as academic papers published through institutions such as IEEE, or ELSEVIER.
This dissertation aims to discuss the subject of current harmonics in terms that the Building
Service Engineer is likely to be familiar with. Using and highlighting established reference
sources for further referral by the reader support this approach. The salient points are
presented such that the Building Services Engineer can be comfortable in discussing both the
situation and possible options with an electrical specialist, if the scale of the observed problem
requires that the matter needs to be escalated.
Limitations of study
In-depth study of precisely how certain loads and switching types give rise to current
harmonics could easily form the basis of a Doctoral paper in its own right. However it was
felt that a high-level appreciation of how harmonic currents were generated was important,
and that the switching “mode” and not simply the load type was also of significant
importance.
Some references to Direct Current or DC are made in this document for completeness, but DC
systems in general are outside of the scope of this work.
Long-term harmonic monitoring of industrial systems were also outside of the scope of this
project, as was in-depth laboratory scale analysis of load characteristics. Actual case studies
involving the introduction of real active harmonic cancelling systems were outside the budget
of this program, but the data provided as part of the discussion on this topic was provided by
the Vendor of such equipment, was verified in so far as possible and used in good faith.
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Methodology
To measure the effects of harmonics, a number of bench-scale single-phase measurements
were made using a Fluke 434 power quality meter. The intent was to create a reference point
for many typical load types: Resistive, Inductive, and Switch Mode Power Supply (SMPS).
The latter type being typical of many modern electrical loads such as computers, VSDs,
UPSs, and high efficiency lighting. Current harmonics change the shape of the supply current
waveform from the ideal sinusoidal shape to something often quite dramatic. By identifying
the harmonic components, the magnitude and displacement of each in the current profile, it
became possible to develop a simple computer simulation using spreadsheet software, such as
Microsoft Excel.
That model was then used to predict the combined effects of similar loads on poly-phase
systems. Those predictions were then field-verified, leading to some modifications being
made to the model. The model can now be used to help predict the effects that the
combination of certain load types can have on the distribution system. Furthermore, the model
can help predict the effects that reducing the magnitude of certain harmonic components can
have on the system. This is particularly useful for future cost-benefit analysis of installing
harmonic reducing equipment. It may also be beneficial in determining the true available
capacity of supply transformers
Additional field studies were made in an industrial / commercial setting to establish whether
the harmonic currents generated by high efficiency lighting, office computers on a poly-phase
system would self-cancel, or sum.
The improvements that the incorporation of inductive chokes made on the supply to a large
VSD were also investigated. A large UPS distribution system feeding SMPSs, mainly in the
form of computers, Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs) and their associated power
supplies and hardware was also studied.
Attention was focused both in the field and in the computer simulation on those harmonics
that were multiples of 3 – the so-called “triplens”. These are believed to be particularly
harmful in three-phase systems. The “negative sequence” effect of the 5th harmonic was also
investigated, as to whether it did in fact contribute to a counter rotational force in motors.
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Resonance issues, especially in inductive and capacitive circuits, and in particular power
factor correction systems also received attention.
Literature Review
The literature review for this project was directed largely by the aim of covering the
underlying electrical principles, and finding reliable resources on what were felt to be the key
areas that need to be addressed.
Sources related to “Electrical fundamentals”

With regard to this dissertation topic, an appreciation of certain fundamental electrical
principles is necessary. It has been my experience that frequently textbooks used for craft
theory training of electricians are well structured. Therefore, examples such as Whitfield
(2009) permit the reader who has some subject knowledge to find their present level and
progress from there. A number of illustrations in relation to AC theory were adapted from
this. In contrast, sources such as Reed Elsevier (2001) is an extremely useful Building
Services general reference guide, but was limited in its electrical technical detail. Although
Wildi (2000) is strongly US influenced in terms of network voltages and frequencies, and the
photo illustrations frequently look dated, the early chapters deal with electrical fundamental
principles very well.
Sources related to “Causes of harmonics”

The later chapters of Wildi (2000 p799 / 830) cover harmonic generation principles concisely
and will also be drawn upon to illustrate how, depending on switching methods, even resistive
loads can be a source of current harmonics. This is a concept not widely discussed in other
texts, where typically the discussion only refers to non-sinusoidal currents arising from non-
linear loads. In such cases, examples cited were switch mode power supplies, and arc furnaces
etc. A general understanding of the relationship between periodic non-sinusoidal waveforms,
and harmonics is therefore key to an appreciation of the prevalence of current harmonics in
modern loads.
Sources related to “Mathematics”

I chose to use Morris (1994) and Bird (2003a) as key reference sources for the sinusoidal and
harmonic mathematical functions that are essential to a fuller appreciation of this dissertation
topic. A number of equations and illustrations to be used in the discussion of Root Mean
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Squared (RMS), and Total Power for complex voltages and currents were adapted from Bird
(2003b).
Sources related to “Harmonic identification and costs”

For most modern facilities, the presence of current harmonics can be taken for granted.
However the scale and significance of the harmonic condition needs to be explored. I found
the work of Y. Zhao et al (2004) on identification of harmonic current sources by the
existence, or otherwise, of a linear relationship between the voltage and current of a particular
harmonic order to intriguing. However, I feel that changing supply voltages, even in the
manner they describe, is largely outside the scope of the most Building Services engineers. In
practice, the Building Service Engineer will most likely employ a portable power quality
analyser, such as a Fluke 43B, Fluke 434, or similar.
However an understanding of the concept is useful, and Zhao et al (2004) agrees well with
Wildi (2000) in terms of linear loads as potential harmonic sources, but unlike Wildi does not
discuss the principles underlying their creation. The case study by Fluke (2003) provides a
simple harmonics-related example that works progressively through the
observe/measure/analyse/solve process. Additionally, the excellent analysis in Bird (2003b
p631/687) will be used for guidance for predicting the harmonic content of a waveform by
inspection of particular waveform characteristics.
The summary work of Singh G.K. (2007) was particularly useful in bringing together a
well-referenced discussion on not only harmonics, but also more general power quality issues.
Singh G.K. also introduces the IEC 61000 family of standards, and its relevance to Electro
Magnetic Compatibility (EMC), and highlights important differences between US IEEE-519
and IEC-61000.
The work of Key and Lai (undated) provides a useful basis for discussion on the cost of a
harmonic problem in terms of I2R, and on the over-sizing of distribution system components.
Sources related to “Transformers and Resonance”

The effect of harmonics on transformers forms an important aspect of this work. I had been
referred by a colleague to a transformer book by Heathcote (1998), and found it be a most
useful reference book. The discussion in section “Operation and Maintenance” (p638) was
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particularly useful in relation to highlighting the considerations of 3rd Harmonics in Star and
Delta connected transformers.
A complimentary paper published by Pacific Gas and Electric Company (1993) clearly
illustrated the concept the negative sequence of the 5th harmonic, and this will be developed
using the work of Heathcote (1998), and Bird (2003b).
Bird (2003b) and Laughton and Warne (2003) introduce the important concept of resonance
in relation to power factor capacitors, a major consideration when dealing with inductive and
capacitive elements in a setting where harmonic frequencies are uncertain.
The discussion on the de-rating of transformers and K-Factor will draw on the published work
by the Copper Development Association (2000). Likewise, a complimentary brochure from
Powerlite (2004) explains the basics of harmonic problems and provides guidance in much
simplified terms.
Sources related to “Living with harmonics”

The paper by Tsujimoto et al (2008) in the use of 3rd harmonic currents in the diagnosis of
XLPE cable was particularly interesting, as it discussed a useful aspect to unwanted current
harmonics. Since their work was not related to Low Voltage cable and transmission, I
considered it to be valuable, but outside of the scope of this document. However the work of
Guldemir (2003) and Wakileh (2003) as they relate to harmonics in Low Voltage
squirrel-cage motors is both useful and relevant. These will be drawn upon in the discussion
on harmonic sources, the diagnostic applications of harmonic currents, and considerations to
bear in mind when making equipment selection.
The works of Radakovic et al (2005) and El-Saadany et al (1997) will be used in relation to
the harmonic generation effects of modern fluorescent lighting, with particular reference to
emergent legislation relating to the phased withdrawal of traditional low efficiency filament
lighting. This will also tie in with my own work in relation to bench-scale lighting study, and
subsequent mathematical simulations. Like Singh G.K., this work also discusses the European
family of standards IEC 61000 in relation to voltage harmonic limits. With that family of
standards, the technical report by the International Electrotechnical Commission [IEC] (2005)
provides a useful history and rationale behind imposing limits on the levels of Total Harmonic
Distortion (THD).
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Sources related to “Harmonic countermeasures and considerations”
The analysis and predictions of Goughler and Johnson (1999) and Singh B et al (1999) in
their interpretation of the future development and application of active harmonic filters is
largely verified by more recent work by Chaoui et al (2010), and current ready-at-market
Active Harmonic Filter (AHF) products such as AccuSine® from Schneider Electric (2009).
Table 1 of Singh B (1999) provides a useful reference guide regarding the suitability of
different types of power quality countermeasures according to the nature of the problem.
The Copper Development Association was identified as a significant online resource. The
website for this non-trading organisation was well laid out, and contained many useful
reference documents on power quality related issues, not simply harmonics. From their
website a number of concise and well-structured papers are available, including a paper by
Fassbinder (2003) on passive harmonic filtering.
Measurement Equipment:
The power quality analysis tool used was a FLUKE 434. Up to 4# clamp-type current
transformers (C/Ts) model no. i400S were used as part of the sampling studies.
Since a good deal of the analysis and discussion in this paper is based upon findings made
using this instrument, it is important that those findings can be relied upon. A copy of the
executive summary of the calibration certificate of the instrument is included in Appendix 2,
which clearly shows that the equipment was in within specification during the analysis.
Choosing a good quality RMS meter

In most industrial electrical distribution systems, the voltage format is AC, or alternating
current. Some Direct Current (DC) distribution systems may exist, such as centralised
emergency lighting systems, but this falls outside of the scope of this document. In terms of
AC systems, this means that the instantaneous voltage value is constantly changing in a
sinusoidal format similar to those illustrated in Figure 1 - The need to read True RMS below. It
is worth remembering that since the values of voltage and current are constantly changing,
most good quality voltage and current meters display their values as calculated Root Mean
Squared or simply “R.M.S” value.
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In the case of a set of n values {x1, x2 ….., xn}, the RMS value is given by:
Equation 1- RMS Value
For pure sinusoidal waveforms a much simpler “RMS Equivalent” can be applied:
y = a sin (2pi f t)
Where a = peak value, f = frequency, and t = time.
Or even more simply as:

y = a / (√2)
However, voltage and current that are distorted by harmonics are no longer sinusoidal.
Therefore values recorded on a test meter that represent values simply by means of the two
simple sinusoidal equivalents may be out by a significant amount compared with true
calculated RMS values. This unrecognised disparity often lies at the root of many adverse
harmonic conditions being overlooked.
150 Distorted Waveform True Sinusoid
100
50
-50
-100
-150
Figure 1 - The need to read True RMS
DC Harmonic Harmonic Harmonic Harmonic

Peak 100.2127 1 3 5 7
RMS "Equivalent" 70.86108 current 0.00 current 75.00 current 16.00 current 15.00 current 8.00
RMS Actual 55.40 offset 0 offset 30 offset -120 offset -120 offset 50
Table 1 - Harmonics associated with waveform above
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The RMS equivalent of the Sinusoid is 70.86, where the calculated RMS of the Distorted
waveform is 55.40. It follows then, that any indicated value that is derived from the simplified
equation using only the peak value will be incorrect. In this above example, the reported value
for the distorted waveform will be higher that the True RMS equivalent, but for other
waveforms, the reverse may be equally true. See Figure 15 - Harmonics in Phase. Without
knowing the waveform shape, an observer who is not using a True RMS meter can have no
insight into the likely error in the reported value. (See Appendix 1 for sample calculations)
Equipment Setup:
For single-phase loads the basic set up was as per Figure 2 - Equipment set up below, with a
small external modification for most bench-scale analysis. In order to capture the relatively
small currents being drawn by bench-scale loads, a multiplication factor of 10:1 was
introduced into the detection circuit of all single-phase bench-scale studies, by passing the
load cable through the measurement C/Ts ten times. This multiplier was not used in the
analysis of the domestic dwelling, and further reference to this will be made at the appropriate
point in this paper. For 3-phase observations the instrument set up was as illustrated without
any multiplication or correction factors.
Figure 2 - Equipment set up
To eliminate supply voltage harmonics as a contributing factor, an off-load Voltage harmonic

spectrum was taken. See Figure 3 - 1phase background harmonics below. While it was not a
perfect sinusoid, the Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) was 2.5 % and well within the utility
supply tolerance set out in EN50160. EN50160 set limits for the levels of low-frequency
harmonic disturbance, or distortion, based on the level of distortion that the supply networks
can tolerate. BS EN 50160 : 2007 permits a maximum Total Harmonic Distortion of 8% in
the supply voltage.
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Figure 3 - 1phase background harmonics
The table below, taken from BS EN 50106 : 2007 provides information on the limits set for
individual harmonics. It can be quickly seen that Even numbered harmonics and those that are
multiples of 3 have much tighter limits imposed than the remaining Odd numbered
harmonics. Even numbered harmonics indicate the presence of an unwelcome DC component.
Under normal operating conditions, during each period of one week, 95 % of the 10-minute
mean RMS values of each individual harmonic voltage shall be less than or equal to the value
given in Table 2 - Harmonic voltage limits as per EN-61000-3-6
Table 2 - Harmonic voltage limits as per EN-61000-3-6
In general, it is the Voltage distortion that is of greatest concern to the Supply network, since
this disturbance can be experienced along the supply network. In this way, voltage distortion
caused by excessive harmonic currents in one facility can be experienced at the point of
supply to another. A weak supply network can exacerbate the voltage distortion created in the
- 18 -
supply network arising from current harmonics - as may be experienced in remote or rural
facilities, or where a facility may be supplied by a local generator.
Supplying a distorted voltage to any load is almost certain to result in current harmonics –
even if that load is not of itself a harmonic current generator. Thus the network condition can
rapidly deteriorate.
Individual harmonic currents are generally expressed either as a percentage of the

fundamental current or as an absolute current value.
- 19 -
Chapter 2: Current Harmonics
What are harmonics?
Harmonics of any kind are integer number multiples of a base, or fundamental frequency. For
example; in the audio world, musical notes that we accept to be an octave apart, and hear as
being “harmonious” when played together, the higher note has a frequency that is twice that
of the lower note – the higher note is therefore a second harmonic of the first.
To understand harmonics, of any kind, it is essential to understand some basic properties of

certain waveforms called Periodic waveforms. Periodic waveforms are those with a regular
repeating rate, normally measured in cycles per second, or Hertz (Hz).
1
freq = T Hz
Equation 2 - Time frequency relationship
The time, or period of a wave is given by Morris (1994) as: “time taken between any point on
a wave to the next identical point on the wave” It follows that as frequency increases then
wavelength decreases. For the purposes of this document it is the frequency aspect that is of
greatest interest.
Wavelength
0
1 unit of time
-1
Figure 4 - Waveform “A”
In Figure 5 - Waveform “B” it can be seen that there are now two wave cycles in the same time
period where previously there had been only one. As the frequency has increased by an
integer number, so B is a harmonic of A
- 20 -
1
Wavelength
0
1 unit of time
-1
Figure 5 - Waveform “B”
1 unit of time
-1
Figure 6 - Waveforms “A” and “B” together
It follows then that where a waveform is of a frequency that is an integer multiple n of a
fundamental frequency ff then that frequency can be described as an nth harmonic of ff
Basic electrical principles
Power
Based on Whitfield (2009). At its simplest, power may be calculated as Instantaneous Voltage
multiplied by Instantaneous Current:
Poweri = Voltagei x Currenti
- 21 -
Power Voltage Active Current
1.5
0.5
-0.5
-1
-1.5
Figure 7 - Voltage and Current in Phase
Active Power
When a load current is perfectly in phase with the supply voltage then, even when their values
are negative, their product is a positive value. Consequently the values of instantaneous power
can be seen as series of positive peaks at a rate of twice the fundamental frequency in the
direction supply to the load. Such an instance is called “Active Power”, is measured in Watts,
and is designated as the letter P. Note that the voltage and current are shown completely in
phase. This is typical of a purely resistive circuit.
Reactive Power
Consider a situation where the voltage and current are out of phase by 90deg, as would be
case where the load was purely inductive or capacitive.
Power Voltage
Reactive Current Active Current
1.5
0.5
-0.5
-1
Current leads voltage by 90deg
-1.5
Figure 8 - Voltage and Current out of phase
- 22 -
In this case the current pulses are both negative and positive and no nett work is done. Where
current surges back and forth from source to load like this, it is called “Reactive Power”, is
measured in VARs, and is designated as “Q”.
In a purely capacitive circuit as illustrated above, the current “leads” the voltage by 90deg,
and in an inductive circuit the current would “lag” the voltage. Both illustrations above
suggest a perfect resistive or capacitive circuit. Most practical circuits will contain some
inductive and / or capacitive elements. Nonetheless, the resultant current waveform for simple
circuits is generally linear.
Since the current waveform is a true sinusoid, as in either case illustrated above, then there are
no harmonic influences. It can accepted therefore that if either the Voltage or Current are
distorted by harmonics away from being a true sinusoid, then the resultant power will also be
distorted.
It was noted earlier that the instantaneous product of in-phase voltage and current was power
in Watts. Fassbinder S. (2003) notes that a condition arises in harmonic rich environments
where there are harmonic currents, for which there is no significant harmonic voltage.
Therefore the nett product of harmonic Voltage and Current is effectively zero. Such currents,
which produce no power, are called “Wattless Current”
Linear loads
In many instances, linear loads are often presumed to be simply resistive in nature. As shown
in Figure 7 - Voltage and Current in Phase above, resistive loads draw current that is both
sinusoidal and in phase with the sinusoidal supply voltage.
More correctly however, a load is said to be linear when the current remains sinusoidal,
regardless of phase displacement. It can be reasonably deduced therefore that if a load
produces a non-sinusoidal current, regardless of phase displacement, then harmonic currents
are present.
Power Factor and Cos Phi

Consider this simple load below comprised of 30% “active” current, and 70% “reactive”
current (lags voltage by 90o), as might represent a simplified motor or transformer circuit.
- 23 -
Power Voltage
Reactive Current Active Current
1.5
0.5
-0.5
-1
-1.5
Figure 9 - Composite load
Some other quantity must exist to be able to describe the relation ship between power, voltage
and current in this common scenario. As can be seen the power flow is still represented by
positive and negative pulses. However the pulses are not equal, so some nett work is being
done. The effective power is now calculated by Voltage x Current x Cosine of “the
displacement angle between Voltage and Current”. The greater the angular displacement
between current and voltage, then the lower will be the value of nett effective power.
This quantity is frequently referred to as “Power Factor” or “Cos Phi”, where Phi represents
the displacement angle, where the Cosine can take a value of between zero and one, and said
to be either “current leading” or “current lagging”. The situation gets a little more complicated
when the load is not linear, and so the current waveform is not sinusoidal. So while “Cos Phi”
is an acceptable term, “Power Factor” needs some further qualification, especially when the
waveforms are non-sinusoidal. The term Displacement Power Factor (DF) may sometimes be
used instead of Cos Phi, but is this is only true for sinusoidal waveforms
As the true Power Factor is the total real power (kW), divided by total apparent power (kVA).
It follows then that if harmonic components are not contributing to the real power, then they
must be contributing to the apparent power, and so are influencing power factor. So it may be
that a load, whose non-linear current may largely be in phase with the voltage, may have a
poor power factor. An example of this can be seen in Figure 10 - Comparison between Cos Phi
and Displacement Factor below
- 24 -
Figure 10 - Comparison between Cos Phi and Displacement Factor
It is for such reasons that most power quality analysers will present values for “Real” and
“Apparent” power, and “Power Factor” as well as “Cos Phi”.
Harmonics currents
Figure 11 - Harmonic concept
When Harmonic components are present, the current waveform is no longer sinusoidal,
although it is may still be periodic. Harmonic currents are currents drawn by the load that are
a multiple of the base or fundamental frequency. It may be useful to imagine the total load as
being broken down into a number of discrete sub-loads, with each sub-load being supplied by
with its own AC voltage, where each of these imaginary AC voltages is of a frequency that is
an integer multiple of the fundamental. As presented by R.A. Alammari (2004), the total
current drawn the system as a whole is the sum of the currents drawn by these notional sub
loads (see Figure 11 - Harmonic concept).
In conclusion: where the supply voltage is not distorted, then any load that is periodic, but has
not a sinusoidal current waveform must be non-linear, and so must have some harmonic
component.
- 25 -
Non-Linear Loads
Non-Linear loads are those loads that draw a current that is not sinusoidal, whether or not that
current is in phase with the supply voltage. Loads such as battery chargers, variable speed
drives and other switch-mode power supplies are typically cited as being “non-linear” Figure
23 - Compact Fluorescent Lighting for example.
Their non-linearity typically results in the burst firing of electronic components such as
rectifiers and thyristors. In these instances the component presents to the supply voltage as a
high impendence, restricting or preventing current flow. At a point specified by the
controlling mechanism, these components “switch on” presenting low impedance to current
flow. In this way current flow is in “chunks”, with the appearance and disappearance of each
chunk coinciding at a particular point in the supply voltage cycle.
Fundamental voltage and fundamental current produce fundamental useable power. The
product of harmonic currents and their corresponding harmonic voltages produce “harmonic
power”, which does little or no useful work, but rather is generally experienced as heat in
network components.
As such, the cycle of current draw is periodic, but it is not sinusoidal, therefore it is not linear.
Where are current harmonics generated?

It is convenient to imagine that at the moment of firing of a thyristor, for example, in a power
electronic circuit, that the current immediately flows, and the leading edge of the current
waveform is straight – i.e. an instant transition from “Off”, to the value associated with the
voltage being applied at the moment of “On”. In effect that is not possible. While the leading
edge of that current rise might indeed be steep, it must, according to Fourier, be a slope
defined by a high frequency component – perhaps a very high frequency component.
Fourier has shown that a square periodic wave is a product of many harmonic components,
and the straighter the appearance of the rising and falling edges the higher the frequency of
the components involved.
- 26 -
"Square Wave" Fundemental
1.5
0.5
-0.5
-1
-1.5
Figure 12 - "Square Waveform"
The square wave approximation in Figure 12 - "Square Waveform" above can achieved
through relatively small harmonic numbers and magnitudes: up to harmonic #9 in this
instance, where the amplitude of each harmonic relative to the fundamental is 1/n, where n
represents the harmonic number. It can be extrapolated that for a square wave, the harmonic
numbers may be practically infinite, but as the relative amplitude of successively higher
harmonics becomes less, so too does their significance.
If all the energy in a waveform is contained at the fundamental frequency, then that waveform
is a perfect sine wave. Conversely, if the waveform is not a perfect sine wave, then some
energy is contained in the harmonics. Once this has been accepted, then it becomes clearer
that it is possible to generate harmonics even in linear loads.
Consider the following simple circuit (from Wildi (2000)):

The supply voltage is 1000v 50Hz AC, a resistive load of 10 Ohms, and a synchronous switch
that opens and closes in synchronism with the supply voltage. Presume that the switch closes
for the last half of each half-cycle.
If the switch in Figure 13 - Current flow were closed all the time then the current would be
1000V/10Ohm = 100A, so the power would be P = I2 R = 1002 x 10 = 100kW. When the
switch is only closed half of the time, the circuit power must be only 50kW. This means that
the effective equivalent current must be 70.7A, since:
(70.7 Amps) 2 x 10 ohm = 50kW.
- 27 -
The Chopped fundamental current has an equivalent current of 59.3A, lagging by 32.5deg, or
Cos = 0.843 as shown in Figure 14 - Chopped Sinusoid generated harmonics below. Presume
that the switch does not absorb any active power i.e. it does not get hot. The apparent
fundamental power is 1000v x 59.3 A = 59.3kVA, the active fundamental power is 59.3 kVA
x 0.843 = 50 kW, while the reactive power is:
(59.3) 2 – (50) 2 = 31.9 kVAR

Equation 3- Reactive power for chopped sinusoid
Figure 13 - Current flow
The resistor absorbs P = I2 R = 59.32 x 10Ohm = 35.2kW, therefore the switch must be
absorbing 50kW - 32.2kW = 14.8kW. The source delivers 31.9kVAR and the resistor absorbs
none of that, so the switch must also absorb this too. But since the switch does not get hot, the
14.8kw is immediately converted to harmonic power to be absorbed by the resistor. (WILDI
p806)
- 28 -
Figure 14 - Chopped Sinusoid generated harmonics
What this clearly shows is that harmonic currents are not simply generated by the load, but
also by the switching mechanism. A significant clue to existence of harmonic currants in this
instance is the periodic but non-sinusoidal waveform.
Simplified operation of UPS or VSD (from Brown et al (2005))

To appreciate the basic manner in which a polyphase Variable Speed Drive (VSD) operates,
consider the following simple 4-Switch square wave inverter as one output “phase”. A
common DC source bus is shown here as “VD”, and switches S1 to S4 operate in pairs to
connect the motor winding to the source, shown here as the “Load”.
LOAD
1. S1 = on, S4 = on.... giving + VD at the load

2. S2 = on, S3 = on.... giving – VD at the load
3. S1 = on, S2 = on.... giving zero volts at the load
4. S3 = on, S4 = on.... giving zero volts at the load
5. S1 = on, S3 = on.... giving a short-circuit fault
6. S2 = on, S4 = on.... giving a short-circuit fault.
- 29 -
If the load is inductive, when switches S1 and S4 are ON in the first part of the cycle the
current will be initially negative, as the current lags the voltage. Most power electronic
devices cannot conduct in a negative direction, so to avoid damaging the switches this
negative current is generally diverted around them using diodes D1 to D4. This results in the
supply current being drawn from the supply in series off-on-off-on bursts, and so present to
the supply as a non-linear load. See also Figure 23 - Compact Fluorescent Lighting for an
approximation.
Equally, the figure above can also be used to represent a simplified UPS where the DC source
may be a rectifier output or a battery string, In either case the current drawn by the load will
be a broadly triangular or square waveform depending on the resistance or reactance of the
load.
The operation of the switches may be very fast, in the kHz range, and an effective RMS
output voltage may be created by altering the duration of the “On” and “Off” times. This
method of pulse variability is known as Pulse Width Modulation (PWM).
As noted earlier, Fourier analysis indicates that any repetitive waveform can be represented as
a summing of a number of sinusoidal waveforms, with one sinusoid at a fundamental
frequency and a number of sinusoidal harmonics at higher frequencies, which are multiples of
the Fundamental frequency. (see Figure 29 - Component harmonic currents and resultant
Consequently the load supplied via this type of arrangement is naturally prone to the effects of
harmonic currents generated by the inverter.
- 30 -
Chapter 3: Case Study
Analysis Equipment Used:
The power quality analysis tool used was a FLUKE 434 Serial no DM9050162 with a sample
rate of 20.48 kHz. Up to 4# clamp-type current transformers (C/Ts) Model No. i400S were
used as part of the sampling studies. The executive summary of the calibration certificate for
this equipment is copied in Appendix 2.
90100001 90100008
90100015 90100017
Table 3 - Current transformer serial numbers
Load Types Analysed

Bench Tests
Simple Resistive Load: 2kW Electric Kettle

Purpose: to base line simple inductive load signature and provide bench-test data for
Computer Harmonic model.
Simple isolation transformer (Legrand: #0428 44 / Radionics: #383-302)

Purpose: to base line simple inductive load signature and provide bench-test data for
High Frequency Fluorescent Lighting (Compton Moduspec MS6418ZT-4K)

Purpose: to base line a modern fluorescent lighting fixture signature, and provide bench-test
data for Computer Harmonic model.
Compact Fluorescent Light / CFL (Osram Duluxstar 11w)

Purpose: to base line a modern Compact Fluorescent Lighting fixture, and provide bench-test
data for Computer Harmonic model.
Electronic Switch mode Power supplied (TV and Entertainment Centre):

Purpose: to observe interaction of multiple electronic loads, and provide bench-test data for
TV and Entertainment Centre and Transformer in parallel

Purpose: to observe the harmonic summing effect, if any, of two loads of known harmonic
signatures into a single composite load. To provide bench-test data for Computer Harmonic
model.
- 31 -
Field Tests
1-Phase domestic situation at evening and mealtime:
Purpose: to observe the swamping effect, if any, of a large linear load introduced into a
known harmonic rich environment.
3-phase 160kW ABB Variable Speed Drive operating at approx 80% speed, without and
without input filter:
Purpose: to determine whether, and to what degree the filter is effective.
3-phase unbalanced harmonic rich electronic equipment fed via UPS source:
Purpose: to observe the effect on the Neutral of an unbalanced 3-phase system in a harmonic
rich environment.
Observations
After conducting bench-scale tests on small individual items of equipment, it became clear
that not only was the magnitude of the harmonic currents important, but so too was their
angular offset. In the two examples below, the harmonic numbers and their magnitude are the
same, however by altering the harmonic phase angle, a completely different waveform can be
constructed. Figure 16 - Harmonics offset by independent values is derived from analysis of
an isolation transformer. It is again clear that the “True RMS” value and a simple
“Equivalent” can be very different.
Figure 15 - Harmonics in Phase

DC Harmonic Harmonic Harmonic Harmonic Harmonic Harmonic
Peak 0.845962 1 2 3 5 7 9
RMS "Equivalent" 0.598186 current 0.00 current 0.929 current 0.03 current 0.340 current 0.103 current 0.041 current 0.019
RMS Actual 0.70 offset 0 offset offset offset offset offset offset
Distorted w aveform Supply voltage
1.5
0.5
-0.5
-1
-1.5
- 32 -
Peak 1.455156 1 2 3 5 7 9
RMS Actual 0.71 offset 0 offset -82 offset 98 offset -81 offset -79 offset -70 offset -82
Distorted w aveform Supply voltage
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-2
Figure 16 - Harmonics offset by independent values
This finding was especially significant. It was long been believed that harmonic currents that
are 3x multiple of the fundamental were particularly troublesome, as in 3ph systems these 3rd
harmonic components did not cancel out. Instead these so-called “triplens” would sum, such
that the neutral current could be in excess of the individual phase currents.
This is of particular importance in older installations where it was commonplace to install a

half-size neutral. In more recent times, 1980-1990s, the recommendation was to install a full
size neutral. More recently still, many consulting practices are recommending up to a double
size neutral for certain applications - especially those involving UPS and computer equipment
where it can be presumed, or demonstrated, that the end user equipment will not be provided
with harmonic filtering. However, it can be shown that in mixed loads, it is possible that
while there are triplen harmonic currents being generated, they need not necessarily be in
phase with each other. Even so, neutral currents of at least 1x load at 3x fundamental
frequency can be expected. This puts a significant stress on the cable and other switchgear.
Figure 17 - Significant neutral current in a balanced 3p system predicts a significant neutral

current when 3 single-phase loads similar to the transformer in Figure 20 - Inductive load
(Transformer) are connected to a 3-phase system with 4-wire Star connection. The notional
phase currents in Figure 18 - Neutral Imax greater than Imax phase are roughly equal in
magnitude and are largely sinusoidal. It is their relative displacement, driven by harmonic
elements, that contributes most significantly to the overall resultant neutral current. In both
cases below the True RMS values for phase Imax and neutral are approx 70A.
- 33 -
150 Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 Neutral
100
50
-50
-100
-150
Figure 17 - Significant neutral current in a balanced 3p system
200 Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 Neutral
150
100
50
-50
-100
-150
-200
Figure 18 - Neutral Imax greater than Imax phase
Voltage and current waveforms, harmonic spectra and a summary table for each bench scale
test are reproduced below.
1phase systems
Figure 19 - Resistive Load
It can be seen that the current and voltage waveforms are in phase, and the harmonic spectrum
of the off-line voltage Figure 3 - 1phase background harmonics introduced above, and the
current of this resistive device below are indistinguishable. Note also that the K-Factor for this
purely resistive load is 1.0
- 34 -
Figure 20 - Inductive load (Transformer)
Figure 20 - Inductive load (Transformer) shows the distorted current signature, as well as the
current lagging the voltage. The current waveform is rich in low order harmonics such as 3rd
and 5th and 7th. The K-Factor for this distorted waveform is now seen to be 2.4. Harmonic
orders above the 7th, which is 1.9%, were negligible, however a small DC component,
measured at 3.7 %, is now appearing in the harmonic spectrum.
Figure 21 - Entertainment Centre
A typical home entertainment centre – LCD TV, DVD player, as well as an assortment of
small Switch Mode Power Supplies (SMPS) supplying devices such as cable modem, router,
media player, cable TV set-top box etc, were sampled as a group as an approximation of
many modern home set-ups, as well as many office work stations. See Figure 21 -
Entertainment Centre
It is assumed that while the device types may be different, that the load characteristics are
broadly similar. It is clear that the current waveform is becoming more distorted, and this fact
- 35 -
is born out by the increasing value for K-Factor, which is now at 4.9. Again, as small DC
component, measured at 2.1 % is observed.
Figure 22 - High frequency lighting
The Compton Moduspec MS6418ZT-4K was fitted with Tridonic ATCO digital Ballast, and
4x 18W 4000deg K lamps. The observed results in this instance were somewhat surprising,
since high frequency lighting has been long associated with being a significant harmonic
contributor. What is apparent is that while the current waveform shape appears significantly
sinusoidal, the total harmonic distortion is approaching 10%. Significantly the K-Factor is 1.9,
which indicates that there is a relationship between THD and K-Factor. The DC component is
measured in this instance at 4.6%.
Bird (2003b) explains that DC components may sometimes be identified in a waveform by a

lack of symmetry about the horizontal axis of a cycle. In such cases the positive and negative
half-cycles are not equal in area.
Figure 23 - Compact Fluorescent Lighting
- 36 -
The overall characteristic in Figure 23 - Compact Fluorescent Lighting is clearly non-linear,
even though it is clearly periodic. The Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) value is now
approaching 80%, while the K Factor is over 65. The current waveform shows periods where
no current is being drawn, followed by sharp “bursts” of current, with a tapering decay. The
sharp rise is indicative of higher order harmonics.
Figure 24 - Composite load of Transformer and Entertainment Centre
Here in Figure 24 - Composite load of Transformer and Entertainment Centre the isolation
transformer and entertainment centre from above were connected in parallel. The THD value
for the combined load is 29.8, and the K-Factor is 4. The waveform shows certain
characteristics of both load types, and this will be used later in “Mathematical Modelling”.
The entertainment centre was later supplied via the isolation transformer. It will be found that
at a basic level, isolation transformers make rudimentary harmonics filters. This too will be
further discussed in the section “Mathematical Modelling”. However, from Heathcote (1998),
the degree by which the windings of the transformer present as a filter to certain frequencies
is a function of the winding spacing, core construction, winding air-gaps etc, and this aspect
will be discussed later in section “Living with Harmonics”
A TYPICAL DOMESTIC HOME WAS SURVEYED IN TWO BASIC STATES:

1) Typical at “evening time” state. A number of CFL lamps were lit, as were a small
number of traditional filament lamps, which amounted to no more than 100w, a TV
and entertainment centre, and a home office PC were also on. Always-on appliances
such as fridge and freezer were also connected.
2) As 1) above but some major kitchen appliances, such as electric stove, oven and kettle
were turned on to simulate evening meal preparation.
- 37 -
It must be noted that in this domestic dwelling analysis, the power quality analyser
was set up according to the manufacturers recommendations without any
multiplication factors.
Resultant Supply
10 1
8 0.8
6 0.6
4 0.4
2 0.2
0 0
-2 -0.2
-4 -0.4
-6 -0.6
-8 -0.8
-10 -1
Figure 25 - Domestic dwelling at rest during evening time
It was clear that in the lightly loaded “evening” scenario that the electronic loads dominated
the waveform. These can be modelled to simulate how a number of similar single-phase
dwellings connected to an upstream three-phase supply might behave with respect to the
system neutral. See Figure 27 - Simulated “balanced” apartment block below.
When the more powerful and essentially resistive kitchen loads were added, the effect of these
was to swamp the effects of the electronic loads. The overall effect was the load appeared
now to be wholly resistive is indicated in Figure 26 - Domestic dwelling at evening mealtime
above.
A summary of the single-phase loads is included in the following pages. When viewing tables
of harmonic numbers, magnitudes and angular offsets, it is possible with some practice to be
able to predict with some degree of confidence the likely “current leading or lagging” of the
resultant wave form. A rough estimate of the current waveform can also be made.
- 38 -
Resultant Supply
40 1
30 0.8
0.6
20
0.4
10 0.2
0 0
-10 -0.2
-0.4
-20
-0.6
-30 -0.8
-40 -1
Figure 26 - Domestic dwelling at evening mealtime
Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 Neutral
200
150
100
50
-50
-100
-150
-200
Figure 27 - Simulated “balanced” apartment block
- 39 -
Table 4 - Harmonic Summary Table
Load type Comment Significant Harmonic Total K-
Harmonic Angular Harmonic Factor
Offset Distortion
Number % (Degrees) (THD)
1 Resistive Current 1st 100 0 2.5% 1
waveform is
sinusoidal, and
in phase with
voltage
2 Inductive Current wave 1st 92.9 -82 36.6% 2.4
form is no 2nd 2.8 98
longer 3rd 34. -81
sinusoidal, 5th 10.3 -79
distinctive 7th 4.1 -70
pointed crests. 9th 1.9 -82
Current lags the DC 3.7 -
voltage
3 Composite Current 1st 95.0 0 31.0% 4.9
Electronic waveform is 3rd 17.3 -160
Loads clearly 5th 21.4 -4
distorted. 7th 11.1 -176
Underlying 9th 6.8 1
sinusoid with DC 2.1 -
distinct peaks
occurring
within each
half-cycle.
Current is
broadly in
phase with
voltage
4 Hi Current appears 1st 99.3 14 9.9% 1.9
Frequency largely 3rd 7.0 -130
Fluorescent sinusoidal, with 5th 4.7 -127
Lighting a sawtooth 7th 2.1 -161
superimposed 9th 2.7 -129
on it. Current
lead the voltage
- 40 -
Harmonic summary table (Contd)

Number % Offset Distortion
(Degrees) (THD)
5 Compact Current is very 1st 61.5 30 78.3% 65.8
fluorescent distorted. No 2nd 3.8 -43
lighting longer 3rd 46.5 -99
resembles a 5th 32.2 150
sine wave. 7th 26.9 50
Distinct 9th 25.2 -59
periods of “on 11th 19.2 189
“ and “off” are 13th 13.5 90
visible within .. .. ..
each half- .. .. ..
cycle. .. .. ..
Odd number 49th 2.2 134
harmonics
present up to
limit of
instrument
6 Combination Current 1st 95.5 -15 29.8% 4.0
of loads #2 waveform 3rd 18.6 -136
and #3 in retains certain 5th 20.0 -9
parallel elements of 7th 9.1 -178
both 9th 5.6 -8
components. 23rd 2.6 -125
Waveform is
non-
symmetrical
around current
peak
7 Combination Current 1st 98.1 -17 19.1% 2.2
of loads #2 waveform 3rd 8.8 -186
and #3 in differs 5th 14.7 -74
series significantly 7th 6.1 18
from load #6, 9th 3.8 112
and is more 11th 3.5 -159
sinusoidal.
Waveform
remains non-
symmetrical
around current
peak. Current
peaks are less
pronounced
- 41 -
Harmonic summary table (Contd)

Number % Offset Distortion
(Degrees) (THD)
8 Domestic Current 1st 97.4 -1 22.6% 3.1
“Evening waveform is 3rd 17.9 -170
Time” largely 5th 9.1 -33
triangular, with 7th 5.5 141
small crest peaks 9th 6.5 -12
11th 4.1 -175
15th 2.6 32
9 Domestic Current 1st 100 0 2.7% 1

“Meal Time” waveform 3rd 2 -179
indistinguishable
from purely
resistive load
(Load #1)
3-phase systems
The effect of harmonic currents on the neutral is of particular interest. In this section an
unbalanced three-phase distribution board is surveyed. The voltage source for this load is a
lightly-loaded dual conversion UPS. Because of this, the source voltage is not polluted by
outside influences; therefore any current distortion is caused by the load rather than from an
already polluted power supply, and provides a control element to the study.
Figure 28 - UPS Distribution board
- 42 -
It is evident in this situation is that the board is substantially unbalanced in terms of
Amps/Phase, but also that there is clearly a different load profile connected to all three phases,
with the profile of L3 is particularly different. The K-Factor ranges from 3.6 to 4.7
What is also evident is that the neutral current exceeds the current of the most heavily loaded
phase. This may cause unwanted trips on what is clearly a mission-critical distribution board,
given that a UPS supplies it. The neutral current also makes approx 6# zero crossings per
cycle. However, where the supply voltage is distorted by harmonic currents, such that there
are additional zero-crossings, this can create problems for certain electronic loads which use
the zero-crossing of the supply frequency as part of their timekeeping functions.
A 160kW variable speed drive (VSD), which was fitted with an inline filter, was also
analysed. Readings were taken both upstream and downstream of the filter, but in both cases
upstream of the VSD. This was to illustrate the harmonic reduction qualities of the filter.
Since structurally the filter and isolation transformer are similar, it also provided a useful
comparison to the standard isolation transformer as harmonic filter.
Supply / Clean Side Motor / Dirty Side

H1 H3 H5 H7 H1 H3 H5 H7
193.9 amps 7.8 amps 47.5 amps 19.6 amps 182.3 9.7 51 19.4
-19° 49° 88° 143° -17 46 91 148
191.3 amps 7.1 amps 49.2 amps 20 amps 181.2 8.2 52.4 19.8
-136° -117° -151° 22° -132 -122 -149 27
203.5 amps 2.5 amps 48 amps 19 amps 194.5 3.3 51.4 19.4
-258° -192° -30° -98° -254 -182 -27 -94
Table 5 - VSD Harmonics: supply side of filter - and motor side of filter
In this particular instance, there was little appreciable benefit being offered by the filter. The
fundamental current is higher on the Supply side, as might be expected, with modest
improvements in the 3rd and 5th harmonic
What is also apparent is there is a significant 5th harmonic current on both sides of the filter
of approx 20-25% of fundamental. This will be shown later to be acting in opposition to the
normal rotation of the motor, reducing overall efficiency, and generating heat in the motor.
- 43 -
As the load is a variable speed device, and precautions were taken to monitor the loads during
times of similar demand, some degree of caution must be observed when drawing
conclusions. Nonetheless, a greater degree of improvement was expected beyond what which
was actually observed. Only simultaneous upstream and downstream analysis should be used
in deciding whether there is any thing fundamentally wrong with this installation. Such
simultaneous 3ph analysis is outside of the scope of this paper.
- 44 -
Chapter 4: Mathematical Modelling
By using the harmonic table of harmonic number, harmonic current and harmonic angular
displacement, a number of loads have been modelled for comparison against those measured
Using the typical formula for each harmonic number

=(SIN((RADIANS((A*B)+C))))*D
where
“A” is an incremental phase angle with repeating range 0 to 360
“B” is a fixed value representing the particular harmonic number
“C” is a fixed value representing the angular offset in degrees
“D” is a fixed value representing the harmonic current.
The resultant values for each angular degree value, for each of the harmonic values, may be
plotted individually, or summed and plotted as a resultant waveform.
In the case of harmonic currents associated with the Entertainment Centre these are plotted
below in Figure 29 - Component harmonic currents and resultant individually, and as a
resultant waveform. This example clearly indicates the relative phase displacement of each
harmonic current, and their magnitudes relative to each other. By summing the instantaneous
values of each current, and by plotting the result, a new waveform can be plotted. Further, it
shows strong agreement with the observed current waveform associated with the
entertainment centre referred to in Figure 21 - Entertainment Centre.
20
Ent Ctr H1 Ent Ctr H3 Ent Ctr H5
15
10 Ent Ctr H7 Ent Ctr H9 Resultant
-5
-10
-15
-20
Figure 29 - Component harmonic currents and resultant
The resultant RMS current value is approx 7.5A, whereas a true sinusoid of peak value of
approx 15.9A, as in this example, would be marginally over 11.2A (See Table 6 - Sample
- 45 -
Calculations for "Peak" "Equivalent RMS" and "True RMS"). Again this highlights the
potential for instrument reading error when not reading True RMS.
DC Harmonic Harmonic Harmonic Harmonic Harmonic

Peak 15.8843 1 3 5 7 9
RMS "Equivalent" 11.23189 current 0.20 current 9.90 current 1.80 current 2.20 current 1.20 current 0.70
RMS Actual 7.50 offset 0 offset 0 offset -160 offset -4 offset -176 offset 1
Deg Radians Sin
0 0 0 0.2 0 -0.6156363 -0.1534642 -0.0837078 0.0122167
1 0.017453293 0.017452 0.2 0.1727788 -0.703316 0.0383953 -0.2289708 0.1215537
2 0.034906585 0.034899 0.2 0.345505 -0.7890681 0.2299626 -0.3708204 0.2278977
3 0.052359878 0.052336 0.2 0.518126 -0.8726573 0.4197798 -0.5071419 0.3286301
4 0.06981317 0.069756 0.2 0.6905891 -0.9538547 0.6064022 -0.6359031 0.4212705
5 0.087266463 0.087156 0.2 0.8628419 -1.0324376 0.7884095 -0.7551845 0.5035379
355 6.195918845 -0.08716 0.2 -0.8628419 -0.1568803 -1.0665812 0.6180457 -0.4862609
356 6.213372137 -0.06976 0.2 -0.6905891 -0.2505116 -0.8948206 0.488084 -0.4015035
357 6.23082543 -0.05234 0.2 -0.518126 -0.3434562 -0.7162499 0.350846 -0.3068598
358 6.248278722 -0.0349 0.2 -0.345505 -0.4354594 -0.5322282 0.2083778 -0.2046602
359 6.265732015 -0.01745 0.2 -0.1727788 -0.5262691 -0.3441558 0.0628031 -0.0974212
360 6.283185307 -2.5E-16 0.2 -2.426E-15 -0.6156363 -0.1534642 -0.0837078 0.0122167
Table 6 - Sample Calculations for "Peak" "Equivalent RMS" and "True RMS"
100 Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3
80 When modelling Figure 30 - 3ph UPS load

60
and resultant Neutral distribution board,
40
20 there is also strong agreement in terms of

0
-20
the observed and modelled waveforms,
-40 when compared to Figure 28 - UPS
-60
-80 Distribution board above.

-100
100 Neutral
It becomes clear that phases L2 and L3
80
60 cancel each other to a considerable degree,
40
20 such that in this instance the neutral is
0
-20
substantially dominated by L1 in terms of
-40 magnitude and angular displacement.
-60
-80
-100
Figure 30 - 3ph UPS load and resultant Neutral
Figure 31 - Prediction of neutral current for balanced lighting load below represents a
prediction of neutral for a balanced three-phase installation comprising of the high frequency
luminaries analysed above.
- 46 -
Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 Neutral
6
-2
-4
-6
Figure 31 - Prediction of neutral current for balanced lighting load
It was important to determine if, having successfully modelled independent loads, whether it
was possible to “sum” them in the model, and achieve an agreeable result when measured
against those two loads connected in parallel. Two loads of relatively comparable size, but
with distinctive individual waveforms were chosen. From the Table 4 above Load #2 and
Load #3 were connected in parallel to form a new composite load (Load #6), shown below in
Figure 32 - Composite load modelled and measured. It is immediately clear that the observed
metered result contains distinctive elements from both of the individual loads. The modelled
result, shown below, of the two discrete loads agrees well with the observed value for “Trafo
+ Ent Ctr”, and the modelled “Sum of all Harmonics”, and helps to validate the model.
Trafo Ent. Ctr. Trafo + Ent Ctr Sum of all harmonincs

20
15
10
-5
-10
-15
-20
Figure 32 - Composite load modelled and measured
- 47 -
Analysis of Findings
What is now clear is that all but the simplest loads are generators of harmonic currents. Those
individual harmonic currents can lead or lag the voltage by different amounts. Therefore it is
not possible to determine the resultant waveform by knowing only magnitude of the harmonic
current. Harmonic currents are a fact of modern day living, and are likely to remain for the
foreseeable future. What is of greatest importance is that Building Services Engineers make
themselves aware of the state of the electrical systems under their control and take the
necessary countermeasures.
Where only waveform profiles are known, it is possible to identify to some extent the degree
of harmonic pollution. It may be something of an over simplification to state that the greater
the deviation from a true sinusoid the greater the harmonic problem, as evidenced by the
transformer and electronic load illustrated above. What is true however, is that steep rising or
falling edges on a current waveform are strong indicators of higher order harmonic currents of
significant magnitude.
Bird (2003b p683) provides some helpful insights into predicting likely harmonic components
based only on visual inspection of the waveform. If the area of the waveform above and
below the x-axis is equal then no DC component is present. If the waveform is symmetrical
about the origin, then only Odd harmonics are present, while a waveform that repeats every
half cycle contains only even harmonics.
El-Saadany E.F. and Salama M.M.A. (1997) have shown through experiment that when loads
of different natures are mixed, that some reduction of harmonic currents occur due to the
effect of the interaction of the voltage and current distortion. They also point to the partial
self-cancellation of the harmonic currents due to differences in individual harmonic current
phase angles. This can be seen below, as taken from the study involving the parallel supply of
the Transformer and Entertainment Centre whereby the resultant THD for the combined load
is less that the THD for either individual component. See Table 4 - Harmonic Summary Table,
Loads # 2, 3 and 6
In the figure below the summing and cancelling effects of the individual harmonic
components of the two discrete loads can be seen.
- 48 -
Ent Ctr H1 Ent Ctr H3
Ent Ctr H5 Ent Ctr H7
13
Ent Ctr H9 Trafo H1
Trafo H3 Trafo H5
8 Trafo H7 Trafo H9
Resultant
3
-2
-7
-12
-17
Figure 33 - Individual component harmonic currents
Total Harmonic Distortion (THD)

Through this document, Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) has been referred to as measure of
the degree to which the current waveform has been distorted from a true sinusoid. Dr G.W.
McLean in Plant Engineers Handbook defines THD as follows:
THD = (Σ In2)1/2 / I1
Equation 4- Total Harmonic Distortion (THD)
Where In represents the magnitude of the nth harmonic, and I1 is the magnitude of the
fundamental. It can be seen that higher order harmonic currents of significant magnitude will
very quickly adversely affect the degree of harmonic distortion.
Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) is therefore a positive dimensionless value, which relates
the shape of the waveform in question to the shape of a true sinusoid. A true sinusoid has a
THD value of unity – it is not distorted. The greater the THD value the less the waveform
resembles a sinusoid. However, another value associated with power quality that is also
reported in this paper is “K-Factor”. From the bench scale and field studies made, there
clearly is some correlation between “K-Factor” and THD.
- 49 -
This too is a positive dimensionless value, is an indicator of transformer eddy current losses,
and is used to indicate that the degree to which a supply transformer should be increased in
order to take account of these losses. It is in effect, a ratio of the eddy current losses when
supplying non-linear loads compared to supplying equivalent linear loads (Copper
Development Association: 2000).
This means that Building Services engineers should not only be cognisant of the VA loading
on transformers under their care, but also on the characteristics of that load. Excess eddy
current losses in the transformer may cause premature failure in a system that, based only on
VA loading, may appear to be operating within it capacity. Eddy current losses will be dealt
with in more detail in “Chapter 5 – Why are Harmonics a problem?”
The findings and analysis using the mathematical model agree well with “Identification of
individual types of harmonic loads in an electric power system bus” by R.A. Alammari et al
(2004) which states that the total current at any harmonic frequency should be equal to the
harmonic current at the same frequency contributed from each load.
The level of agreement between the model and the measured load at Figure 32 - Composite
load modelled and measured above, permits strong confidence in the model, and is supported
the concept proposed by Alammari above, and the proposal made in Figure 11 - Harmonic
concept, that any harmonic load is the result of the summation of the individual harmonic
sub-currents.
However, care must be taken when prediction modelling. The harmonic magnitudes may be
displayed by the instrument as either a percentage of the fundamental current, or as absolute
value in Amps – or as both. To model the likely resultant of two or more loads, it is essential
therefore that the model is built on the absolute values, as using the percentage values cannot
take account of the relative scale of the loads to each other.
- 50 -
Chapter 5: Why are current harmonics a problem?
So far this paper has examined what are the causes of current harmonics, how they are
measured, and how they may be represented, but how and why is any of this a problem?
Electrical Issues
Neutral Concerns
It can be demonstrated that in a balanced linear 3phase system the neutral current is
effectively zero. Even in 3phase systems, which are badly unbalanced, but linear, the neutral
current typically are less than any individual single phase current.
However, when harmonics are introduced, even at low harmonic number and magnitude, it is
easy to tip the neutral over 100% of phase load. This can be seen in the example of the 3Ph
UPS system above in Figure 30 - 3ph UPS load and resultant Neutral. This is of particular
importance in older installations. Many older factories and offices were built in the time when
½ size neutral made sense from a cost and installation perspective. It may well also be the
case in older housing estates and apartment blocks. What is clear now is that in applications
where harmonics are known or believed to be a significant issue, then 1.5x or even 2.0x
neutral size should be considered, unless considerable headroom has been incorporated into
the cable selection.
This “neutral sizing” point is also highly relevant when it comes to the analysis of
unexplained trips in circuit breakers and blown fuses. As earlier demonstrated, without the use
proper tools and instruments, it is not always apparent whether harmonics are a contributing
factor. A multi-meter may not accurately report the True RMS value, nor will it report the
harmonic components, or the instantaneous value of phase angle between the phases - all of
which can contribute to neutral current being higher than anticipated.
In Figure 21 - Entertainment Centre it was indicated that a DC component existed within the
current profile. This can become troublesome for Residual Current Circuit Breakers (RCCBs)
feeding computers for example. Many two-pole RCCBs, and Residual Current Breakers with
Over-current (RCBOs) are prone to nuisance tripping driven by DC components in the circuit
current. Most reputable manufacturers of these devices offer a range of devices with higher
tolerances to these conditions. Perhaps confusingly, these ranges are generally referred to as
“AC Type” and should not be confused in this context with Alternating Current (AC).
- 51 -
Equally, the potential to experience neutral currents in excess of 100% also poses potential
problems for 4pole circuit breakers, where the additional neutral current may cause a trip for
either simple over current, or for phase imbalance. Given the relentless rise of consumer
electronics, and the impending effective ban on incandescent lighting, the effects of harmonic
currents arising from these modern loads could be cause for concern. Legislation is being
introduced in Ireland to regulate the minimum efficiency standards for light bulbs, which
would in effect ban the sale of traditional filament bulbs in favour of high efficiency compact
fluorescent lamps. See Hogan (2007).
Certainly it is worth remembering that typical energy-efficient lighting such as CFLs are
approx 10-20W whereas the incandescent bulbs that they replace are up to 5x times that.
Therefore could the summing of their triplens have negligible practical consequences?
Perhaps, since there would likely be available spare current carrying capacity in the
conductors. If however, in the relentless drive to lower costs, the conductor and distribution
equipment sizes were reduced in the light of the new lower power consumption, then the
harmonic effect would need to be seriously considered.
Cable Losses
The figure below is the L1 harmonic spectrum for the UPS distribution board introduced
earlier. It can be seen that the fundamental current is 52A whereas the total L1 current was
noted earlier to be 58A. The 3rd harmonic current is 16A. Since there is no corresponding
harmonic voltage, this may be considered Wattless current. However the I2R cables losses
arising from harmonic currents cannot be ignored, particularly in large systems.
- 52 -
K-Factor
Earlier in this paper, K-Factor and the importance of this in relation to eddy currents was
introduced. Transformer losses are closely related to eddy current losses, which in turn are
driven by frequency. Transformers supplied with K-Ratings are designed to be operated fully
loaded with any load having a harmonic K-Factor equal to or less than its K-Rating, without
any additional de-rating. As given by Copper Development Association (2000) the loss for
any given harmonic number is
Equation 5 - Eddy current losses per given harmonic number
Where Pf is the eddy current loss at the fundamental frequency f

Ph is the eddy current loss at harmonic number h
Ih is the fraction of total RMS load current at harmonic number h.
Where the total losses Pt associated with multiple harmonics
Equation 6 - Total eddy current losses
The K-Factor is the ratio of total eddy current losses to eddy current losses at the fundamental
frequency, and represent the heating effect of harmonics on transformers. As can be seen in
Figure 34 - Derating of Transformer according to K-Factor below, a load with an overall
K-Factor of 15 would imply that the transformer would be effectively fully loaded when
appearing to be at only 70%, if it did not have a K-Factor already compensated for in the
rating,
Equation 7 - K-factor
- 53 -
Figure 34 - Derating of Transformer according to K-Factor
The US Underwriters Laboratory (UL) has established standard transformer K-Factor ratings
of 1, 4, 9, 13, 20, 30, 40, and 50.
Transformer size compensation

According to Xitron Technologies, while a supply transformer may be appear to be operating
within its range, when viewed solely from a kVA load and rating perspective, the RMS
current value may be much higher. There may well be significant unaccounted for internal
losses arising out of eddy currents, which manifest themselves typically has heat. It is also of
significance when planning an expansion project, as to whether the current installation can
accommodate the proposed new loads. Arising from this, an appreciation of the load type, and
not simply kVA ratings is necessary. This will be dealt with later in section “Living With
Harmonics”
.
Eddy currents may result in premature and often completely unexpected equipment failure.
“K-Factor” is therefore an indicator of the extent of harmonic current pollution, of which
supply transformers must be tolerant. It can be considered an “over-rating” term, and is
widely used in the USA. It is similar in concept to the broadly equivalent European
“Factor K”, which is an indicator of the degree to which a transformer should be de-rated to
- 54 -
account for the harmonic present. It is not uncommon for these terms to be misused, and care
should be taken to avoid confusion especially when dealing with international suppliers.
Transformer impedance is also influenced by harmonic frequencies, since the basic equation
for inductive reactance is given by:
XL = 2 π f L
Equation 8 - Inductive Reactance
where f is the frequency and L is the transformer inductance. Where higher order frequencies
are present, it increases the overall reactance presented by the transformer and contributes to
energy loss.
However, for capacitive reactance, the consequence of higher frequencies has the opposite
effect since capacitive reactance is given by
1
XC = 2 π f C
Equation 9 - Capacitive reactance
Where C is the circuit capacitance, such that capacitive reactance is reduced by higher
frequencies.
Resonance
This leads to a situation, where in an Inductive / Capacitive circuit, a certain frequency may
result in these two values being equal to the extent that they may cancel each other out to a
considerable degree. This condition is known as resonance, and due care should be taken to
avoid it. Adapted from Heathcote (1998), the load impedance Z is give by following equation
where Xl is inductive reactance, Xc is capacitive reactance, and R is the circuit resistance
Z = (Xl -Xc) 2 + R2
Equation 10 - Load impedance
The load impedance may ultimately become dominated by the circuit resistance, which is
typically very low in large installations. This leads to a massive current surge, which can often
result in catastrophic failure of the power factor equipment, since:
- 55 -
Voltage (V)
Current (I) = Impedance (Z)
Equation 11 - Current Voltage Impedance relationship
Where this is of particular interest is in the area of power factor correction. To correct a
lagging power factor, large capacitor banks are installed to draw a leading current, which if
properly sized and managed, will generally correct an installations power fact to approx 0.95
lagging.
From Laughton M. A. and Warne D. J. (2003), power factor correction capacitor banks are
particularly affected by harmonics as their impedance falls with frequency as shown above,
such that they tend to act as `sinks' for high frequency harmonic currents and may
consequently overload.
Shunt capacitors therefore, can form a resonant circuit with respect to the rest of the network
at some frequency above the fundamental. If that resonant frequency is close to that of a
harmonic current, damaging harmonic over-voltages and current magnifications can occur.
Therefore, harmonic distortion must be limited to acceptable levels by careful system design
and subsequent management.
Since this potential condition is recognised, it is considered wise to install what are termed
“de-tuned” power factor correction capacitors. De-Tuned equipment comprises of additional
carefully selected inductors, such that the potential resonant frequency is not a harmonic of
the fundamental frequency.
An application note from Fluke (2003) offers a helpful explanation and practical example of
this phenomenon, in particular when the supply source is weak, as might be the case when the
facility is supplied by a generator rather than by the utility.
Mechanical issues
Negative sequence
From basic principles, a 3Ph system is ideal for motive power, since it is quite a simple matter
to arrange 3 coils, each connected to a phase, to produce a rotating magnetic field in the
manner L1, L2, L3, L1, L2, L3 .. etc. Reverse the order of supply to two windings and the
- 56 -
motor will run in reverse, L2, L1, L3, L2, L1, L3, L2 .. etc. Consider a situation where there
are significant 5th harmonics; a situation that regularly arises in 3phase motors, and indicated
above in Table 5 - VSD Harmonics: supply side of filter - and motor side of filter
A complimentary paper published by Pacific Gas and Electric Company (1993) clearly
illustrates the concept the negative sequence of the 5th harmonic, and is replicated below.
When viewed as a 3-phase system, it can be seen that the fundamental current is in the order
L1, L2, L3 … (Red, Yellow, Blue, Red, Yellow, Blue …), the 5th harmonic currents can be
seen to be L1, L3, L2 … (Red, Blue, Yellow, Red, Blue, Yellow), such that the motive force
supplied by the 5th harmonic current is in reverse - a so-called “negative sequence”. Wakileh
G.J (2003) notes that in this situation a proportion of the motor current is attempting to drive
the motor backwards, and can also be experienced as heat caused by eddy currents in the
windings.
Loss of motor performance can be expected; especially where the calculated driving force is
based on current alone, and is all presumed to be “forwards”, and where the motor sizing
headroom may already be marginal. As pointed out by Zheng et al (Undated) where a motor
is already heated beyond a level dictated solely by the work required to drive the load, then
the potential for premature overload or thermistor trips is naturally increased.
L1 Fund L1 5th L2 Fund L2 5th L3 Fund L3 5th

150
Fundamental
100
5th
50
-50
-100
-150
Figure 35 - Negative sequence of 5th harmonic
- 57 -
Vibration
What can also bee seen for the diagram above is that there are periods where the fundamental
and 5th harmonic are in phase, which will give rise to torque pulses, which can result in
vibration and louder machine noise.
Bearing and gearbox wear

There are other negative sequence harmonic such as 2nd, 8th and 11th, and there are positive
sequence harmonics such as 4th, 7th, 10th, and 13th, of which some are more prevalent in
motors that others. These, according to Wakelih, interact and can give rise to pulsating fields
of 3rd, 6th 9th and 12th order, adding to the torque pulses, vibration, and noise. Additionally,
if the natural frequency of the machine is at, or is close to, any of these frequencies, the
machine may begin to oscillate and cause significant damage to bearings and drive shafts.
It is hardly surprising then, that these heating and torque pulse effects can take their toll on
motors, bearings and gearboxes. An effective condition-monitoring program can normally
detect the early signs of bearing and gearbox degradation through vibration analysis. The
negative heating effects of both bearing wear, and excess power loss, exhibited as elevated
winding temperature, can be detected by thermography. In many instances, it is through
repeated failures of these nature that highlight an underlying harmonic problem, rather than
through a pre-emptive harmonic study
Motor winding damage

It seem logical that if harmonic currents can cause overheating in transformer and motor
winding, that in this can ultimately lead to winding damage. The combined effects of
harmonic currents, as described above can put such a dielectric strain on motor windings that
the insulation can break down, leading to internal winding short circuits.
A paper by Guldemir (2003) discusses some positive application for motor generated
harmonics. The interaction between the stator and rotor give rise to a characteristic set of
harmonic frequencies. This is because the air gap magnetic field generates harmonic fluxes
that move relative to stator and therefore induce corresponding current harmonics in the stator
windings. It is possible then to monitor or trend these for particular machine, and so use
harmonic currents as a mechanism to identify machine eccentricity, as might arise from
bearing degradation before it becomes a more significant and costly problem.
- 58 -
Chapter 6: Counter Measures
Living with Harmonics
In order to comply with supply network and international standards, equipment manufacturers
are required to comply with various standards. The European IEC 61000 family of standards,
together place controls on the immunity of equipment to power quality issues, while
EN-61000-3-12:2005 for example, sets out limit for the creation of harmonic currents in
electrical equipment.
Singh G. K. (2007) has produced an excellent paper, which charts the increase in harmonic
current generators, and the response of the manufacturing and utility supply companies in
terms of identification, analysis and countermeasures. The term “countermeasure” is used
here as opposed to “solution”, which tends to suggest that the problem is fixed.
Countermeasures are more suggestive of an evolutionally process that needs to be
continuously adapted as conditions change.
For the Supply Networks, they are required to provide a supply of sufficient power quality
such that, of itself, it does not present a problem to the consumer. Consumers, for their part,
must ensure that the loads that they operate do not give rise to voltage fluctuations, likely to
be exported to their neighbours. As referred to above, equipment manufacturers are set limits
on the amount of pollution that their equipment generates, and also on the degree of pollution
that their equipment can tolerate, so as to alleviate the situation.
Reduction
Reduction of harmonics would appear to be an almost impossible task, since every new load
added seems only to compound the problem; but there are steps that can be taken. The task
can be approached in a number of ways.
Firstly, by making informed on equipment selection. This may be time consuming, but in the
current economic condition, equipment manufacturers should be willing and able to provide
technical information in relation to equipment performance in terms of harmonics generation.
Initially, it seems that this should not be that difficult, or even necessary? Given the raft of
regulations laid down by the utility networks and international bodies, the consumer should be
confident that the equipment is performing within accepted bands. Even so, it is likely that
- 59 -
when taken together that the combined effect can result in a potential problem for the end
user.
By recognising certain load types and by use of mathematical modelling as shown in this
paper, it possible to simulate the effect and interactions of loads, such that the final
distribution arrangement can be made as advantageous as possible. In practice however, this
may not be of much practical benefit, as often load distribution strategies are more likely to be
determined by their application support function, rather than solely by clinical analysis.
It seems logical that since the characteristics of many loads are unknown at equipment
purchasing stage, that this is not a practical solution. Even where load characteristics are
known, the effectiveness of a generic transformer as a harmonic filter is likely to be poor.
Rather, it is likely to result in considerable capital expenditure in terms of additional
switchgear, cables, loss of plant room space, annual maintenance etc., while actually creating
additional power losses arising form eddy currents etc. as already described.
Installing an inductor in series with the load may reduce harmonic currents drawn by a non-
linear load, by reducing the variation in load impedance, which created the harmonic currents.
Some success is possible with transformers connected in Star (or “Y”), and without neutral,
and with Zizg-Zag secondary windings which are effective at stopping 3rd order harmonics in
the primary, as discussed by both Bettega E. et al (1999) and Heathcote Martin J. (1998),
Both Heathcote, and Laughton M. A. and Warne D. J, note that in 3Ph 3-wire star-connected
systems, 3rd harmonics or “triplens” cannot exist, since the instantaneous sum of the three
phase currents must of necessity, be equal to zero. However in 4-wire systems, the neutral
acts as a drain for the harmonic currents, consequently neutral currents of 3x fundamental
frequency can be expected. In a balanced Delta-connected system (or “Δ”), 3rd harmonic and
“triplen” voltages in the phases and are largely suppressed, but 3rd harmonic currents may
flow around the closed delta but not in the lines. It follows then that the practice of supplying
general-services loads through Delta-Star transformers has positive benefits in terms of
isolating the upstream supply network from 3rd harmonics generated in the distribution
system.
For specific and well-defined loads such as UPS units and Variable Speed Drives an
equipment manufacturer will likely recommend an inline filter. This is normally in the form
- 60 -
of an inductor, arranged essentially as an isolation transformer. How this differs from a
generic transformer is in the specifics of winding geometry, air-gap spacing, core construction
etc., with parameters carefully chosen to operate as a filter to known or predictable harmonic
currents.
In the past, it was not uncommon for much of this equipment to be installed without the
recommended filters. This was often down to cost, as the capital expenditure of the supply
and installation of the primary device was typically quite high. If the primary device would
operate without it, then the filter was frequently seen simply as “an option”, and the future
consequences of that decision either not fully considered, or not appreciated.
It makes sense therefore, to survey existing plant and equipment and identify whether existing
equipment is fitted with a filter, or indeed, whether that filter is effective. This can be done by
carrying out a harmonic survey on the upstream and downstream side of the installed filter
and comparing results. Where no filter is installed, and a harmonic survey indicates that the
devices is a harmonic current generator, then it may be wise to contact the equipment
manufacturer for advice on most suitable filter for that application.
Depending on the outcome, it may be more practical to replace the older original device with
a less polluting one. Failing that, and if the load profile is stable or predictable, it may be
possible to have new filter custom made for the application. In such a case, the cost is likely
to be significant, but must be balanced against overall installation stability and reliability, and
the cost of unscheduled downtime. In many cases such retrofits may be subject to significant
tax breaks from National Government. (See Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland, 2010)
In many older installations, lighting is often overlooked as a possible cause of harmonic

current. Indeed, older installations may also suffer from poor power factor, often though not
always necessarily related do harmonics. Radokovic et al (2005) discuss the influences of
Compact Fluorescent Lights (CFLs) and the impact that they can have on a moderately sized
Low Voltage (LV) installation, such as a hotel. They regarded this as being typical of many
modern facilities, such as shops and offices. Certainly the comparison to a residential
apartment block can easily be made. They found that without additional correction, a CFL
loading of >10% of supply transformer rated power was likely to result in the limits set down
by EN-61000-3-6 being exceeded. This condition may well be exist in the near future, if not
already, in some instances.
- 61 -
Building Services Engineers or their Energy Managers should make themselves aware of the
opportunities available to improve harmonics, reduce power factor and improve overall
lighting efficiency by adopting a phased change out of older luminaires in favour of newer
more efficient models. Again, a cost-benefit analysis needs to be undertaken, and available
grants factored into the consideration.
Elimination
The above measures tend to concentrate on specific load types, but a bulk solution is also
possible. Zheng Z. et al (undated) describe passive inductive capacitive filters, which can
improve power factor to agreeable levels of 0.95, but can typically only reduce harmonics to
about 30%. This is hardly surprising given the dynamic nature of many loads. Tuning and
resonance issues may also apply in such cases.
The underlying concept of active harmonic elimination is simple, however the realisation of
that concept is more challenging. Simply put, most electronic loads generate current
harmonics through the controlled firing of thyrisors etc, which draw current in non-linear
“gulps”. Suppose a new electronic “load” could be devised to monitor the network harmonics,
and fire its thyrisors in such a way as to create its own harmonic currents in equal magnitude,
but in opposite polarity, in much the same way as acoustic noise cancelling?
That is the essence of the Active Harmonic filter, and is described variously by Zheng Z. et al
(undated) and Chaoui et al (2010) as an Active Harmonic Filter (AHF). The paper by Bettega
E. et al. (1999) further discusses the underlying principle of “shunt type” active harmonic
filters, describing them as a “kind of device is particularly suited for harmonic compensation
of LV networks irrespective of the chosen point of coupling and of the type of load (the device
is self-adaptive)”.
Many international manufacturers offer active harmonic filtering, and have been around,
according Singh B et al (1999) since the early 1970’s. In those forty years, the reliability has
risen and the relative cost has fallen. What has obviously risen, in exponential quantity, is the
need for these devices, and yet the market remains sluggish. Singh B et al (1999) offer a
useful selection table on application considerations, and their recommendation on the most
appropriate filter response. A degree of care should be taken here, since the paper is over ten
years old. Nonetheless, it servers to illustrate a number of related points: different power
- 62 -
quality conditions require different solutions, and suggests that it is unlikely that there is an
absolute one-size-fits-all solution.
Goughler and Johnson in their 1999 paper “Parallel Active Harmonic Filters: Economical
Viable Technology” have reviewed the devices to the market at that time, and have noted
improvements being made in the offer of many manufacturers. They note that through rapid
sensing and output response, Active Harmonic Filters respond well to dynamic changes in
load, with harmonic elimination over a wide range, resulting in a corresponding reduction in
the risk of resonance. This overcomes a significant drawback for many passive filters, which
are constructed to respond well for predetermined harmonic numbers, for specific loads and
conditions, such as UPS and VSD loads, as described above. For more dynamic applications,
it is possible to provide passive filters in modular banks, in much the same way as Power
Factor correction banks, which are dynamically connected in blocks to the network according
to need.
Newer devices use Fast Fourier Transforms (FFT) to calculate harmonic current phase angle
and magnitude and inject current in equal and opposite measure. This process typically has a
response time of 33-40ms. Others take a current sample and extract the fundamental, and then
inject a current calculated to cancel all other components. This response is quicker (200 -300
µs) and can eliminate all non-integer frequencies, called “inter-harmonics”. The Accusine®
range by Schneider falls into this category and will be used below as the basis of correction
costs later in this paper.
Schneider Electric (2010) offers an easy-to-use sizing spreadsheet for their Rectivar /Accusine
range of active power quality correction equipment. Page #2 of their spreadsheet is
user-viewable, so it is both possible and informative to see how the calculations are
performed. Their online publication, Schneider Electric (2009), offers a simplified description
of the operation of the devices as well as a number of useful equations and definitions on the
subject of harmonics, THD etc.
What is important to note is that the size of the Active correction device, described in Amps,
relates to the magnitude of the harmonic currents it is designed to cancel, and not the size of
the network to which it is connected. In other words, the unit is sized according the size of the
problem and not the size of the installation.
- 63 -
Passive Filter rated 510 KVAR at 400 V, 50 HZ Passive Filter rated 750 KVAR at 400 V, 50 HZ
H3 200 KVAR fixed, Custom designed H3 250 KVAR fixed, Custom designed
H5 3 X 100 KVAR Auto passive filter c/w €26,107.50 H5 3 X 100 KVAR Auto passive filter c/w €37,024.50
Main Breaker H7 2 X 100 KVAR Auto Main Breaker
Passive Filter rated 980 KVAR at 400 V, 50 HZ

H3 180 KVAR fixed, Custom designed
H5 4 X 100 KVAR Auto passive filter c/w
€44,295.00
H7 2 X 100 KVAR Auto Main Breaker
H11 2 X 100 KVAR Auto
Active Filter rated 240 Amp Two SW120 (Figures provided courtesy of
at 400 Volt connected in parallel €44,091.20 Schneider Electric, Ireland)
Active Filter rated 120 Amp One SW120

at 400 Volt connected in parallel €22,046.40
Active Filter rated 60 Amp at One SW60

400 Volt connected in parallel €17,044.80
Table 7 - Filter hardware costs
Active harmonic filtering appear to be more expensive, but it must be remembered that the
active option is measured in the amount of “correction” Amps across all harmonic currents,
while the passive option is rated in KVAR targeting only specific harmonic currents.
By surveying an installation at key locations such as main and principle sub-distributions

boards, it should be possible to determine where the problem(s) are coming from, and where
best to locate the correction equipment. It makes most sense to correct the condition closest to
source, but this may not be practical.
It is practically impossible to predict the nett capital expense that might be associated with a
harmonics correction program. Once the outcome of a harmonic survey has been completed
there are many additional decisions to be made, such as whether to proceed with a multiple
smaller distributed correction strategy, or a single larger centrally located option. The decision
may be made on the distribution of harmonic generating loads, the availability of circuit ways
of suitable rating to supply the correction units etc – all of which have a cost implication in
terms of installation time, cable runs, future ability to expand and so on. Therefore it is only
possible to offer guidance on the unit cost of the correction devices in isolation. Ancillary
costs must be determined on a case-by-case basis.
The savings made from the installation of harmonic filters are derived from many sources –
reduced cable losses, increased usable capacity and reliability in the distribution system,
reduced incidence of equipment failure, reduced repair and maintenance costs, increased
equipment up-time, leading to increased productivity.
- 64 -
There is no one-size-fits-all, and effective and efficient countermeasures must be assessed on
an individual case-by-case basis, based on a proper understanding of the nature and scale of
the problem.
- 65 -
Chapter 7: Conclusion and Recommendations
Conclusions
Current harmonics are not only here to stay, but will continue to increase. With that will come
many problems that need not be unexpected, nor indeed unexplained when they occur.
What is fair to state, is that supply network authorities, and industry bodies are working hard
to produce equipment that is lower in harmonic current generation, and higher in their
tolerances. That said, much of the responsibility for facility cost effectiveness, minimisation
of downtime, and maximisation of return on facility investment, and continuity of service lies
with the Building Services Engineer.
Main Findings
The instantaneous values of all harmonic currents sum to create a new composite waveform.
Given that harmonic currents in different loads exit independently of each other with respect
to angular displacement from the fundamental voltage, some degree of self cancellation can
be expected. By the same token, it is also possible for then to sum as well, so without proper
analysis, no confident prediction can be made.
Harmonic currents can result in:

Excessive Neutral Current >100% phase current
Conductor overheating
Blown fuses / Tripped circuit breakers
Overheating Transformers, leading to possible over temperature trips and failure
Increased vibration and noise in supply transformers
Increased power losses, through eddy current and winding losses
Overheating Motors, thermistor trips and winding failure
Increased negative sequence current in motor, thereby reducing effective power
Loss of motor operational headroom, failure to meet duty with trip potential
Increased vibration in motors
Reduction in transformer spare / future capacity
Current reading errors in instrument unless reading in “True RMS”
Torque pulses in motors,
Damages to drive shafts and bearings
Reduced equipment operating life
- 66 -
Increase in energy cost (I2R)
Deterioration in power factor, likely to result in financial penalties from the supply
authority
This paper demystifies current harmonics, and explains the origins, effects and consequences
of current harmonics in simplified terms. Methods of harmonic current reduction and
elimination have also been presented.
Building Services Engineers have available the information necessary to analyse their
facilities, and implement counter measures. What action they choose to take cannot be
determined.
Recommendations
Throughout my working life, my personal motto has been “Any solution that is not based on
an understanding of the problem is a guess – even if you get it right.”
Set against the backdrop of ubiquitous harmonic currents, a harmonic survey or load analysis
is essential. It is not so much a case of “How do I know if I have a problem?”, rather than
“How do I know that I don’t?”
Assess the size of the normal instantaneous load of the installation; a utility bill is
useful in this regard to carry out the calculation. Carry out a preliminary survey,
noting number, type and rating of luminaires eg: incandescent, fluorescent, mercury
and sodium vapour, High Intensity Discharge etc.
Quantify the number of computer terminals, number and rating of VSDs, welding
equipment, electric arc furnaces etc. See for example the spreadsheet in Schneider
(2010). Calculate the approximate proportion of the load that are harmonic generators
to establish if a problem is likely
If the installation is large, then it may be prudent to focus on functional areas, such as
separate buildings, or key sub-distribution boards
A figure of ~30% harmonic generating load is likely to warrant further investigation
Consider commissioning a harmonic survey of the installation, or at strategic points
depending on timeline and budget
Ensure that loads such as UPS and VSDs are fitted with appropriate filters
- 67 -
Consider the installation of either Passive or Active Harmonic filters, according the
extent of the harmonic problem and variability of the load being supplied
Consider the use of transformers in certain applications as harmonic attenuators
Invest in good quality instruments, chose “True RMS” meters over “Average” reading
instruments. All reputable manufacturers offer a range of instruments to satisfy most
applications and budgets. A good single-phase instrument is the clamp-meter style
FLUKE 345, or mulit-meter format FLUKE 43B, while the three-phase FLUKE 434 is
an all round power quality data-logger, dips/swell, flicker, energy-monitoring tool
Become familiar with the current signatures of typical loads
Understand the consequences of adding new a load to an existing system
Don’t presume that all the apparent capacity in transformers is available for use
Consider commissioning a thermographic study of the installation, or strategic points
in the distribution system – eg: Supply transformers, main switchgear, neutral cables,
key utility or process motors
Keep harmonic currents in mind when investigating unexplained, or repeated trips or
failures
Suggested Further Reading

G. K. Singh, “Power system harmonics research: a survey”, already used as reference work in
this document, is an ideal introduction to the concepts of harmonics, their sources and
countermeasures. Singh also describes the evolution of the main power quality standards that
have arisen over the past many years.
P.M. Lincoln, (1913) “Wave form distortions and their effects on electrical apparatus” This
paper was presented to the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, February 28, 1913.
Clearly waveform disturbance has been about us for a century, and many observations made
here still ring true. His discussion on the nature of certain waveforms, and their effect on
meter types, in particular Power Factor meters are simple and clear. (Accessed via IEE Xplore
through Brunel Library portal.)
Fluke “Application Notes” offer a wide array of well-presented power quality application
notes. These are available free of charge from Fluke online. Access requires a simple personal
registration
(http://www.fluke.ie/Fluke/ieen/Support/appnotes/default.htm?category=AP_PQ)
- 68 -
For an excellent textbook on mathematical issues relating to electrical and electronic
engineering, see Noel M. Morris. (1994) Mathematics for Electrical and Electronic
Engineering, Master Series. Houndmills: MacMillan (ISBN 0 333 59359 6)
Management of Project
Timelines
I had initially set out quite aggressive timelines when making my submission #2 with respect
to the remaining deliverables. Two key dates were unavoidable, and all others had to be
accommodated round those.
The ultimate key date was 30-Sep-2010, which was the last and final date by which my
dissertation paper could be submitted – that being the 5year expiry on the MSc program. The
second key date was Friday 16-Jul-2010, which was the last date before I was to leave the
country for 3 weeks without regular access to email and study resources.
It was imperative that submission Form VI and a draft of the Dissertation paper be sent to
Brunel by this time. Failure to do so would mean that Form VI would not be ready until later
in mid August, which would leave little time to address comments received. Form VII and the
final Dissertation paper needed to be submitted and secure in Brunel by mid September to
allow of any mishaps along the way. As a result of this, clear weekly objectives were set, and
monitored closely for slippage. Proposed and actual submission dates are recorded below.
Time Plan: Proposed vs Actual Submission Dates:

Project Form IV: Report on Literature Survey / Background Theory
Proposed: Friday 07-May-2010
Actual: Monday 10-May-2010
Project Form V: Report on Data Acquisition and Analysis
Proposed: Friday 04-Jun-2010
Actual: Tuesday 08-Jun-2010
Project Form VI: Cover Sheet For Draft Dissertation
Proposed: Friday 16-July-2010
Actual: Thursday 15-Jul-2010
Project Form VII: Cover Sheet For Dissertation
Proposed: Friday 03-Sep-2010
Actual: 06-Sep-2010
- 69 -
Gantt Chart – updated to show actual submission dates
Project Gantt Chart
Dissertation - MSc Building Services Engineering Management
Patrick Maguire - 0530673
Week Week Week Week Week Week Week Week Week Week Week Week
Commencing Week Commencing 15-Feb- Commencing Commencing Commencing Commencing Commencing Commencing Week Commencing Commencing Commencing Commencing Commencing Week Commencing Commencing
08-Feb-2010 2010 22-Feb-2010 01-Mar-2010 08-Mar-2010 15-Mar-2010 22-Mar-2010 29-Mar-2010 05-Apr-2010 12-Apr-2010 19-Apr-2010 26-Apr-2010 03-May-2010 10-May-2010 17-May-2010
Identify equipment
Connect monitoring
Connect monitoring equipment to 1phase known resitive Load - Establish baseline Complete
Connect monitoring equipment to 1phase known 1phase inductive load Complete
Connect monitoring equipment to 1phase known to generate harmonics (eg Switch Complete
Connect monitoring motor to 1phase compact fluorescent source Complete
Connect monitoring equipment to establish effects of interposing isolation transform Complete
Connect monitoring equipment to infeed to polyphase UPS (kVA to be determined)
Connect monitoring equipment to polyphase high frequency fluorescent lighting distribution system
Connect monitoring equipment to polyphase Final Distribution board (Mixed Office Loads eg PCs)
Data Storage and Retrieval

Create Dual (redundant) Data Storage Archive
Canvas Mechanical Industry expert (gearboxes etc..) for support
Primary Data Analysis

Record Analysis equipoment, loads selected and methods used
Analyse 1phase data - Differences / Similarities > Losses Complete
Analyse effects of interposing isolation Transformer - Differences / Similarities > Lo Complete
Analyse polyphase data - Data Differences / Similarities > Losses
Analyise distribution system - evidence of cumulative or cancellation effects
Write up Initial findings
Draft conclusions
Research External Sources (Library, Internet, Industry specialists etc

Harmonic principles (Fourier, mathematics Partial
Construct simple (Excel or Similar) model to demonstrate basic principles Complete
Construct mathematical model (eg Excel) to recreate / manipulate findings and con Complete
Research "Effects" and correlate with findings arising from monitoring - eg heating, Partial
Investigate potential passive / active, local / centralised remedies
Prepare indicative budget costs for possible remedies
In progress - Write Up / Documentation

Preparation of Dissertation document
Format layout structure of dissertation document
Include "placeholders" for items of known interest to ensure they do not get over looked later Form 2 Submitted
Supporting information necessary to understand context of analysis and findings

Prepare draft document outline, and key issues to address
Draft outline of "Abstract"stating objective -remainder to be completed later
Draft text of "Aims and Objective"
Form 2
Draft text of "What are current harmonics"
Draft text of "How are current harmonics created" Submitted Form 4
Draft text of "Where are current harmonics created" Form 4 Submitted Submitted
Draft text of "Why are current harmonics a problem"
Draft text of "Other Electrical issues eg: how Power Factor and Cos θ differ "
Draft text of "Other Mechanical issues "
Refine the text

Refine texts of above. Form 3
Submitted
Refine write up of experiments - data, figures etc
Refine write up of findings and conclusions - highlight areas where findings differed from expectations Form 4 Sumbitted
Close out of document

Referencing of all 3rd part sources
Table of contents and figures
Refine text of "Other Mechanical issues "
Write up "Project Management" section
Problems and /or Conflicts

Placeholder for issues resolution, data confirmation / "Other"
Compilation /
Formal "complete" review
Proof read
Peer review
Final Revisions
Peer review
Review , Printing and Submission
- 70 -
Project Gantt Chart
Dissertation - MSc Building Services Engineering Management
Patrick Maguire - 0530673
Week Week Week Week Week Week Week Week Week Week Week Week Week
Commencing Commencing Week Commencing Commencing Commencing Commencing Commencing Week Commencing Commencing Commencing Commencing Commencing Commencing Commencing Commencing Week Commencing
24-May-2019 31-May-2010 07-Jun-2010 14-Jun-2010 21-Jun-2010 28-Jun-2010 05-Jul-2010 12-Jul-2010 19-Jul-2010 26-Jul-2010 02-Aug-2010 09-Aug-2010 16-Aug-2010 23-Aug-2010 30-Aug-2010 06-Sep-2010
Identify equipment
Connect monitoring
Connect monitoring equipment to 1phase known resitive Load - Establish baseline
Connect monitoring equipment to 1phase known 1phase inductive load
Connect monitoring equipment to 1phase known to generate harmonics (eg Switch Mode Power Suplies)
Connect monitoring motor to 1phase compact fluorescent source
Connect monitoring equipment to establish effects of interposing isolation transformer
Connect monitoring equipment to infeed to polyphase UPS (kVA to be determined)
Connect monitoring equipment to polyphase high frequency fluorescent lighting distribution system
Connect monitoring equipment to polyphase Final Distribution board (Mixed Office Loads eg PCs)
Data Storage and Retrieval

Create Dual (redundant) Data Storage Archive
Canvas Mechanical Industry expert (gearboxes etc..) for support
Primary Data Analysis

Record Analysis equipoment, loads selected and methods used
Analyse 1phase data - Differences / Similarities > Losses
Analyse effects of interposing isolation Transformer - Differences / Similarities > Losses
Analyse polyphase data - Data Differences / Similarities > Losses
Analyise distribution system - evidence of cumulative or cancellation effects
Write up Initial findings
Draft conclusions
Research External Sources (Library, Internet, Industry specialists etc

Harmonic principles (Fourier, mathematics
Construct simple (Excel or Similar) model to demonstrate basic principles
Construct mathematical model (eg Excel) to recreate / manipulate findings and conjectures
Research "Effects" and correlate with findings arising from monitoring - eg heating, bearing failure
Investigate potential passive / active, local / centralised remedies
Prepare indicative budget costs for possible remedies
In progress - Write Up / Documentation

Preparation of Dissertation document
Format layout structure of dissertation document
Include "placeholders" for items of known interest to ensure they do not get over looked later
Supporting information necessary to understand context of analysis and findings

Prepare draft document outline, and key issues to address
Draft outline of "Abstract"stating objective -remainder to be completed later
Draft text of "Aims and Objective"
Draft text of "What are current harmonics"
Draft text of "How are current harmonics created"
Draft text of "Where are current harmonics created"
Draft text of "Why are current harmonics a problem"
Draft text of "Other Electrical issues eg: how Power Factor and Cos θ differ "
Draft text of "Other Mechanical issues "
Refine the text

Refine texts of above. Form 5
Submitted
Refine write up of experiments - data, figures etc
Refine write up of findings and conclusions - highlight areas where findings differed from expectations
Close out of document

Referencing of all 3rd part sources
Table of contents and figures
Refine text of "Other Mechanical issues " Form 5 Submitted
Write up "Project Management" section
Form 6
Problems and /or Conflicts Submitted
Placeholder for issues resolution, data confirmation / "Other"
Compilation / Form 7
Formal "complete" review
Proof read Form 6 Submitted
Submitted
Peer review Annual Leave
Final Revisions
Peer review
Review , Printing and Submission Form 7 Submitted
- 71 -
Organisation
It was also essential that literature and research material as well organised and accessible.
Personal organisation, and organisation of study space were also considered important. As
much of the research was web based it was considered necessary to adopt a reliable archive
and retrieval system. The principle methods adopted were a system by which the website
URL was saved solely as a link, and also as a *.htm file. Occasionally, it was necessary to
save a source as a *.mht web archive file.
A number of textbooks were used through the project. Many were my own collected over
many years; others were borrowed from friends and local libraries. A number of e-books were
made accessible though the Brunel library portal and were also used. Relevant extracts were
copied and catalogued according to relevance, and where in the project they were likely to be
used.
Keeping track
A significant part of my research was via “conventional” paper-based publications, such as
reference texts, manufacturer/supplier catalogues or information booklets. Again, many of
these were my own, acquired over many years. Others were purchased for the purpose of
researching this paper, while others were borrowed from libraries or colleagues.
A system of coloured coded “post-it” type page markers was developed for use with
conventional printed materials. Some of the referenced texts were many hundreds of pages
long, so it made sense to identify not only the page of interest, but also indicate the topic, or
sub topic to which it referred. This was simplified by using different coloured tags, which are
readily available for most good stationers. Some time ago, I suffered the loss of having a
much loved reference CD self-destruct in to a thousand pieces in my PC drive tray, while also
destroying the device. Ever since, I have made duplicate copies of reference material, and
created backups of work in progress.
Document development
During the write up of each submission, a folder was created where drafts, ideas, sketches,
mind-maps etc were placed. As the write-up of the particular submission document
progressed, ideas that were developed and included were copied from the rough work into the
“For Submission” document. They were then highlighted in the original to indicate that they
- 72 -
were being used. This helped keep track of what was used, and what ideas, if any, had been
omitted.
In order to maintain the development of a discussion, in this or any other document, I find it
helpful to create a bullet-point style outline so as to get the underlying structure set up.
Frequently these “main points” will become chapters or section headings and formatted in the
text accordingly.
From that point, a table of contents is generated, and the document is built up around this
structure. While developing a segment or discussion point, it may become apparent that this
item may be better positioned elsewhere, but with the document structure largely already set
out, it becomes easy to park it close to its new location – even if that section has not yet been
developed.
From a research perspective, the project was challenging, insofar as there is such an amount
of information available in libraries, and in particular, on the Internet. The main challenge was
to identify reliable and properly referenced sources, while avoiding blogs, Wikipedia and
other un-referenced sources. To cover the areas that were felt to be essential to the
development of the discussion, a list of headings was drawn up under which research topics
could be arranged – such as “Mathematics”, “Harmonic Identification and Costs”,
“Transformer and Resonance” issues, and finally “Living With Harmonics”. These topics
were later sub divided and the findings later used variously throughout the text. In this way, I
felt confident that I had uncovered enough sources to cover the main objective of the project.
Aim Achieved?
From the outset, the overarching aim was to communicate to the non-specialist the “Causes,
effects and consequences of Current Harmonics in Modern Low Voltage Networks”. I feel
satisfied that the outcome is substantially in line with the aims and objectives that I set out at
the start of this project.
The mathematical model functions to an acceptable level, such that where it is known that
certain harmonic currents may be added, removed or reduced by specified amounts from that
part of the network, a useful approximation of the likely result can be predicted.
- 73 -
Personal experience
A good deal of the background for this work has come from personal experience, and the
drive through the project was fuelled through a long-standing personal interest. Nonetheless,
some significant flaws were identified in my earlier understanding, particularly in the
behaviour of individual harmonics, which prompted a rethink of certain aspects.
While this initially felt as a disappointment, it was in the end, something of a blessing. It
prompted a challenge, and a healthy internal scepticism, leading ultimately to a better
understanding of the subject matter.
Now at the end, it feels that the journey was equally as rewarding as the destination itself. The
self-directed learning challenges of a project of this size are considerable. At the heart of the
project, there were certain core skills that must be learned, or mastered. Skills such as time
management; resource planning; project management; technical writing; research techniques;
relationship building; written and verbal communication; structure of documents; layout and
formatting; word processing and spreadsheets – to mention but a few. This is not to say that
all of the above have indeed been mastered, but taken as a whole, this project has added
considerably to my abilities in all of these areas. Finally, the dissertation paper itself – I am
proud of the work that I have done in bringing it to this conclusion.
I hope that it meets its most basic objective; that of communicating the concepts and
consequences of current harmonics to the non-specialist. I also hope that these efforts and the
deliverables to date are to the satisfaction of the Board of Examiners in pursuance of the
award of Master of Science (MSc) Building Services Engineering Management.
- 74 -
Copy of Topic Definition
- 75 -
Appendix 1
Sample calculations in support of Figure 1 - The need to read True RMS, which is recreated
below for convenience
DC Harmonic Harmonic Harmonic Harmonic
Peak 100.2127 1 3 5 7
RMS "Equivalent" 70.86108 current 0.00 current 75.00 current 16.00 current 15.00 current 8.00
RMS Actual 55.40 offset 0 offset 30 offset -120 offset -120 offset 50
Deg Radians Sin
0 0 0 0 37.5 -13.856406 -12.990381 6.1283555
1 0.017453293 0.017452 0 38.627856 -14.256104 -13.594617 6.7093645
2 0.034906585 0.034899 0 39.743945 -14.616727 -14.095389 7.1903524
3 0.052359878 0.052336 0 40.847928 -14.937287 -14.488887 7.5641486
4 0.06981317 0.069756 0 41.939468 -15.216904 -14.772116 7.8251808
5 0.087266463 0.087156 0 43.018233 -15.454813 -14.94292 7.9695576
355 6.195918845 -0.08716 0 31.69637 -11.313708 -8.6036465 2.0705524
356 6.213372137 -0.06976 0 32.877836 -11.890317 -9.6418141 2.9968527
357 6.23082543 -0.05234 0 34.049287 -12.434335 -10.606602 3.878477
358 6.248278722 -0.0349 0 35.210367 -12.944272 -11.490667 4.702282
359 6.265732015 -0.01745 0 36.360722 -13.418729 -12.287281 5.4559869
360 6.283185307 -2.5E-16 0 37.5 -13.856406 -12.990381 6.1283555
Sample calculations in support of Figure 15 - Harmonics in Phase, which is recreated below for
convenience
Peak 0.845962 1 2 3 5 7 9
RMS Actual 0.70 offset 0 offset offset offset offset offset offset
Deg Radians Sin
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0.017453293 0.017452 0 0.0162133 0.0009772 0.0177942 0.008977 0.0049966 0.0029723
2 0.034906585 0.034899 0 0.0324216 0.0019532 0.0355397 0.0178858 0.0099188 0.0058713
3 0.052359878 0.052336 0 0.0486201 0.0029268 0.0531877 0.0266584 0.0146931 0.0086258
4 0.06981317 0.069756 0 0.0648038 0.0038968 0.07069 0.0352281 0.0192483 0.0111679
5 0.087266463 0.087156 0 0.0809677 0.0048621 0.0879985 0.0435297 0.0235166 0.013435
355 6.195918845 -0.08716 0 -0.0809677 -0.004862 -0.0879985 -0.0435297 -0.0235166 -0.013435
356 6.213372137 -0.06976 0 -0.0648038 -0.003897 -0.07069 -0.0352281 -0.0192483 -0.0111679
357 6.23082543 -0.05234 0 -0.0486201 -0.002927 -0.0531877 -0.0266584 -0.0146931 -0.0086258
358 6.248278722 -0.0349 0 -0.0324216 -0.001953 -0.0355397 -0.0178858 -0.0099188 -0.0058713
359 6.265732015 -0.01745 0 -0.0162133 -0.000977 -0.0177942 -0.008977 -0.0049966 -0.0029723
360 6.283185307 -2.5E-16 0 -2.276E-16 -1.37E-17 -2.499E-16 -1.262E-16 -7.032E-17 -4.19E-17
Sample calculations in support of Figure 16 - Harmonics offset by independent values, which

is recreated below for convenience.
Peak 1.455156 1 2 3 5 7 9
RMS Actual 0.71 offset 0 offset -82 offset 98 offset -81 offset -79 offset -70 offset -82
Deg Radians Sin
0 0 0 0 -0.919959 0.0277275 -0.335814 -0.1011076 -0.0385274 -0.0188151
1 0.017453293 0.017452 0 -0.9175625 0.0275746 -0.3325702 -0.09901 -0.0365313 -0.0181698
2 0.034906585 0.034899 0 -0.9148864 0.0273881 -0.3284148 -0.0961588 -0.0339905 -0.0170771
3 0.052359878 0.052336 0 -0.9119317 0.0271683 -0.3233592 -0.0925758 -0.0309431 -0.0155639
4 0.06981317 0.069756 0 -0.9086991 0.0269153 -0.3174173 -0.0882882 -0.0274344 -0.0136675
5 0.087266463 0.087156 0 -0.9051898 0.0266296 -0.3106055 -0.0833288 -0.0235166 -0.0114345
355 6.195918845 -0.08716 0 -0.9277268 0.0279829 -0.3381374 -0.0999405 -0.039603 -0.0151741
356 6.213372137 -0.06976 0 -0.926737 0.028 -0.339534 -0.1017319 -0.040601 -0.016776
357 6.23082543 -0.05234 0 -0.9254649 0.0279829 -0.34 -0.1027491 -0.0409938 -0.0179649
358 6.248278722 -0.0349 0 -0.9239108 0.0279318 -0.339534 -0.1029843 -0.0407754 -0.0187113
359 6.265732015 -0.01745 0 -0.9220754 0.0278466 -0.3381374 -0.1024358 -0.0399492 -0.0189971
360 6.283185307 -2.5E-16 0 -0.919959 0.0277275 -0.335814 -0.1011076 -0.0385274 -0.0188151
- 76 -
Appendix 2
- 77 -
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Current Harmonics in Modern Low Voltage Networks

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Brunel University West London

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Dissertation submitted in pursuance of

MSc Building Services Engineering Management

Dissertation Tutor: Prof. Alan Reynolds

Finally, mitigating actions and recommendations will be discussed.

throughout my years of distance learning at Brunel University.

 Mr. Liam Carroll for putting me straight on a number of transformer-related issues.

and suggestions when I need some direction.

The question is: is it all true, some of it, or none of it?

Sources related to “Electrical fundamentals”

Sources related to “Causes of harmonics”

Sources related to “Mathematics”

Sources related to “Harmonic identification and costs”

Sources related to “Transformers and Resonance”

Sources related to “Living with harmonics”

Choosing a good quality RMS meter

Equation 1- RMS Value

Where a = peak value, f = frequency, and t = time.

Or even more simply as:

150 Distorted Waveform True Sinusoid

Figure 1 - The need to read True RMS

DC Harmonic Harmonic Harmonic Harmonic

Table 1 - Harmonics associated with waveform above

Figure 2 - Equipment set up

To eliminate supply voltage harmonics as a contributing factor, an off-load Voltage harmonic

Table 2 - Harmonic voltage limits as per EN-61000-3-6

Individual harmonic currents are generally expressed either as a percentage of the

To understand harmonics, of any kind, it is essential to understand some basic properties of

Equation 2 - Time frequency relationship

Figure 4 - Waveform “A”

Figure 5 - Waveform “B”

Figure 6 - Waveforms “A” and “B” together

It follows then that where a waveform is of a frequency that is an integer multiple n of a

fundamental frequency ff then that frequency can be described as an nth harmonic of ff

Basic electrical principles

Poweri = Voltagei x Currenti

Figure 7 - Voltage and Current in Phase

Figure 8 - Voltage and Current out of phase

Power Factor and Cos Phi

Figure 9 - Composite load

Figure 11 - Harmonic concept

Where are current harmonics generated?

Figure 12 - "Square Waveform"

Consider the following simple circuit (from Wildi (2000)):

(70.7 Amps) 2 x 10 ohm = 50kW.

(59.3) 2 – (50) 2 = 31.9 kVAR

Figure 13 - Current flow

Simplified operation of UPS or VSD (from Brown et al (2005))

1. S1 = on, S4 = on.... giving + VD at the load

Load Types Analysed

Simple Resistive Load: 2kW Electric Kettle

Simple isolation transformer (Legrand: #0428 44 / Radionics: #383-302)

High Frequency Fluorescent Lighting (Compton Moduspec MS6418ZT-4K)

Compact Fluorescent Light / CFL (Osram Duluxstar 11w)

Electronic Switch mode Power supplied (TV and Entertainment Centre):

TV and Entertainment Centre and Transformer in parallel

Figure 15 - Harmonics in Phase

Distorted w aveform Supply voltage

Distorted w aveform Supply voltage

Figure 16 - Harmonics offset by independent values

This is of particular importance in older installations where it was commonplace to install a

Figure 17 - Significant neutral current in a balanced 3p system predicts a significant neutral

Mr. Liam Carroll for putting me straight on a number of transformer-related issues.

Bird John (2003a) Engineering Mathematics (4th Ed) Newnes: Oxford