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I Laboratory I
1. Reynolds’s experiment 5
14 Bibliography 89
Manual for “Thermo-fluid Laboratory- MEng 3107”
TO THE STUDENTS,
With your laboratory data you will find the parameters or wanted functions. You will take care in
the report of your results the analysis of the uncertainties. This will allow you to delimit the
validity of your summations and suggestions. The final report is the entire product of your work
in each practice. You will take care that it reflects the quality and the quantity of the realized
work and that it shows the variety and wealth of your experiences associated to the development
of the practice.
When writing the final report you will put emphasis in the clarity, for which you should have in
mind, which are the objectives of the practice and the achievements of the same one are.
You will also stand out those aspects that you consider that could make original or different the
realization of your practice with regard to what could be the usual thing. for example if you used
a substance that you proposed, if you used some alternative method to measure some variable or
if you developed some interesting explanation for some observed behavior that been able to
governess to check that it was important to obtain improvements in your results, etc... This gives
an idea of the creativity with which you have approached the task. You will have present to the
potential readers of the report, so that when reading it they receive the wanted impression, this is
that can appreciate the value of your work. For the time being this is important so that your
evaluation is in agreement with the quality of the acquired experience and in the future this
ability will mean a lot for your professional development.
Another important facet is the realization of the teamwork. This is an important aspect in your
vocational training. A very integrated team discusses each one of the activities, takes agreements
on the way of carrying out them and it carries out them communicating and discussing the
diverse experiences, so that the report is an integrated writing and not merely a bale of small
sections without a conductive thread neither internal coherence. The teamwork is a professional
activity that can be stimulant when there is a good relationship among the members of the team.
SECURITY
There are safe-deposit norms that should be completed strictly to avoid accidents in the laboratory.
This regulation is available for its consultation in the same laboratory and it is necessary that you are
to the current of its content, reason why, if you have not read it or you don't remember it, it is
convenient that you request it and understand before beginning your experimental work. By way of a
reminder, it has been mentioned some of the most important points next.
1. The robe use in the laboratory is obligatory when are carried out experiments. To carry out some
manipulations of chemical substances gloves, protective eyeglasses and masks they should also be
used. For the laboratory sessions, it is advisable to dress simple clothes that protect most of the body
and preferably of cotton, closed shoes, with thick soles and without heels or platforms.
2. Not introduce neither to consume or drinks in the laboratory. Not smoke.
3. Only operate an instrument or apparatus when you know how to make it, otherwise to request the
instructor's help, of the assistant or of the technician of the laboratory, to acquire the necessary
dexterity.
4. Once concluded the use of an apparatus or instrument, to follow the appropriate procedure to turn
off it, to disconnect it, to keep it and to give it to the responsible for their custody.
5. When concluding a practice, to lift all the instruments, teams and used accessories, to verify that
all the takings of water, gas, air or others in the working place are very closed and to leave clean and
you dry the working tables and the floor of the laboratory.
i
Manual for “Thermo-fluid Laboratory- MEng 3107”
"It is never possible to introduce only quantities observables in a theory. It is the theory who
decides what it should be observed."
Albert Einstein, 1926.
ii
Manual for “Thermo-fluid Laboratory- MEng 3107”
God willing and we could, when concluding a practice, to share these words of
Rostand, however there are many aspects that sometimes prevent us to
demonstrate with clarity the correspondence between the theory and the
practice. When we notice remarkable likeness between the observed behavior
and our theories, we acquire bigger certainty to manipulate the materials and to
use our predictions like working tools, based on the knowledge acquired in the
career. We are also able to determine which they are the factors that influence -
and in what measure - in the differences and/or discrepancies among our
theories, our laboratory operations and our observations. A bankrupt practice
can be an excellent practice, if the students are able to identify and to evaluate
the sources of the discrepancies. If it is feasible, a bankrupt practice will be
repeated with the pertinent improvements.
Objective
The final report of a practice has the objective of showing that students of
the team has developed a coordinated group of activities starting from its
theoretical knowledge of the topic of the practice that it has allowed them to
design the experiment and to carry out the appropriate mensurations. That
then has carried out the treatment and the analysis of their data to obtain
results whose validity is able to define. Starting from this experience the
students are able to discuss and to elaborate their summations and
suggestions to improve the realization of the practice or they will be able to,
alternating, to elaborate a critic based to demonstrate the disability of the
theories or of the procedures continued in the realization of the practice, of
being the case.
Content
1. cover
It is the first page of the report. It will contain the complete identification: The
University, the Career, and the Subject, the word "It Reports", the title of the
practice, Experiment number, the names of the members of the team, the
Professor's name and the contract date of the report.
The University, the Career, and the Subject, the word "It Reports”
and Title should be written a top center
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Manual for “Thermo-fluid Laboratory- MEng 3107”
Experiment number: On left side page next to the date the serial number
of experiment to be written
2. Summarize executive
It is the second page of the report. In concise form it will be informed on the
objective of the practice, the team and the main considerations of the model,
those will be emphasized obtained results, this way how the limitations to their
validity. The sections and sub-sections will be enumerated with the respective
pages of their beginnings.
3. Objectives
It will be enunciated in brief, complete and numbered form the objectives of the
realization of the practice, which clearly indicates the mean of the experiment.
4. Apparatus
The main equipment will be described where it carried out the processes. This
will include a drawing with the approximate dimensions and a description of
processes apparatus that will be carried out in the system. And a list of
apparatus used for the experiment should be written.
5. Theoretical foundations and their application
The purpose of this section is to develop the relationships that allow describing
the processes that are carried out in the system. Starting from these
relationships they will be considered the quantities or parameters of interest,
requested in the results. This section consists of the following sub-sections:
Hypothesis
The pertinent hypotheses that correspond to the simplified physical
pattern will settle down. The hypothesis will be numbered and each a
followed one for a specific justification enough.
Mathematical Model
It will be defined the systems where the principles and concepts will settle
down. The variables and their meaning will be identified in a diagram of
each system. It will be indicated that the complete development that
takes from the principles to the working equations, where the models will
be elaborated to detail, when it is pertinent.
In the body of the work the main components of the mathematical model
will be included that are:
• The equations that correspond to the thermodynamic
numbered relationships.
• The solution corresponding to the group of relationships in
game.
• The final expressions (working equations) to determine the
estates or variables of interest, objective of the practice.
• If it is required of a calibration of the equipment, the
development that allows to know the calibrated parameter starting
from the expressions for an elected system with this end.
6. Procedure
The purpose of this section is to determine the elements and necessary
procedures for the development of the practice and it consists of the following
sub-sections:
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Manual for “Thermo-fluid Laboratory- MEng 3107”
That is to say that a referred book includes the following data in form
ordinate:
• I nickname and the authors' initials (or of the editors)
• Title of the book (in italic letter)
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Manual for “Thermo-fluid Laboratory- MEng 3107”
• Editorial
• Edition.
• Year of publication of the consulted edition
If it is a collective book, where the chapters are written by diverse authors
and the reference is in particular of a chapter, the following order will be
continued:
• I nickname and the authors' of the chapter initials
• Title of the chapter (in Roman letter)
• The word "In"
• Title of the book or manual (in italic letter)
• I nickname and initials of the editors of the book, followed by the
abbreviation "(eds.) "
• Editorial
• Edition.
• Year of publication of the consulted edition
10. Appendixes
Each Appendix will have a serial number and a name him to indicate its
content and it will be mentioned in the text. The equations will take serial
numeration, preceded by the letter A, for example, "(A.12) it is the equation
#12 in the Appendixes.
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Manual for “Thermo-fluid Laboratory- MEng 3107”
INTRODUCTION
In the practical engineering is very important to know the flow state, this is possible to determine
the values of Reynolds’s number through such as we could by assigned to the transition from
laminar or turbulent flow.
The H65D has designed to study the march of the vertical flows, transitory and turbulent laminar
and the visible phenomena of superior and inferior critical speed through a calibrated transparent
tube, using an injection technique of the similar color to that of the group experimental original
used by the Reynolds.
It is demonstrated analytically that the physical meaning of the number of Reynolds is
represented by the measure of the relationship of the inertia of the viscous forces that act on a
fluid. It is extremely important to allow to those students of the first courses of mechanics of the
fluids to visualize the difference among the flow to laminar and turbulent and to verify that this
difference is reflected empirically in the terms of the number of measured Reynolds.
OBJECTIVE:
To observe the laminar, transitional turbulent and velocity profile
APPARATUS:
Equipment set up: the equipment to determine the flow regime in the stream of fluid is easy
construction as showed in the figures.
Composition
The main components of the group are:
• Cylindrical Tank of feeding.
• Needle of injection color.
• Tank of feeding color.
• Regulation Valve tints.
• Flow indicator.
• Spheres of calm.
Description
The flow operation can be derived from any source (net hydria, bank H89.8D, etc.) by means of
an appropriate one tube with device for the regulation of the flow, given with the apparatus, and
it is introduced by means of a diffuser of ring in the cylindrical recipient of feeding.
By means of a channel peculiar of constant jamb the variations of the speed of the flow are
eliminated and they are determined condition uniforms of low speed in the load before the
entrance of the vertical supporting tube.
Then the fluid is introduced in the supporting tube, with screen background target to evidence the
appearance of the color through a mouth with particular profile studied to accelerate it evenly
without some spurious inertial effect.
The used colored solution is a correspondent to the supporting section through a tube of very
small diameter and the value of the color flow it is controlled by a valve in exit of the tank.
By means of a special valve, placed to the base of the apparatus, the flow of the fluid is regulated
in exit of the supporting section and their value is measured volumetric by means of a flow
indicator.
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Manual for “Thermo-fluid Laboratory- MEng 3107”
The group H65D is compatible with any elected means to vary the cinematic viscosity of the
fluid, using different fluids, to exception of solvent and alcohols, or altering the temperature of
the given fluid (the external circuit for this purpose is not understood in the supply).
Technical characteristics
• Longitude of the supporting tube: 900 mm.;
• internal Diameter of the supporting tube: 12 mm.;
• Maximum flow of the supporting flow: 150 l/h (H2O at 15°C);
• maximum Temperature recommended for the supporting fluid: 52°C.
The equipment is built totally in plastic and mounted material rigidly on a support of wide base
endowed with leveling devices to assure the maximum stability and uprightness of the
supporting tube.
Experiences
The group H65D has been designed to allow the reproduction of some experiments on the nature
of the movement to laminate and turbulent.
In particular:
• Experimental determination of the speed;
• Study of flows laminar, turbulent and their transitory phenomena;
• Search of the number of Reynolds.
6. Required services
• Feeding of water from the net of low flow.
7. Pesos and Dimensions
• Dimensions: 600 x 600 x h1950 mm.
• Weight: 30 kg.
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Manual for “Thermo-fluid Laboratory- MEng 3107”
O. Bands of Hoffman
THEORY
Reynolds’s number (Re) is internationally recognized criterion denoting fluid flow , it is defined
as:
Re = (v. d . ρ )/ µ
Where:
Re: Reynolds’s number
v: velocity of fluid, m/s
µ : Dynamic viscosity of the fluid, Pa . s
ρ : Density of the fluid, kg/m3
υ = µ /ρ : Kinematics Viscosity, m2/s
Osborne Reynold’s determined that values of Re could be assigned to define from laminar,
transitional or turbulent flow.
PROCEDURE
Fill the reservoir (2) with the dye connect the feed valve (9) to obtained maximum level, open
the flow control valve (5) and open the valve inject or dye (7) , after observed the profile of the
flow fluid in pipe glass (4) conduit, controlling the flow to obtain the parabolic profile of the
flow of fluid observed and in this moment take the value the flow of fluid employed the reservoir
(6) and the chronometer (12) taken the time necessary for completed the volume; after that
repeat the procedure to obtain the variation in the profile an take the measuring and after
continue increase de flow velocity and obtain the starting that transversal mixing will be
completed and taken again the measurement of the flow.
Known, the temperature of fluid, diameter of pipe line glass and the liquid water, to determine
the density and viscosity.
To conclude, close the inlet of the dye (7) and close the feet valve of water to reservoir (9) and to
finish close the valve (5) to control de flow.
OBSERVATION
Table 1. Data
Observation V, (m3) t, (s) d, (m) T, (0C)
No Visualization condition of profile Volume of water in Time filled reservoir (6)
reservoir
1 Parabolic profile
2 Starting transversal mixing
color with water
3 Mixing complete
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Manual for “Thermo-fluid Laboratory- MEng 3107”
CALCULATION
According to the experiment 1, 2 , and 3 will be calculating the flow (Q), as:
Therefore:
v= Q/A , m/s ………………………………………………1.3
A= (3.1416 . d2)/ 4 ………………………………………..1.4
Where;
V: volume of water in reservoir (6), m3
t: filled time of reservoir, s
A: cross sectional flow area of pipe line glass, m2
With temperature and fluid (water) , we can get the viscosity (µ ) in the literature.
Therefore, with the equation 1.1, substituting the values, we obtain:
QUESTION
• Do the results obtained agree with the statements under analysis? If not account for any
discrepancy.
• At what values of Reynold’s number have you observed the critical changes for each
state?
• What unique features differentiate the flow state you encountered?
CONCLUSION
Taken in consideration the experiment carry out, results, analyze and question express yours
conclusion about the practice.
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Manual for “Thermo-fluid Laboratory- MEng 3107”
REFERENCE
That was explain in the topic of content of the report, the same way you should have the
reference to the bibliography useful for this practice.
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Manual for “Thermo-fluid Laboratory- MEng 3107”
Content:
1. Calculated overall heat transfer coefficients
2. Determination of temperature distributions along the length of the heat
exchanger
3. Calculate of mean value of the heat transfer rates in both the cases
INTRODUCTION
The application of the principles of heat transfer to the design of equipment to accomplish a certain
engineering objective is of extreme importance for in applying the principles to design.
Eventually, economics plays a key role in the design and solutions of hest-exchanger design problem.
A particular application will dictate the rules, which one must follow to obtain the best design
commensurate with economic considerations, size, weight, etc
From the standpoint of heat –exchanger design the plane wall is of infrequent application, a more
important case for consideration would be that of double – pipe heat exchanger. In this application one
fluid flow on the inside of the smaller tube whiles the other fluid flow in annular space between the two
tubes.
For all analyzed of design and evaluation of heat – exchanger is very important known of the overall heat-
transfer coefficient and temperature profile in uniflow and counter flow equipment for that in this
practical will be try about of this questions. As well as the log mean temperature difference (LMTD)
OBJECTIVE:
1. Calculated overall heat transfer coefficients
2. Determination of temperature distributions along the length of the heat exchanger
3. Calculate of mean value of the heat transfer rates in both the cases
APPARATUS:
Technical Description: Using the study unit, the characteristic properties of a heat exchanger can be
demonstrated. The heat transfer takes place in a coaxial tubular heat exchanger. The hot water is fed
through the inner tube. Using the system both parallel flow and counterflow operation with their different
temperature profiles can be demonstrated. The non-linear temperature profile along a heat exchanger can
be demonstrated by measuring temperatures at the inlet, outlet and halfway along the pipe. After the
experiment the key parameters such as heat transfer rate, heat transfer coefficient and heat loss are
determined. The closed hot water circuit includes a tank with electrical heater and a circulating pump.
The hot water temperature is kept constant using a thermostat. The cold water is drawn from the water
mains and is fed to a drain after use.
Precautions
1. Before you start the experiment check that the water level in the heating tank is up the middle of
the sight glass provided for the purpose.
2. If water level is no visible, fill the tank with water up to the middle of the sight glass.
3. Then set the thermostat on the heater to the required temperature level.
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Manual for “Thermo-fluid Laboratory- MEng 3107”
4. Change the valve settings as per your requirement of the flow, with the counter flow or parallel
flow.
5. Give cold water supply connection after carefully identifying the could water inlet part
6. Connect cold water inlet to the drain.
7. Swich on the heater and start the experiment after about 20 minutes since heating may take this
time.
8. Hondle the setup carefully.
9. In case of doudt clarify your self with the instructor rather than speculating somethimg
Specification:
[1] Experimental mobile unit to investigate characteristic properties of heat transfer in a coaxial
tubular heat exchanger
[2] Hot water to be fed through inner tube
[3] Parallel and counterflow operation, Ball valves mounted in the cold water circuit to be used to
choose the operating mode
[4] Heat exchanger areas:
cold side 40212mm²
hot side 30159mm²
mean log. 34945mm²
length: 1600mm
[5] Flow rate measurement with rotameters:
cold water measuring range 0…96ltr/h
hot water measuring range 0…96ltr/h
[6] 6 thermometers 0...100°C
- hot water inlet
- hot water outlet
- cold water inlet
- cold water outlet half way along the pipe:
- at the inner pipe
- at the outer pipe
[7] Sealed hot water circuit, insulated
[9] Centrifugal submersible pump
3 stages
rating 70W
speed 2400rpm
max. flow rate 3800ltr/h
max. head 4m
[10] Tank
capacity 20ltr
made of stainless steel
Heater 2kW
[-] Thermostat 0...85°C
[-] Copper piping
Conductivity of Cu: 384W/mK
[-] Cooling water to be supplied: min.
150ltr/h
[-] To be supplied with emergency stop
[-] 230VAC, 50Hz, 1 phase
[-] l x w x h: 1385x550x1850mm,
approx. 110kg
THEORY
Following equation
Q=Km . Am . ∆ Tln , Known Q= Q·2 - Q·1 (1)
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Manual for “Thermo-fluid Laboratory- MEng 3107”
Heat exchangers are devices used for heat transfer between two media without direct contact
or mixing of the two media. Heat passes from one medium to the other by convection of each
medium and conduction through the partition that is separating the two media.
There are different types of heat exchangers. The simplest type of heat exchanger consists
of two concentric pipes of different diameters called the double pipe heat exchangers. The
other type of heat exchanger, which is specifically designed to realize large heat transfer area
per unit volume, is the compact heat exchanger. Some examples of heat exchanger are car
radiator, oil coolers and cooling coils in refrigerator.
In steady state the heat flux that is passing from the hot medium to the partition, through
the partition and from partition to the cold medium is the same .In the analysis of heat
exchanger, it is convenient to express the heat flux with the overall heat transfer coefficient
Km ,logarithmic mean temperature difference LMTD, and mean area .
Qm = Um*Am*∆Tln (2)
Heat flux can also be calculated from the difference between the inlet and outlet heat flux.
Q =m*Cp(T2-T1) (3)
.
m = (ρ F * 10-3) / 3600 , kg/s (4)
If the two fluxes found are not equal we use the mean heat flux i.e
Q =((- Qh )+ Qc )/2 (5)
Km = Qm. Am . ∆ Tm (7)
PROCEDURE
Check water level in the tank check and top up if necessary
Switch on master switch
Set desired hot water temperature thermostat (water tank)
Switch on heater. Heating from an ambient temperature of 20°C to 60°C requires
approximately on 20 minutes.
• For uniflow: close ball clocks 2&4 and open 1&3
• For counter flow: close ball clocks 1&3 and open 2&4
Switch on the pump (for hot water circulation)
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Manual for “Thermo-fluid Laboratory- MEng 3107”
OBSERVATION
Table 1 Data
Cold
Hot Water Water Hot Water Cold Water
Tinlet Tmiddle Toutlet Tinlet Tmiddle Toutlet
0 0 0 0 0
F1, l/h F2, l/h t1, C t2, C t3, C t4, C t5, C t6, 0C Uniflow
100 25
100 50
100 75
100 100
Counter-
F1, l/h F2, l/h t1, 0C t2, 0C t3, 0C t6, 0C t5, 0C t4, 0C current
100 25
100 50
100 75
100 100
Counter-
F1, l/h F2, l/h t1, 0C t2, 0C t3, 0C T6, 0C t5, 0C T4, 0C current
50 25
50 50
50 75
50 100
F1, l/h F2, l/h t1, 0C t2, 0C t3, 0C t4, 0C t5, 0C t6, 0C Uniflow
50 25
50 50
50 75
50 100
CALCULATION
For counter flow:
Hot water fluid
• Average temperature Tm = (Thi + Tho)/2
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Manual for “Thermo-fluid Laboratory- MEng 3107”
• With Tm for F1(n) (l/h) fine the specific Cph, (J/kg K) in the table of book or manual
of equipment.
• The heat loss flow rate of hot water in kg/s can be calculated for following relation:
• Thus, with balance equation can be obtained the heat flow rate:
• Thus, with balance equation can be obtained the cold flow rate:
∆ T1 = Thi – Tco
∆ T2 = Tho – Tci
∆ Tm = (∆ T1 - ∆ T2) / Ln (∆ T2 / ∆ T1)
Q = U .A. ∆ Tm
Uh = Qh / Am. ∆ Tm
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Manual for “Thermo-fluid Laboratory- MEng 3107”
Uc = Qc / Am. ∆ Tm
Um = (Uh + Uc) / 2
• Thus, with balance equation can be obtained the heat flow rate:
• Thus, with balance equation can be obtained the cold flow rate:
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Manual for “Thermo-fluid Laboratory- MEng 3107”
∆ T1 = Thi – Tci
∆ T2 = Tho – Tco
∆ Tm = (∆ T1 - ∆ T2) / Ln (∆ T1 / ∆ T2)
Q = U .A. ∆ Tm
Uh = Qh / Am. ∆ Tm
Uc = Qc / Am. ∆ Tm
Um = (Uh + Uc) / 2
The step of calculation should will be repeat for each flow rate F1(n) for n=1 to n = 4, to
obtained the following results.
F1, l/h F2, l/h ∆ Tmax ∆ Tmin ∆ Tm Tmh ρ h Cph Tmc Cpc ρ c Uniflow
100 25
100
50
100
75
100
100
Counter-
F1, l/h F2, l/h ∆ Tmax ∆ Tmin Tmh ρ h Cph Tmc Cpc ρ c current
100
25
100
50
100
75
100
100
Counter-
F1, l/h F2, l/h ∆ Tmax ∆ Tmin ∆ Tm Tmh ρ h Cph Tmc Cpc ρ c current
50 25
50
50
50
75
50
100
F1, l/h F2, l/h ∆ Tmax ∆ Tmin ∆ Tm Tmh ρ h Cph Tmc Cpc ρ c Uniflow
50
25
50
50
50
75
50
100
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Manual for “Thermo-fluid Laboratory- MEng 3107”
Drawing the temperature measurements at different flow rates could be obtaining the
temperature profile for uniflow current, as showed in following figure:
The inlet and outlet temperatures Tinlet and Toutlet, as well as the temperature Tm after half the
heat-exchange distance, were plotted on the chart.
In the following figures showed the typical graphic for counter current temperature profile.
Temperature
60 60
50 50
Temperature
40 40
30 30
20 20
10 10
0 0
1 2 Distance 3 1 2 Distance 3
24.1 48.6 74.2 96 24.1 48.6 74.2 96 25 49.4 74.6 97.2 25 49.4 74.6 97.2
And with different values of the Um to different cold – water flow rate obtained the following
Coefficient of heat transfer
figure which showed the relation of flow and heat coefficient transmission, for both in
uniflow
1.6 and counter flow:
1.8
Um, J/kg. K
1.4
1.2 Uniflow
1 Counter-current
0.8 Counter-current 18
0.6 Uniflow
0.4
0.2
0
0 50 100 150
F, L/h
Manual for “Thermo-fluid Laboratory- MEng 3107”
Question
• What is heat transfer?
• How is defined the coefficient of heat transmission?
• How is defined the heat flux?
• How is defined the logarithmic mean of temperature?
Conclusion
Taken in consideration the experiment carry out, results, analyze and question express yours
conclusion about the practice.
REFERENCE
That was explain in the topic of content of the report, the same way you should have the
reference to the bibliography useful for this practice.
19
Laboratory 1……..
INTRODUCTION
It is a fact well established by experiment that when a fluid flows aver a solid surface
there is no slip at the surface. The fluid in immediate contact with a surface moves with
it, and the relative velocity increases from zero at the surface to the velocity in the free
stream trough a layer of fluid, which is called the boundary layer.
OBJECTIVES
· To Investigation of the velocity distribution on a plane plate in a longitudinal flow
· To Investigation of the thickness of the boundary layer for turbulent flow
APPARATUS:
Airflow Bench
Description
A compact and mobile airflow bench which supports interchangeable experiment
modules and provides a controlled, variable flow of air. The bench, when used with the
modules (AF11 to AF18), enable a complete first course in airflow. The equipment is
easy to set up and install, and experiments are quickly attached or removed. The
experiment modules enable a complete first course in airflow, and the high levels of
built-in safety make the equipment ideal for student experiments, lecture theatre
demonstrations and project work.
The end of the tube is flattened so that it presents a narrow slit opening to the flow. The
traversing mechanism is spring loaded to the prevent backlash and a micrometer reading
is used to indicate the displacement of the Pitot tube.
Liners may be placed on the walls of the working section so that either a generally
accelerating free stream may be produced along the length of the plate, depending on
which way round they are fitted. With the liners removed, uniform free-stream flow
conditions obtain over the plate length.
Pressure Po in air box
Flow from air
box
Pitot pressure P
Exhaust to
atmosphere Traversing crosshead
with micrometer
Figure 2. Test Section
Boundary Layer Apparatus
A flat plate is placed in the l00mm x 50mm transparent working
section so that a boundary layer forms along it. A sensitive, wedge
shaped Pitot tube mounted in a micrometer traverse allows velocity
measurements to be made in the boundary layer. Both laminar and
turbulent layers may be formed.
Experiments which may be carried out include the measurement of the
velocity profile:
1. In laminar and turbulent boundary layers.
2. In the boundary layer on rough and smooth plates.
3. In the boundary layer at various distances from the leading edge of
the plate.
4. In the boundary layer on plates subject to an increasing or
decreasing pressure gradient in the
direction of flow (using the removable duct liners supplied).
Laboratory 1……..
THEORY
Consider steady flow over a flat smooth plate as show in the figure, where the streaming
velocity U is constant over the length of the plate. It is found that the thickness of the
boundary layer grows along the length of the plate as indicated on the figure 3.
δ
X
Laminar Turbulent
Transition
Figure 3. General characteristics of boundary layer over flat plate
Definition of thickness: A little consideration will show that the boundary layer thickness
δ , shown in before figure as the thickness where the velocity reaches the free stream
value, is not an entirely satisfactory concept. The velocity in the boundary layer increases
towards U in an asymptotic manner , so the distance Y at which we might consider the
velocity to have reached U will depend on the accuracy of measurement thickness
∗
δ .This is defined as the thickness by the existence fluid outside the layer is displaced
away from the boundary by the existence of the layer, as indicates schematically in the
following figure 4:
Laboratory 1……..
B’ U B
δ
∗
A’
A
U-u
Figure 4. Velocity
distribution and u h
displacement thickness of y
boundary layer.
When h is any arbitrary value, which satisfies the condition, U=U, for h
α, rearrangement and introducing some consideration, we can obtain that,
α u
∆Q = ∫ (1 − ) dy
0 U
Momentum thickness, ϕ
α u u
ϕ=∫ (1 − ) dy
0 U U
For laminar boundary layers along a flat plate with uniform free stream velocity, the
velocity profile has been calculated,
∗
δ = 1.721 x√ Rex
ϕ = 0 .664 x√ Rex
from which it may be noted that the thickness along the plate grows in proportion to √x.
The shape factor is,
H= 2.59
For a turbulent boundary layer along a smooth flat plate there are no corresponding
calculated results, frequently the velocity the distribution is expressed in the form,
1
u Y n
=( )
U δ
PROCEDURE
OBSERVATION
a) Turbulent boundary layers on smooth and rough surfaces
Air temperature = 190C
Barometric pressure 1010 mb
Pressure in air box: 640, 640, 640, 640 N/m2
Length of plate from leading edge to traverse section, L = 0.265 m
Barometric pressure 1010 mb
Readings of Pitot pressures P are tabulated in the following table, values of y shown in
the table are obtained from the micrometer reading at which the tube just touched the
surface.
Table 1. Data
Micrometer y, (mm) P, N/m2
reading (mm)
21.0 6.06 550
20.0 5.0 555
19.0
18.0
17.0
16.5
16.0
15.8
15.6
15.4
15.2
15.14
CALCULATION
a) Turbulent boundary layers on smooth and rough surfaces
The plate was installed in the test section without the lines fitted, and measurements were
made in the boundary layer formed on the smooth surface and then an the rough surface,
As shown in the table, making allowance for the initial displacement t due to the
thickness of the Pitot tube.
u P
=
U P0
Where Po is the Pitot tube readings in the free stream.
½ ρ U2 = 550 N/m2
where,
2x550
U =
1.204
U= 30.2 m/s
UL 30 .2 • 0.265 x10 5
Re = =
ν 1.49
Re = 5.37 x105
Laboratory 1……..
Table 2 Velocity distribution in boundary layer on smooth flat plate, Re = 5.37 x105
Micrometer
y, (mm) P, N/m2 u/U
reading (mm)
21.0 6.06 550 1.00
20.0 5.0 555 1.00
19.0 4.06 550 1.00
18.0
17.0
16.5
16.0
15.8
15.6
15.4
15.2
15.14
Velocity distribution
Micrometer y, P,
u/U 8
18.5 1
17.5 0
17.0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
16.5 u/U
16.3
16.10
With help the Microsoft Excel you can obtain the following graphic to allow compares
the velocity profile in both smooth and rough case,
CONCLUSION
To express how it carry out the experiment, to compare the velocity profile on smooth
and rough plate.
REFERENCE
That was explain in the topic of content of the report, the same way you should have the
reference to the bibliography useful for this practice.
Laboratory 1……..
OBJECTIVE:
APPARATUS:
Round Turbulent Jet Apparatus
A cylindrical tube having an aerodynamically rounded entrance, is fitted to the plenum
chamber. The total pressure in the emerging jet maybe measured by means of a pitot tube
mounted in a traverse gear, which is arranged so that a diametrical traverse may be made
at various sections along the jet axis. Several diameters may be traversed to check the
symmetry of the jet. Experiments which may be carried out include the following
1. To observe the decay of centre-line velocity.
2. To obtain velocity profile at various distances along the jet and observe the
development and spread of the jet.
3. By analysis of the velocity profiles, to show how the mass flux in the jet increases, the
kinetic energy flux decreases and the momentum flux remains constant along the length.
THEORY
In this experiment we establish the shape of an air jet as it mixes in a turbulent manner
with surrounding air. It is convenient to refer to such a jet as a "submerged" jet to
distinguish it from the case of the "free" jet where no mixing with the surrounding
medium takes place, as is the case when a smooth water jet passes through the atmosphere.
Laboratory 1……..
If the Reynolds number of a submerged jet (based on the initial velocity and diameter of the
jet) is sufficiently small, the jet remains laminar for some length — perhaps 100 diameters
or more. In this case the mixing with the surrounding fluid is very slight, and the jet
retains its identity. Laminar jets are important in certain fluidic applications, where a
typical diameter may be 1 mm, but the vast majority of engineering applications occur
in the range of Re where turbulent jets are produced.
The essential features of a round turbulent jet are illustrated on fig. 1. The jet starts where
fluid emerges uniformly at speed U from the end of a thin-walled tube, of cross-sectional
radius R, placed in the body of a large volume of surrounding fluid. The sharp velocity
discontinuity at the edge of the tube gives rise to an annular shear layer which almost
immediately becomes turbulent.
The width of the layer increases in the downstream direction as shown on the diagram. For
a short distance from the end of the tube the layer does not extend right across the jet, so
that at section 1 shown in the figure there is a core of fluid moving with the
undisturbed velocity U, the velocity in the shear layer rising from zero at the outside to
U at the inside. Further down-stream the shear layer extends right across the jet and the
velocity uo on the jet axis starts to fall as the mixing continues until ultimately the
motion is completely dissipated.
There is entrainment from the fluid surrounding the jet by the turbulent mixing process
so that the mass flux in the jet increases in the downstream direction. The static pressure is
assumed to be constant throughout, so there is no force in the direction of the jet. The
momentum of the jet is therefore conserved. The kinetic energy of the jet decreases in the
downstream direction because of the turbulent dissipation. It should be emphasized that the
velocity profiles indicated on fig. 1 are mean velocity distributions, and that the very severe
turbulence in the jet will cause instantaneous velocity profiles to vary considerably from
these mean ones.
Laboratory 1……..
(1)
In the core of the jet, we have already observed that
Far downstream, when the length of the core ceases to have influence, there is some
theoretical justification (supported by experiment) for expecting centerline velocity to
decay inversely as x, viz.
(2)
where c is a constant.
The velocity u.at any position (r,x) in the jet may also be written in the dimensionless form
(3)
Consider now the velocity distribution over a section far downstream, i.e. where x/R is large.
We might reasonably expect that the velocity distribution across the section would not depend
appreciably on the precise detail of the flow near the tube exit, so we might ignore the
dependence upon — and write simply
(4)
far downstream. Velocity profiles of this type, in which the velocity ratio depends on a
parameter, are frequently called "similar", in the sense that a single expression is used to
characterise the velocity distribution at any number of chosen sections. Using certain
assumptions about the nature of the turbulent processes, it is possible to show that equation (4)
should take the form
(5)
Coming now to mass, momentum and energy flux, we see in fig. 2 an annular element of
the jet through which fluid of density ρ is flowing with velocity u. The area of the
element is
(6)
The momentum flux J through the section is similarly found to be
(7)
(8)
It is convenient in many instances to relate these to the corresponding fluxes at the tube
exit, viz.
(10)
(11)
PROCEDURE
The round jet is produced by discharging air from the air box through a short tube as
indicated in fig.3. The inlet of the tube is rounded to prevent separation so that a
substantially uniform velocity distribution is produced at the tube exit. A traversing
mechanism is supported on the tube so that a Pitot tube may be brought to any desired
position in the jet. Measurements are normally made in one plane, but if it is desired to
check on the symmetry of the jet about the axis, the traversing mechanism may be rotated as
a whole to any desired position.
The Pitot tube is first brought into the exit plane of the jet and the scale readings are noted
for which the axial position x and the radial position r are zero. The latter may be obtained
by taking the mean of the readings when the tube is set in line with one side and then the
other side of the tube. The pressure Po in the air box is then brought to a convenient value
and traverses are made at various axial stations along the length of the jet. The readings of
total pressure P fluctuate violently because of the turbulence and some damping is required;
excessive damping should however not be used. It is recommended that graphs of total
pressure P against radius r be plotted as the experiment proceeds to ensure that the profile
is well-established by a sufficient number of readings in the critical regions.
Laboratory 1……..
OBSERVATION
Table 2 Data
x, P,
mm N/m2
0 870
50 860
75 845
100
125
150
175
200
225
250
300
350
400
450
CALCULATION
Diameter D of jet tube 51.6 mm
Radius R 25.8 mm
Pressure Po in air box 900 N/m2
Air temperature 22°C = 295 K
Barometric pressure 1025 mb = 1.025 x io5 N/m2
centre. Extrapolating the falling curve backwards to the line =1 shows the
length of the core to be
The results of radial traverses made at various values of x are shown in table 3 and on
figs. 5(a) to 5(d). It may be noted that for x = 300 mm a check was made to find
whether the velocity distribution was symmetrical about the axis, and this established
that there was no appreciable departure from roundness. The profile at x = 75 mm shows
a distinct region of constant velocity in the core, and at x = 150 mm there is still some
evidence of a flat top to the profile. Further downstream, however, this has
disappeared. On fig. 6 a dimensionless comparison of the profiles is made by dividing
the radius by the radius at which the velocity ratio is 0.5. The curves for x
= 300 mm and x = 450 mm are virtually indistinguishable, indicating similar
profiles — similarity having the meaning of the previous discussion. The transition from
the square-topped profile at the tube exit to the similarity profile is clearly
demonstrated on this figure. The curve calculated from equation (5) (values being
shown in table 1) is also plotted. There is good agreement with the similarity profile
near the centre of the jet, but equation (5) over estimates u/u0 at the outer edge.
and so are a measure of momentum flux. The areas, measured by planimeter, lead to the
results of Table 4. The values do not remain constant at 1.0 as expected, but rise
significantly as the jet develops. There can be no doubt that the momentum flux does not
increase since there is no force acting in the direction of the jet, so the apparent rise
must be due to experimental error. The most likely source is turbulence which could
have the effect of giving a mean velocity pressure which is in excess of the pressure
corresponding to the mean velocity.
CONCLUSION
The diffusion of a turbulent air jet into the surrounding atmosphere has been measured by
velocity traverses along the centerline and along several radii. The first part of the jet is
found to have a central core of almost constant velocity which extends for a length xc =
6.8R along the axis. Thereafter the centerline velocity reduces and the velocity profile
rapidly tends to similarity, i.e. to a profile which may be characterized by the single
parameter r/x. The momentum flux in the jet, which must be constant in a constant-
pressure atmosphere, appears to rise by about 14% along its length. The discrepancy is
attributed to measurement error due to turbulence.
3. Investigate the effect of initial turbulence in the jet by placing wire gauze over
the exit of the tube and comparing the results with these obtained with a plain
exit.
REFERENCE
That was explain in the topic of content of the report, the same way you should have the
reference to the bibliography useful for this practice.
Laboratory 1……..
INTRODUCTION
The engineer is frequently presented with problems of flow contained within tubes
and ducts. Such flows may be classified as internal flows to distinguish them from
flows over bodies such as aerofoils, called external flows. It is sometimes required
to shape a duct in such a way that particular requirements are met. For example, it may
be necessary to change the shape of the cross-section from square to rectangular with a
small loss of total head, or it may be required to form a bend in such a way that the
distribution of velocity at the exit is as nearly uniform as it can be made.
Due to the presence of boundary layers along the duct walls, the fluid mechanics o f such
flows are sometimes extremely complicated. Separation may be produced where pressure
rises in the direction of flow.
In this experiment we investigate the flow round 90 deg bend in a duct of rectangular
section, using pressure tapings along the walls to establish pressure distributions.
OBJECTIVE:
To investigate the flow round 90 deg bend in a duct of rectangular section, using pressure
tapings along the walls to establish pressure distributions.
Due to the presence of boundary layers along the duct walls, the fluid mechanics of
such flows are sometimes extremely complicated. Separation may be produced where
the pressure rises in the direction of flow, as illustrated in Fig. 1 (a). This shows a duct
of increasing cross-sectional area in which the flow decelerates with an
accompanying rise of pressure. Separation of flow from one wall is shown,
followed by a region of severe turbulence in which there is mixing between the
main flow and the region of recirculating flow (often called the separation bubble)
near the wall. Ultimately the main flow reattaches to the wall. The turbulent
mixing leads to loss of total pressure, the size of this loss depending on the extent
of the .separation. It should be emphasized that the flow shown in the figure is
schematic only.
The Fig. 3 shows the dimensions of the bend and the positions of the pressure
tappings. There is a reference pressure tapping 0 on the side face near the entry, and
three sets of tappings; one set of 10 along the outer curved wall, one set of 10
along the inner curved wall and a set of 9 along a radius of the bend. Air from the
contraction section is blown along the duct and is exhausted to atmosphere.
THEORY
The separation line is rarely steady. The size of the separated zone often fluctuates
violently, and in some cases the separation is intermittent. Separation might occur
over more than one surface and would not normally take place uniformly over one
side as shown for illustrative purposes in the figure. A further complication arises
from secondary flow which is again due to boundary layer effects. Fig. 1 (b) shows
one example of the formation of a secondary flow in a gently-curving duct of
rectangular cross-section. The curvature of the flow is accompanied by a pressure
gradient which rises across the section from the inner to the outer wall. The pressure
gradient extends over the whole section, so that the boundary layers on the upper and
lower walls are subjected to the same pressure gradient as the main flow. But because the
streaming velocity in the boundary layer is less than in the main part of the flow,
the curvature of the streamlines in the boundary layer is more severe, as indicated
in the figure. This gives rise to a net inward-directed flow adjacent to the upper and
lower walls, which sets up a secondary flow in the form of a double rotation,
superposed on the main stream. The motion emerging from the curve in the duct
is therefore a pair of contra-rotating spirals, the strength of which depends on the
amount of curvature and on the thickness of the boundary layer.
where u is the streaming velocity at radius r from the centre of curvature of the
bend. Separation and secondary flow will be neglected. The constant C may be found
by applying the equation of continuity as follows:-
(2)
where b is the width of the section of the duct. Substituting for u from equation
(1) and performing the integration leads to the result
(3)
(5)
where po is the static pressure upstream and p is the pressure at radius r in the bend.
It is convenient to express p in the form of a dimensionless pressure coefficient c p
where,
(6)
Where,
p= pi Tappimgs pressures (i=1 to 10) P
P= air box pressure
pi= tappings pressure p0
pi
PROCEDURE
• The pressure tappings along the outer wall, the reference tapping 0 and the
pressure tapping in the air box are all connected to the manometer.
Laboratory 1……..
• The air speed is adjusted to a value slightly below the maximum, as indicated
by the air box pressure, and the pressures are recorded. (The setting of air speed slightly
below the maximum is to ensure that the same setting may be repeated in later tests).
• The tappings on the inner wall are then connected in place of the ones on the
outer wall.
• The air box pressure is adjusted to the previous value and a further set of
readings are recorded.
• Finally the procedure is repeated with the third set of pressure tappings. In
the following table record the pressure relative to atmosphere datum and the pressure
coefficients c p are calculated from equation (6).
OBSERVATION
CALCULATION
p0
Laboratory 1……..
Figure 4 shows the distribution of measured pressure coefficient over the curved
walls and compares the measured and calculated values across the radial section.
It may be seen that the pressure across the inlet section is nearly uniform.
Laboratory 1……..
∆ p = p0-p10_outlet
where K is the dimensionless loss coefficient. In this case we find, from the
change in Cp from the inlet to the outlet sections, the value
K=0.15 (10)
CONCLUSION
Laboratory 1……..
The distribution of pressure over the curved walls of a 90° bend of rectangular
section has been established by pressure plotting. The pressure coefficient is
negative and almost constant round the inner wall, and positive and almost
constant round the outer wall. Across the 45° cross-section the pressure
distribution may be predicted with reasonable accuracy by assuming free-vortex
velocity distribution over the section. The value of loss coefficient K is 0.15 for
this bend.
Questions for Further Discussion
2. Do you consider that there might be any secondary flow in the stream,
downstream of the bend, and can you suggest how this might be
investigated?
Noting that the measured pressures do not quite agree with the theoretical
values, this equation may be modified to
INTRODUCTION
When a solid body is placed in a fluid flow and a nonsymmetrical situation occurs the
direction of the force on the body does not coincide with the direction of the
(undisturbed) flow. This principle makes flying possible. Discussion of lift and drag starts
usually with the introduction of an airfoil. (x is the direction of the horizontal flow, z is
vertical)
The airfoil is tilted with respect to the (undisturbed) flow direction, defined by the angle
of attack; α. the airfoil experiences a force FR. The airfoil cross section of an airplane
wing is long in the direction perpendicular to the plane of the drawing and the flow can
be considered as two-dimensional.
In this practice you should obtained the form experimental the values of the components
of the force FR
OBJECTIVE:
To measure the drag and lift of an aerofoil at different angles of attack
APPARATUS:
HM 170 Air Flow Bench (wind tunnel)
Technical Description
The educational wind tunnel HM 170 (figure 1) is a so-called "Eiffel type" of open
subsonic wind tunnel. With this type of tunnel, the air is taken from the atmosphere and
returned to the atmosphere. A carefully designed nozzle shape guarantees the constant
distribution of velocity within the closed measurement section. Velocities of around
100km/h are reached. A flow rectifier at the inlet ensures a low degree of turbulence. The
wind tunnel consists of the following components: inlet hopper with flow rectifier,
nozzle, measurement section, diffuser and fan. The nozzle, inlet hopper and the
measurement sections are mounted on a guide rail and can be moved in order to access
the measurement section. An axial fan with guide wheel is used which is characterized by
its low noise level and high efficiency. The fan is mounted on rubber elements to
minimize vibration during operation. It is driven by a speed-controlled motor with
frequency converter. The fan is connected permanently with the diffuser. An electronic 2-
component force transducer permits the measurement of resistance and buoyant forces at
various objects. The measured values are displayed on a measuring amplifier. It is also
possible to process the data via PC-data acquisition (available as an accessory). A slanted
tube manometer is used to display the current air velocity at the inlet into the
measurement section.
Laboratory 1……..
Figure 1. Specification
Technical Data
Measurement section
Cross-section wxh: 292x292mm
Length: 450mm
Max. wind velocity: 28m/s
Fan
Pressure difference: 500Pa
Max. volumetric flow: 9000m³/h
Motor output: 2.25kW
Max. rotational speed: 2850rpm
2-component force transducer
Measuring range: 0...5N and 0...10N
Slanted tube manometer
0...500Pa
Laboratory 1……..
THEORY
When a solid body is placed in a fluid flow and a nonsymmetrical situation occurs the
direction of the force on the body does not coincide with the direction of the
(undisturbed) flow. This principle makes flying possible. Discussion of lift and drag starts
usually with the introduction of an airfoil. (x is the direction of the horizontal flow, z is
vertical)
FL FR
z
x
FD
angle of attack α
Figure 2. Angle fo attack
The airfoil (e.g. the cross section of an airplane wing) is long in the direction
perpendicular to the plane of the drawing and the flow can be considered as two
dimensional. The airfoil is tilted with respect to the (undisturbed) flow direction, defined
by the angle of attack,α. the airfoil experiences a force FR. Considering an airplane it is
very useful to decompose the force FR into components FL and FD perpendicular and
parallel to the flow direction. FL is the lift force, it carries the plane, and by definition it
does not do work. FD is the drag force, the resistance to be balanced by the propulsion
force generated by the engines. The net power required is the product of drag force times
flow velocity. The lift and drag forces are expressed as:
FL = 0.5 C L ρ A u 2
FD = 0.5 C D ρ A u 2
with: FL and FD = lift and drag force
CL and CD = lift and drag coefficient
ρ = density of the fluid
A = projected area of the airfoil with e.g. 1m length perpendicular to the plane of the
drawing
u = velocity of the undisturbed flow
Note that the expression for FL and FD differ only in CL and CD. The designer of an
airplane tries to maximize CL and to minimize CD. CL and CD are dependent on the angle
of attack. For an enormous number of airfoil profiles CL and CD have been measured or
calculated. Usually the CL drops sharply and CD increases strongly at α = abt.150. The
force on the airfoil is the result of the integration of pressure around the perimeter.
Laboratory 1……..
When not an airfoil but a flat surface with zero thickness is placed in a flow a lift and
drag force can be distinguished as well.
FL FR
z
FD x
direction of fluid flow
Figure 3. Forces diagram
An aerofoil is shaped so that air flows faster over the top than under the bottom. There
is, therefore, a greater pressure below the aerofoil than above it. This difference in
pressure produces the lift.
Angle of Attack is the difference between where the wing is pointed and the direction of
the air flowing over the wing as shown in this schematic.
As the force is the resultant of the pressure on the surface the direction of the force
cannot be different from perpendicular to the surface (shear forces neglected). This
includes that CD and CL cannot be independent of each other. Between the two the next
relation exists:
CD
= tan α
CL
When a curved surface with zero thickness is placed in a flow the force on every surface
element is perpendicular to that element but as the angle of attack varies and also the
pressure distribution not much can be said over the position and the direction of the
resulting force. See Figure. But when the curvature is small as with a rowing blade, the
situation cannot be very different from a flat plate. Assume now that the forces are in the
horizontal plane as is the case with rowing. For an elaboration of the idea see section 5.
CD and CL as function of the angle of attack.
FL FR
FD
direction of fluid flow
From the explanation above follows: the distinction between lift and drag is not of a
physical nature but it is a functional one (carrying and resisting) or a geometrical one
(perpendicular and parallel to the flow direction) but the observation made before that the
lift force does not do work is of importance. In other words, the lift force does not waste
energy.
1. Mount the aerofoil model in the middle of the working section (take care of the
lever arm of 310 mm of the force balance)
2. Set the force at the measuring amplifier to zero with the help of offset
potentiometer.
3. Started the wind tunnel. After the desired wind speed is reached set the aerofoil to
the zero angle of attack. All angles will be measured with reference to this angle
position.
4. Measurement the drag and lift at different setting angles.
Make sure that the model is secured in respective position when the tunnel is on!
5. At high angles, the vibration of the aerofoil indicates flow turbulence.
If the vibration amplitude is high stop the experiment.
OBSERVATION
Table 1 . Data
No Angle of attack Lift force(Fl) in N Drag force(Fd) in Lift coefficient (Cl) Drag coefficient(Cd)
N
1 0
2 3
2 6
3 9
4 11
5 13
6 15
7 17
8 19
Area of the holder rod is 0.000125m2
Drag coefficient for cylindrical rod is 1.1
Length of the aerofoil 100mm
Laboratory 1……..
The graphs below (figure 6) shows how lift and drag changes with the angle of attack for
a typical wing design.
CONCLUSION
Laboratory 1……..
You should be the comparison the drag and lift of an aerofoil at different angles of
attack, according to the result obtained and its analysis.
REFERENCE
That was explain in the topic of content of the report, the same way you should have the
reference to the bibliography useful for this practice.
Laboratory 1……..
OBJECTIVE
Comparison of the lost in nozzle and diffuser type duct flows using a venturi-meter and
determine the coefficient CD of venturi-meter.
INTRODUCTION
Special Tubes a variety of special forms of the pitot tube have been
evolved. Folsom (loc. cit.) gives a description of many of these special
types together with a comprehensive bibliography. Included are the
impact tube for boundary-layer measurements and shielded total-
pressure tubes. The latter are insensitive to angle of attack up to 40°.
Chue [Prog. Aerosp. Sci., 16, 147–223 (1975)] reviews the use of the
pitot tube and allied pressure probes for impact pressure, static
pressure, dynamic pressure, flow direction and local velocity, skin
friction, and flow measurements.
APPARATUS
Venturimeter, large flask and measurement cylinder.
THEORY
Venturimeter is advice used for measurement rate of a fluid flowing through the pipe. It
consists in three parts:
√ 1−β 4
w= q1. ρ 1 = CD . Y. A2 2 gc ( p1-p2) . ρ 1
For the flow of gases, expansion factor Y, which allows for the change
in gas density as it expands adiabatically from p1 to p2, is given by
for venturi meters and flow nozzles, where r = p2 /p1 and k = specific
heat ratio cp /cv. Values of Y computed from Eq. (10-21) are given in
Fig. 10-16 as a function of r, k, and β .
For the flow of liquids, expansion factor Y is unity. The change in
potential energy in the case of an inclined or vertical venturi meter
must be allowed for. Equation is accordingly modified to give
PROCEDURE
• Check if all valves are in right position.
• Switch on the hydraulics bench.
• Take differential manometers reading for each point.
• Set the flow and close valve exit in the reservoir of the hydraulic bench.
• Take reading of flow rate, by take the time and volume of liquid
• Repeat the procedure for different flow rates.
Laboratory 1……..
OBSERVATION
Table: Data Collected
A B C D E F G H I J K L
For actual condition
the coefficient can be calculate by:
h1 - hn
Cpa = (C 2 / 2g)
2
2
Where, (C2 / 2g) = h1 – h2 + (C12 / 2g)
Q= A1 . C1 , C1= Q/ A1
C1= (0.0004905 m3 / s ) / ( 0.7854 . (26x10-3)2)
C1= 0.924 m/s = 924 mm/s
Laboratory 1……..
Where, C1 is the velocity of fluid in section 1, and A1 area the flow in section 1; m2
Then, 2
(C2 / 2g) = h1 – h2 + (C12 / 2g)
Where,
h1 = 292 mm
h2 = 30 mm
(C22 / 2g) = 292 –30 + (9242 / 2(9.51) . 1000)
(C22 / 2g) = 305.5 mm
After that it should be calculated the theoretical piezometric head coefficient (Cpht) for
each section: D D2
Cpht =
[ 4
] - [ 4
]
2
Dn D1
For section B,
D2 D2
(Cpht )B = [ DB
]4 - [ D1 ]4
As the relation between D2= 16 mm and D1= 26 mm is:
D2
[ D1 ]= 0.615
16
(Cpht )B =
[ 32.2 ]4 – (0.615)4
(Cp ht)B = 0.0828
The same way for each section “A” to “L” you can obtained the (Cpht). The result should
be shown in the following table:
Section A B C D - - - - - - - - - - - - L
(Cpht)i 0 0.08 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
3
Laboratory 1……..
After that you can calculate the Cpa coefficient (Actual piezometric head coefficients),
h1 - h2
Cpa = (C 2 / 2g)
1
∆h
For section A:
h1 - ha
Cpa = (C 2 / 2g)
2
For section B:
(C22 / 2g) = 305.5 mm,
as, which one was calculated before,
h1 - hB 292 - 288
(Cpa ) = (C 2 / 2g) = 305.5
2
(Cpa)B = 0.0131
Subsequently, the same way you should obtained the values for another section.
The relation between actual flow rate (Qactual) and theoretical flow rate (Q theoretical) we can
obtain the discharge coefficient of venturi meter.
CD= 0.85 that is the coefficient of discharge of the venturi meter, for this condition.
350 1 (Cp)a
Pressure, mm of water
300
250 0.8 (Cth)a
Cpa, Cpht
200 0.6
150
100 0.4
50
0.2
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 0
-5 15 35 55 75 95 11 13
Length, m m
5 5
Length, m m
CONCLUSION
In this point, you should realize the analysis about the results, reflect on the calculation,
analysis of the result, discussion point, and take in maid the loss in the venture meter tube
and how influence is the present of frictional losses about the flow. You should do the
analysis of conclusion about the chart of results.
Laboratory 1……..
INTRODUCTION
The airfoil is tilted with respect to the (undisturbed) flow direction, defined by the angle
of attack,α. the airfoil experiences a force FR. The airfoil cross section of an airplane wing
is long in the direction perpendicular to the plane of the drawing and the flow can be
considered as two dimensional.
In this practice you should obtained the form experimental the values of the components
of the force FR , but in this case we consider pressure distribution over an
aerofoil at different velocity and angles.
OBJECTIVE
To measure the pressure distributions on an aerofoil
APPARATUS
HM 170 Air Flow Bench Win Tunnel, it was presented in before practice; the same way is use
in this case.
Technical Description
The aerofoil drag model is intended for usage in the measuring section in the HM 170
Educational Wind Tunnel. The model consists of an aerofoil section made of plastic and
mounting bracket made of corrosion-resistant steel. The aerofoil is painted red and is
fitted with guide panels at the ends. These ensure that the flow is optimally aligned with
the aerofoil. The model is placed in a 2-component force transducer, this indicates the
drag force and lift as a measured value when the body is placed in a flow.
Figure 1. Aerofoil
Specification
[1] Drag model for experiments on bodies in flows
[2] Aerofoil made of plastic, profile NACA 15, lxwxh 100x100x15mm
[3] Bracket made of corrosion-resistant steel, d=4mm
Laboratory 1……..
Technical Data
Profile: NACA 15
Dimensions and Weight
l x w x h: 100 x 15 x 289 mm
Weight : ca. 0.3 kg
THEORY
Drag Coefficient
A dimensionless value that allows the comparison of drag incurred by different sized and
different shaped bodies.
where
F = aerodynamic drag force [N]
Cd = drag coefficient
A = frontal area [m ]2
PROCEDURE
• First we mount the model in the middle of the working section.
• Then we connect all the pressure topping along the length of bottom and top
surfaces of the aerofoil model to the manometer. And the we set the aerofoil at 10
0
C of angle of attack.
• After that we measure initial atmospheric pressure acting on the aerofoil before
starting the wind tunnel.
• Finally we started the wind tunnel and measured the pressure at different portion
along the aerofoil length.
Laboratory 1……..
OBSERVATION
The measurement to realize should be taken as is shown in the following table:
Table 1. Data
The data collected Calculated as tabulated
X P∞ Patm (Pa) P x_gange (Pa) Cp
in cm of H2O in Pascal
1
2
.
n
CALCULATION
Subsequently we shown the example, how we can calculate of the pressure and C p we can
carry out it known the experimental values.
To measure pressure distribution in aerofoil, calculate the pressure coefficient.
Where:
(Px)y – Gange pressure at x distance of the aerofoil
(P∞)y - Gange pressure of free stream
ρ - Density of air
U∞ - Free stream velocity
CP - Pressure coefficient
Show the result with help of the graph same as is shown in the following figure 3, with
the values calculated.
Cp
Figure 3. Result
CONCLUSION
You should be boarding the aspect in relation with behavior the Cp and pressure in
different positions of the aerofoil.
REFERENCE
That was explain in the topic of content of the report, the same way you should have the
reference to the bibliography useful for this practice.
Laboratory 1……..
INTRODUCTION
The airfoil is tilted with respect to the (undisturbed) flow direction, defined by the angle
of attack, α. the airfoil experiences a force FR. The airfoil cross section of an airplane
wing is long in the direction perpendicular to the plane of the drawing and the flow can
be considered as two dimensional.
In this practice you should obtained the form experimental the values of the components
of the force FR , but consider assessments of the variance of lift and Drag on
an aerofoil via flaps and slats.
OBJECTIVE
To find but the effect of flaps and soft on lift and drop control.
APPARATUS
HM 170 Air Flow Bench Win
Tunnel, it was presented in before practice; the same way is use
in this case.
Instruments:
• Potentiometer
• Aerofoil models
• Measurement amplifier
• Measurement drag an lift force
• Thermometer
THEORY
An aerofoil is shaped so that air flows faster over the top than under the bottom. There is,
therefore, a greater pressure below the aerofoil than above it. This difference in pressure
produces the lift.
Figure 1. Aerofoil
The lift generated by a wing is based on the principle that the pressure in a fluid
decreases as its velocity increases (Bernoulli′s Principle)
The aerofoil is long in the direction perpendicular to plane of the drawing and the flow
can be considered as two dimensional the aerofoil is filled by the angle to the flow
direction, defined by the angle of attack, α the aerofoil express a force Fr.
Laboratory 1……..
Angle of attack is the difference between where the wing pointed and the direction of the
air flowing aver the wing.
Some values of drag coefficient according to values of Re, shape and area:
Circular Cd = 1.12
flat plate
Re ~ 106
A = πd2/4
Sphere Cd = 0.45
Re < 2x106
A = πd2/4
Cd = 0.2
Re > 2x105
A = πd2/4
Solid
Hemisphere Cd = 1.17
Re = 103
A = πd2/4
Solid
Hemisphere Cd = 0.38
Re = 103
A = πd2/4
Laboratory 1……..
PROCEDURE
• We mounted the aerofoil models in the middle of the working section by tubing
care of the lever arm of 310 mm of the force balance.
• Then you adjusted the force at the measurement amplifier to zero with the help of
the off set potentiometer.
• What we done next it that the wind tunnel started and after the derived wind speed
is reached we settled the aerofoil in the zero angle. This is achieved by turning
the holder until the model is directed to zero angle of attack.
• After that we measured the drag and lift force at but the measured valve of the
drag and lift force is there the condition of four different cases which are aerofoil
with but having both the flaps and slats aerofoil having or with flaps, and our up
measured for the aerofoil with having slats and aerofoil with both the flaps and
the slats. The determination of the force is done by the variation of angle at
different position.
• At high angle the vibration of the aerofoil is team turbulence.
• It the vibration amplitude in high stop the experiment.
OBSERVATION
Table 1. Data
No. Angle of attack With not slats and With flaps (case 2) With slats (case 3) With slats and
flaps flaps
(case 1) (case 4)
D L D L D L D L
3. 5 Measurement
Replica
5. 15 Measurement
Replica
7. 19 Measurement
Replica
Temperature = 26 0C
You can take replicas as in each carry out experiment for obtained more exactly result en
performance of the practical.
Drag Coefficient:
A dimensionless value that allows the comparison of drag incurred by different sized and
different shaped bodies.
where
F = aerodynamic drag force [N]
Cd = drag coefficient
A = frontal area [m ]2
Top of Form
Aerodynamic Drag
drag coefficient C d
frontal area, A m2
velocity, v ms-1
You can find the software on line for calculate the drag force following Internet site :
http://www.diracdelta.co.uk/science/source/d/r/drag%20coefficient/source.html
With equation,
P/ρ = RT , we have ρ = Pjimma / R T = 0.82 .105 Pa / 287 J/kg. 299 K = 0.955 kg/m3
FDac = FDmeam - FD h
= FDmeam - 9.45 x 10-4 N
FDmeam = CDmean Ap (ρ C2 / 2)
Where:
Ap= 0.01 m2
C= 12 m/s
CDmean = 1.1
Laboratory 1……..
For example,
With not slats and flaps, when angle of attack is α =00
C L= FL/ Ap. (0.5 ρ . C2) = (0.1/0.01) ( 0.5 . 0.955 . 144)
C L= 0.145
C D= (FD - FDh) / ( Ap. (0.5 ρ . C2) = (0.02- 9.45 x 10-4 N ) / ( 0.01 . 0.5 . 0.955 . 144)
C D= 0.02776
Then realize the same calculate for each angle of attack with slats and flaps, and the same
calculation should be realized with flaps, with slats or with slats and flaps for each angle
of attack.
Table 2. Results
Case 1
α , 00 50 150 190
CL
CD
Case 2
α , 00 50 150 190
CL
CD
Case 3
α , 00 50 150 190
CL
CD
Case 4
α , 00 50 150 190
CL
CD
Whit theses result that you have obtained of the calculates in each experiment to realized,
you can show in the graph CL vs α , and CD vs α , and realize the comparative analysis
over theses resulted obtained.
Laboratory 1……..
0.8
0.6
0.4 Cd_case2
0.2 Cd_case3
CL_case4
0
-0.2
-0.4 CL_case1
-0.6
Figure 2. Result CL vs α , and CD vs α
-0.8
CONCLUSION
With the result of the before point you should arrive to the conclusion on the influence of
the employment of one or another model in these carried out experiment.
REFERENCE
That was explain in the topic of content of the report, the same way you should have the
reference to the bibliography useful for this practice.
Laboratory 1……..
INTRODUCTION
The experiment demonstrates the use of a Pitot-static tube, and investigates the
application of Bernoulli's theorem to flow along a convergent-divergent passage.
OBJECTIVE:
The continuity equation and the energy equation (Bernoulli) can be checked in
experiments:
· Measurement of the dynamic pressure component on constriction of the flow cross-
section
· Measurement of the static pressure component, related to atmospheric pressure.
APPARATUS:
Air Flow Bench, it was presented in practice number 2.
Description of Apparatus
A duct of rectangular section is fitted to the exit of the contraction which leads
from the air box, and liners placed along the inside walls of the duct produce a
passage which contracts to a parallel throat and then expands to the original width.
The shape of this convergent-divergent passage is indicated on fig. 3.1, from
which it may be noted that the convergent portion is shorter than the divergent
portion. Air is blown through the passage, and a probe may be traversed along the
centre line to measure the distribution of total pressure P and static pressure p.
This probe is a Pitot-static probe. Pressure tappings are connected from the air box
and from the Pitot-static probe to a multitube manometer.
THEORY
The aim of the experiment is to measure the distribution of total pressure P and static
pressure p along the duct and to compare these with the predictions of Bernoulli's
equation. Consider how the equation is applied to the present case. Fig. 2 shows the
duct as a stream tube.
According to Bernoulli's equation the total pressure P, defined by
P = +P (1)
should be constant along this tube, provided the flow is steady and that the air is
incompressible and in viscid. If Po denotes the total pressure in the air box, then we
should expect the measured value of P along the passage to be everywhere the same
as Po, if Bernoulli's theorem is valid for this motion.
Now the total pressure P is measured with comparative ease by an open-ended tube
facing the flow. Fig. 2 shows a streamline starting from the air box, passing along
the duct, and arriving at the mouth of the Pitot tube. The motion is arrested at this
point, so that in equation (1) the local value of u
is zero. The pressure recorded by the Pitot tube is therefore the local value of total
pressure P. If Bernoulli's equation applies along the whole length of the streamline
from the air box, then P should everywhere be the same as the initial total pressure
Po. The value of Po may be found easily from a pressure tapping in the wall, since the
air velocity in the box is so slight as to make the difference between total pressure
and static pressure quite negligible.
Laboratory 1……..
The variation of static pressure p may be measured by the static pressure tube.
Fig. 2 shows a further streamline emanating from the air box and flowing
close to the surface of the probe. Provided that the holes in the surface of the
probe are placed far enough from the tip of the tube as to be unaffected by the
disturbance in this locality (which means in practice about 6 tube diameters
away from the tip) then the flow is undisturbed by the holes, which
therefore measure the undisturbed pressure, viz. static pressure p. To compare
the measured values of p with the result of calculations we must use the
continuity equation as well as the Bernoulli equation. Taking the flow as one-
dimensional, viz. assuming the velocity over any chosen cross-section to be
uniform over that section, then the continuity equation for incompressible flow
gives the volume flow rate as
Q= uA = utAt (2)
(3)
and since the depth of the duct is constant, cross-sectional area is proportional _
to width, so
(4)
(5)
and in particular the velocity u t at the throat is
(6)
so from equations (5) and (6)
(7)
The right-hand side of this equation may be evaluated from the measured
pressure distribution and compared with the values from equation (3.4)
Laboratory 1……..
PROCEDURE
The experimental set-up is placed in the measuring section of the Air Flow Bench. The
set-up consists the contraction which leads from the air box, and liners placed along
the inside walls of the duct produce a passage which contracts to a parallel throat and
then expands to the original width, a Pitot. Air is blown through the passage, and a
probe may be traversed along the centre line to measure the distribution of total
pressure P and static pressure p. This probe is a Pitot-static probe. Pressure
tappings are connected from the air box and from the Pitot-static probe to a
multitube manometer.
To measure the distribution of total pressure P and static pressure p along the duct and to
compare these with the predictions of Bernoulli's equation,
the Pitot tube is set at about 10 mm distance from the surface
and the desired wind speed is established by bringing the pressure Po in the air box
to the required value.
Now the total pressure P is measured with comparative ease by an open-ended tube
facing the flow. Fig. 3.2 shows a streamline starting from the air box, passing
along the duct, and arriving at the mouth of the Pitot tube. The motion is
arrested at this point.
The value of Po may be found easily from a pressure tapping in the wall, since the
air velocity in the box is so slight as to make the difference between total
pressure and static pressure quite negligible.
The variation of static pressure p may be measured by the static pressure tube
Readings of total pressure P measured by the Pitot tube are then recorded over the
range of settings should be substantially constant.
OBSERVATION
Table 1. Data
No. X, mm P0, N/m2 P, N/m2 p, N/m2
1 4 800 750 195
2 16.5 800 780 35
3 29 800 785 -130
. . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . .
16 279 800 780 -95
17 304 800 780 25
Laboratory 1……..
CALCULATION
may vary somewhat from one test rig to another. Any convenient starting value
may be chosen, the subsequent calculations being changed accordingly. The values of
B t /B are calculated from the known dimensions of the contraction. For example,
in the converging section, when x = 29 mm
it actually does; the retarded air in the thickening boundary layer presents a partial
blockage to the flow.
We may therefore conclude that the experiment as a whole has demonstrated that
Bernoulli's equation is sensibly valid along the central streamline of the convergent-
divergent duct, since the total pressure has been shown to be virtually constant along its
length. The calculated pressure distribution, which depends on the concept of
continuity as well as constant total pressure, shows a significant discrepancy from
the measured results in the divergent portion, and this may be explained by the
growth of boundary layers on the walls of this portion.
Fig. 5.
Laboratory 1……..
QUESTION
1. What boundary layer thickness do your results lead you to expect.
Can you infer this from the graph of fig. 5?
2. What is the Mach number at the throat of the duct? For approximate
calculation, you may assume that the static pressure and temperature
there are approximately the same as in the air box. The air velocity at
the throat may be found from the Pitot-static reading, and the acoustic
velocity a may be estimated from the equation
in which
: is the ratio of specific heats = 1.4 for air R is the gas constant = 287.2
J/kg K
T: is the absolute temperature in K
3. What difference to the results would you expect if the flow direction were
reversed? You may check your prediction by reversing the liners.
4. What suggestions have you for improving the experiment?
5. How might you check whether there is in fact a boundary layer of
significant thickness at exit from the duct? A possible project would be
to devise and construct a suitable simple traversing gear for a Pitot tube
which would measure the velocity distribution. Would it be necessary
to traverse along more than one axis?
CONCLUSION
You should realize the analysis according to result and discussion to you will obtain the
conclusion of the practice; you can help also with the answer given below.
REFERENCE
That was explain in the topic of content of the report, the same way you should have the
reference to the bibliography useful for this practice.
Laboratory 1……..
APPARATUS
As shown Fig 1, the water supply from the
hydraulic bench is led to a vertical pipe,
terminating in a tapered nozzle. This
produces a water jet which impinges on a
vane in the form of a flat plate. The nozzle
and vane are contained in a transparent
cylinder. An outlet at the base of the cylinder
directs the flow to a catch-tank for measuring
the flow rate.
The vane is attached to a pivoted beam
which carries a jockey weight and is
restrained by a light spring. The lever may be
balanced (as indicated by the tally suspended
from it) by placing the jockey weight at its
zero position and adjusting the knurled knob
above the spring. After this initial
adjustment, the force generated by the
impact of the jet on the vane may now be
measured by moving the jockey weight
along the lever until the tally shows that the
lever has been restored to its original
balanced position. The following quantities
are required for data analysis:
Diameter of nozzle = 10 mm
Cross-sectional area of nozzle, A = 78.5 mm2
Mass of jockey weight, w = 0.6 kg
Distance of vane center to pivot = 0.15 m
Height of vane above nozzle-exit, s = 35 mm
Laboratory 1……..
If this force on the jet in the direction of x be denoted by Fj, then the momentum
equation in the x-direction is:
Fi = m(u2cos β2 − u1)…………………………………….…(1)
The force F on the vane is equal and opposite to this, namely:
F = m (u1 − u2 cosβ2 ) …………………………………..….(2)
For the case of a flat plate, β2 = 90°, so that cos β2 = 0. It follows that the force on the
flat plate, irrespective of the value of u2 is: F = m u1
For the case of a hemispherical cup, we assume that β2 = 180°, so that cosβ2 = −1, and
F = m(u1 + u2) …………….……….
(3)
If we neglect the effect of change of elevation on jet speed, and the loss of speed due to
friction over the surface of the vane, then u1 = u2, so
F = 2m u1…………………………..(4)
This is the maximum possible value of force on the hemispherical cup which is just twice
the force on the flat plate.
Note that the velocity of the jet just before it hits the plate, uo is somewhat smaller than
the nozzle-exit velocity u1 due to the deceleration caused by gravity. Using conservation
of energy, neglect head loss, and determine uo by given u1 and the distance of the plate
above the nozzle-exit (s) is 35 mm.
2 2
uo = u1 - 2gs
2
uo = √( u1 - 2gs) ………………..……….(5)
Momentum flow in jet at impact for flat plate is J, J = m uo .…………………........(6)
Momentum flow in jet at impact for hemispherical cup is J, J = 2m uo .……........(7)
The jockey-weight can be slid along the lever by a distance, x (measured from the zero
position at the hinge) so that it creates a clockwise moment about the pivot point that will
Laboratory 1……..
exactly balance the counter-clockwise moment caused by the impact of the jet. Using the
balance of moment for the lever:
F*0.15 = w��, where w = 0.6kg and x is in meters, g = 9.81m/s2
�=4.0�� …………………………………………………………………….(8)
Where F is the force on the plate required to balance the lever. This measured value F
determined from the moment balance (Equation (8)) should closely match the theoretical
value J determined from Equation (6 or 7 depending on cases).
PROCEDURE
1. Balance the lever (as indicated by the tally) with the jockey weight at the zero
position.
2. Admit water into the nozzle by adjusting the bench valve. Increase the flow rate
to its maximum value; record the position of the jockey weight, and measure the
flow rate using the catch-tank and the stopwatch
3. Record a total of ten different jockey positions (x) for gradually decreasing flow
rates (Q), such that the jockey weight is moved to the left in roughly equal
distance. [The best way to set the conditions for reduced flow rate is to place the
jockey weight exactly at the desired position, and then to adjust the flow control
valve to bring the lever to the balanced position. The condition of balance is
thereby found without touching the lever, which is much easier than finding the
point of balance by sliding the jockey weight. Moreover, the range of settings of
the jockey position may be divided neatly into equal steps.]
4. The experiment should be run twice, first with the flat plate and then with the
hemispherical cup.
• To plot the shape of a free vortex by measurement of the surface profile co-
ordinates, and thus vortex that Vr = constant where V is the speed and r is the
radius of the vortex
• To plot the surface profiles of various forced vortices formed under different
speed conditions.
ω2 2
• Verification of the formula h = r for forced vortices where h is the height
2g
of the surface of the water above the datum point, ω is the vortex angular
velocity and r is the vortex radius.
Hence, from the table the average angular velocity of the water will be
ω1 + ω 2 + ω3
ω av =
3
Laboratory 1……..
Observed data
S.No Height of the surface h(cm ) Distance from the center r (cm )
1
2
3
4
5
6
Height difference from its maxi with respect to distance from the center
S.No Height difference, ∆h(cm ) Distance from the center r 2 (cm 2 )
1
2
3
4
5
6
ω2
Observed and calculated value of height, radius and ∆h = r2
2g
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Handbook Ed., 1999
2. CHHABRA, P. Non-Newtonian_Flow_in_the_Process_Industries, First
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3. Darby. Chemical Engineering Fluid Mechanics, 2nd Ed. Marcel Drekker, 2001.
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5. KING, R. P. Introduction to Practical Fluid Flow, First published , 2002.
6. White, F.M. Fluid Mechanics 4th Ed, McGraw Hill
7. Hodges, P. Hydraulic Fluids, Arnold, 1996
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1996
12. DIXON, S. L. (1998). Fluid Mechanics, Thermodynamics of Turbomachinery
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Jimma Uiversity, 2004
14. Adrian Bejan. HEAT TRANSFER HANDBOOK. Duke University Durham,
North Carolina, JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC, 2003.
15. Fikirta, Marin, Salomon: Note of Curse Lab Thermo Fluid, Department of
Mechanical Engineering, Jimma University.
16. Markland, E: A first curse in air flow , TecQuimpment, England
17. http://www.armfield.co.uk/pdf_files/c2.pdf
18. http://insideracingtechnology.com/techstart.htm
19. http://www.ae.su.oz.au/aero/contents.html
20. http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K-12/airplane/short.html
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