TABLE OF SPECIFICATIONS

IN NURSING

RODOLFO B. CUDAL, BSAED, BSN, MAT, Ed.D.

Introduction

The aims of nursing education principally center on the transmission of nursing

knowledge, and assisting nursing students to acquire the necessary skills and attitudes
associated with nursing practice. As with professional preparation generally, nursing
education encompasses the three domains of learning, the cognitive, the affective, and
the psychomotor.

Clinical instructors have always been concerned with measuring and evaluating
the progress of their students. As the goals of nursing education have become more
complex and as the number of students has increased enormously, this task has
become much more difficult.

Clinical instructors have an obligation to provide their students with the best
evaluation. This implies that they must have some procedures whereby they can reliably
and validity evaluate how effectively their students have been taught. The classroom
achievement is one such tool.

After completing this seminar workshop the participants are expected to:

1. Prepare a table of specifications for a particular subject;

2. Give the importance of a table of specifications in preparing a test;
3. Apply the different principles in preparing test items;
4. Manifest the skills a good item writer should possess.
I. What is a Table of Specifications?

 Is a devise for describing test items in terms of the content and the process
dimensions. That is, what a student is expected to know and what he or she
is expected to do with the knowledge. It is described by combination of
content and process in the table of specification.
 A two-way chart which describes the topics to be covered by a test and the
number of items or points which will be associated with each topic.

II. The purpose of a Table of Specification

1. To identify the achievement domains being measured.

2. To ensure that a fair and representative sample of questions appear on the test.
3. To allows the teacher to construct a test which focuses on the key areas and
weights those different areas based on their importance.
4. To provides the teacher with evidence that a test has content validity, that it
covers what should be covered.

III. Designing a Table of Specifications

TOS typically are designed based on the list of course objectives, the topics
covered in class, the amount of time spent on those topics, textbook chapter topics and
the emphasis and space provided in the text. In some cases a great weight will be
assigned to a concept that is extremely important, even if relatively little class time was
spent on the topic.

IV. Three Steps are Involved in Creating a TOS

1. Choosing the measurement goals and domain to be covered.

2. Breaking the domain into key or fairly independent parts – concepts, terms,
procedures, applications.
3. Constructing the table.

V. How Can the Use of a TOS Benefit Your Students, including Special Need?

1. It improves the validity of teacher-made tests.

2. It can improve student learning as well.

VI. How do you prepare a TOS for different types of test for a teacher made test?

You have to determine what content you want to cover and what percent of the
test items should there be for each content. You need to decide what depth of
understanding you want for your test items, like what percent of the questions should be
synthesis etc.
 TABLE 1

Sample of One Way TOS in Community Health Nursing

Number of Class Number of Test Item

Topics Covered
Sessions Items Distribution
1. Family Health Nursing
a. Bag Technique 2 4 1-4
b. Home Visit
2. Primary Health Care and
2 4 5-8
Community Organizing
3. Community Diagnosis 2 4 9-12
4. Health Statistics 2 4 13-16
5. Public Health Programs 3 6 17-22
6. Communicable Diseases 4 8 23-30
7. Integrated Management of
5 10 31-40
Childhood Illnesses
TOTAL 20 40 40

Number of Items = Number of class sessions x desired total number of items

Total number of class sessions

Example: Number of items for the topic “Family Health Nursing”

Number of class sessions = 2
Desired number of items = 40
Total number of class sessions = 20

Number of Items = Number of class sessions x desired total number of items

Total Number of Class
= 2 x 40
20
Number of Items = 4

TABLE 2

Sample of Two Way Table of Specification for

Community Health Nursing

Class Know- Compre- Appli-

Topics Covered Hours ledge hension cation
Analysis Synthesis Evaluation Total
1. Family Health Nursing
a. Bag Techniques 2 1 1 1 1 4
b. Home Visits
2. Primary Health Care and
Community Organizing
2 1 1 1 2 1 6
3. Community Diagnosis 2
4. Health Statistics 2 1 1 1 1 4
5. Public Health Programs 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 6
6. Communicable Diseases 4 1 1 2 1 1 2 8
7. Integrated Management of
Childhood Illnesses
5 1 1 3 4 1 2 12
TOTAL 20 6 6 8 9 3 8 40
 TABLE 3

Table of Specification for NCM3

Alterations in Human Functioning

Skill in
Observing Comparing, Making Total
Knowledge Understanding and classifying inferences number Item Percent
Behavior of of basic describing objects from of items
Contents Specific concepts and placement of items
objects based on observation
Facts principles observable
character-
istics
Disturbance in
oxygenation
10 7 3 4 24 1-24 24%
Disturbance in
metabolic and
endocrine
17 10 7 5 3 42 25-65 42%
functioning
Disturbances
in Elimination
7 14 7 4 2 34 66-100 34%
Number of
Items
34 31 17 13 5 100 100
Percent of
Items
34 31 17 13 5 100%

TABLE 4

Table of Specifications

Subject : Emergency Nursing (Basic Life Support)

Degree Program : BSN
Academic Level : 4th Year
Competency : Demonstrate knowledge, skills and attitude necessary in the
performance of Cardio-Pulmonary

Learning Outcome
Instructional Objectives Motor Declarative Procedural Strategic
Attitude Total
Skills Knowledge Knowledge Knowledge
I. Safe and Quality Nursing Care Pencil paper test:
A. Demonstrates knowledge base on the Selection Type
status of the individual and the Multiple Choice
emergency situation. (5pts)
1. Identifies emergency situation
5
prompting to implementation of
basic life support procedure.
2. Identifies individual subject to
basic life support during
emergency situations.
B. Provides sound decision making in Pencil paper test: Pencil paper test: Pencil paper
the emergency care f the individual/ Selection Type Selection Type test: Selection
group in the emergency situation. Multiple Choice Multiple Choice Type Multiple
1. Identifies the problem (1pt) (3pts) Choice (1pt) 5
2. Gathers Primary Survey data
related to the individual in the
emergency situation

Formats:
1.
Levels of Learning
Topics Remembering Understanding Applying Analyzing Evaluating Creating Total Percent
Covered
TP IP TP IP TP IP TP IP TP IP TP IP

Legend: TP = Total Points IP = Item Placement

VII. Selecting the Appropriate Item Format

Decision as to item format should be governed by such factors as:

 the purpose of the test
 the time available to prepare and score the test
 the number of pupils to be tested
 the physical facilities available for reproducing the test
 the skill in writing the different types of items

ITEM ANALYSIS

Item Analysis refers to the process of examining the student’s response to each
item in test According to Abubakar S. Asaad and William M. Hailaya (Measurement and
Evaluation Concepts & Principles) Rex Bookstore (2004 Edition), there are two
characteristics of an item. These are desirable and undesirable characteristics. An item
that has desirable characteristics can be retained for subsequent use and that with
undesirable characteristics is either be revised or rejected.

Three criteria in determining the desirability and undesirability of an item.

a. difficulty of an item
b. discriminating power of an item
c. measures of attractiveness

Difficulty Index (DF) refers to the proportion of the number of students in the
upper and lower groups who answered an item correctly. In a classroom achievement
test, the desired indices of difficulty not lower, than 0.20 nor higher than 0.80. The
average index of difficulty from 0.30 or 0.40 to a maximum of 0.60.

DF = PUG + PLG
2
PUG = proportion of the upper group who got an item right
PLG = proportion of the lower group who got an item right

Level of Difficulty of an Item

Index Range Difficulty Level

0.00 – 0.20 Very Difficult
0.21 – 0.40 Difficult
0.41 – 0.60 Moderately Difficult
0.61 – 0.80 Easy
0.81 – 1.00 Very Easy

Discrimination Index is the difference between the proportion of high

performing students who got an item right. The high and low performing students
usually defined as the upper 27% of the students based on the total examination score.
Discrimination Index is the degree to which the item discriminates between high
performing group and low performing group in relation of scores on the total test. Index
of discrimination are classified into positive discrimination, negative discrimination and
zero discrimination. Positive Discrimination if the proportion of students who got an
item right in the upper performing group is greater than the proportion of the low
performing group. Negative Discrimination if the proportion of students who got an
item right in the low performing group is greater than the students in the upper
performing group. And Zero Discrimination if the proportion of the students who got an
item right in the upper performing group and low performing group are equal.
Discrimination Index Item Evaluation
0.40 and up Very good item
0.30 – 0.39 Reasonably good item but possibly subject to improvement
0.20 – 0.29 Marginal item, usually needing and being subject to improvement
Below 0.19 Poor item, to be rejected or improved by revision

Maximum Discrimination is the sum of the proportion of the upper and lower
groups who answered the item correctly. Possible maximum discrimination will occur if
the half or less of the sum of the upper and lower groups answered an item correctly.

Discriminating Efficiency is the index of discrimination divided by the maximum

discrimination.

Notations:

PUG = proportion of the upper group who got an item right

PLG = proportion of the lower group who got an item right
Di = discrimination index
DM = maximum discrimination
DE = discriminating efficiency

Formula:

Di = PUG – PLG
DE = Di / DM
DM = PUG +PLG
Example: Eighty students took an examination in Algebra, 6 students in the
upper group got the correct answer and 4 students in the lower group got the correct
answer for item number 6. Find the Discriminating efficiency.

Given:

Number of students took the exam = 80

27% of 80 = 21.6 or 22, which means that there are 22 students in the upper
performing group and 22 students in the lower performing group.

PUG = 6/22 = 27%

PLG = 4/22 = 18%
Di = PUG – PLG

Sample item data and the resulting indices derived from the procedures
described in this chapter are presented below.
Answers Total No.
of Difficulty Discrimination
Item Group H-L
A B C D Correct Index Index
Answers
1 H 20 3 14 2 1
21 52.5 7 0.35
L 20 10 7 3 0
2 H 20 0 0 18 2
27 67.5 9 0.45
L 20 0 3 9 8
3 H 20 4 8 4 4
10 25.0 6 0.30
L 20 10 2 4 4
4 H 20 3 3 4 10
14 35.0 6 0.30
L 20 2 4 10 4
5 H 20 15 2 2 1
16 40.0 14 0.70
L 20 1 10 4 5
* Italicized numbers indicate correct answers Number of Students Tested = 60
Using Information About Index of Difficulty
 The difficulty index of a test item is important because it tells a teacher something
meaningful about the comprehension of or performance on, material or task contained
in an item. A closer look at the sample item data presented above reveals that item 2 is
easy as its difficulty index is 67.5%. The same is true with item 1, with an estimated
difficulty index of 52.5%.

The foregoing points to one thing – that the higher the value of the difficulty
index, the easier is the item. This is because difficulty index represents the percentage
of the total number of students answering an item correctly. Thus, there is an inverse
relationship between the magnitude of the index and what it purports to represent. For
an item to be considered a good item, its difficulty index should be 50%. An item with
50% difficulty index is neither easy not difficult. If an item has a difficulty index of 67.5%,
this means that it is 67.5% easy and 32.5% difficult. Information on the index of difficulty
of an item can help a teacher decide whether a test item should be revised, retained, or
modified.

Exercises:

Analyze the summarized results of a hypothetical test item analysis. Supply the
necessary details to complete the table. Decide whether to retain; reject; or modify each
item. Write your answer on the column for decision a teacher should make.

Item Index of Level of Index of Type of Decision

Difficulty Difficulty Discriminatio Item
n
1 91% 0.11
2 48% 0.36
3 69% 0.23
4 50% 0.66
5 77% 0.44

Do an item analysis with the scores using the procedures cited in this chapter.

Item Group Answers* Total No. Difficulty H-L Discrimination

A B C D of Correct Index Index
answers
1 H 30 8 1 4 4
L 30 1 4 1 3
0 7 0
2 H 30 0 1 1 2
L 30 6 0 8 8
1 3
3
3 H 30 4 1 4 4
L 30 2 8 4 2
0 4
4 H 30 5 51 1
L 30 9 90 0
1 2
0
5 H 30 1 3 2 1
L 30 5 1 1 0
4 0 4 2
* Italicized numbers indicate correct answers Numbers of Students Tested = 90
INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES

Instructional objectives play a very important role in the instructional process and
the evaluation process. It serves as a guides for teaching and learning., communicate
the intent of the instruction to others and it provide a guidelines for assessing the
learning of the students. Instructional objectives also known as behavioral objectives or
learning objectives are statement which clearly describe an anticipated learning
outcome.

Characteristics of well-written and useful instructional objectives

1. Describe a learning outcome.

2. Be student oriented-focus on the learner not on the teacher.
3. Be observable or describe an observable product.
4. Be sequentially appropriate.
5. Be attainable within a reasonable amount of time.
6. Be developmentally appropriate

BLOOMS TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES

1. COGNITIVE DOMAIN call for outcomes of mental activity such as memorizing,

reading problem solving, analyzing, synthesizing and drawing conclusions.
2. AFFECTIVE DOMAIN refers to a person’s awareness and internalization of
objects and stimulation, it focus on emotions.
3. PSYCHOMOTOR DONMAIN it focus on the physical and kinesthetic skills of the
learner. This domain is characterized by the progressive levels of behaviors form
observation to mastery of physical skills.

Blooms Cognitive Taxonomy

Bloom identified six levels within the cognitive domain from simple recall of facts
as the lowest level through increasingly more complex and abstract mental level, to the
highest level that can be classified as evaluation. Verb samples for stating specific
learning outcomes that represent intellectual activity on each level are presented here.

1. Knowledge – recognizes students’ ability to use rote memorization and recall

facts. Verb samples: define, name, recognize, repeat, list, label, memorize,
select, cite, reproduce, state.
2. Comprehension – involves students’ activity to read subject matter, extrapolate
and interpret important information and out other ideas to their own words. Verb
samples: describe, classify, explain, discuss, express, identify, translate, restate,
review, give examples, interpret, summarize. Test questions should focus on the
use of facts, rules and principles.
3. Application – students take new concept and apply the another situation. Verb
samples: construct, arrange, compute, discover, show, relate, produce, prepare,
predict, solve, dramatize, interpret.
Test questions focus on applying facts or principles.
4. Analysis – students have the ability to take new information and break it down
into parts to differentiate between them.
Samples verbs: determine, differentiate, distinguish, estimate, point out,
discriminate, categorize, compare, criticize, examine, experiment, debate.
Test questions focus on separation of a whole into components and parts.
5. Synthesis – creating a pattern where one did not previously exist.
Sample verbs: assemble, compose, create, formulate, plan, prepare, design,
reorganize, rewrite, rearrange, propose, set up.
6. Evaluation – involves students’ ability to look at someone else’s ideas or
principles and see the worth of the work and the value of the conclusion.
 Sample verbs: conclude, justify, criticize, assess, judge, predict, rate, evaluate,
select, choose, support, compare, argue, appraise.
Rest questions focus on developing opinions, judgment or decisions.

Krathwohl’s Affective Taxonomy refers to a person’s awareness and

internalization of objects and stimulation.

Anderson and Krathwohl (2001) revised the Bloom’s original taxonomy by

combining both the cognitive process and knowledge dimensions. From lowest level to
highest level.

1. Receiving – listens to ideas

Verb samples: identify, select, give, listen to ideas
2. Responding – answers questions about ideas
Verb samples: rest, select, tell, write, assist, present
3. Valuing – thinks about how to take advantage of ideas, able to explain them well
Verb samples: explain, follow, initiate, justify, propose
4. Organizing- commits to using ideas, incorporate them to activity.
Verb samples: prepare, follow, explain, relate, synthesize, integrate, join,
generalize
5. Characterizing – incorporate ideas completely into practice, recognized by the
use of them
Verb samples: solve, verify, propose, modify, practice, qualify

Psychomotor Domain

This domain is characterized by the progressive levels of behaviors from

observation to mastery of physical skills. From lowest to highest level.

1. Observing – active mental attending of a physical level.

2. Imitating – attempted copying of a physical behavior.
3. Practicing – trying a specific physical activity over and over.
4. Adapting – fine tuning, making minor adjustment in the physical activity in order
to perfect it.

Factors to Consider when Constructing Good Test Items

A. VALIDITY is the degree to which the test measures what is intended to measure.
It is the usefulness of the test for a given purpose. A valid test is always reliable.
B. RELIABILITY refers to the consistency of score obtained by the same person
when retested using the same instrument or one that is parallel to it.
C. ADMINISTRABILITY the test should be administered uniformly to all students so
that the scores obtained will not vary due to factors other than differences of the
students’ knowledge and skills. There should be a clear provision for instruction
for the student, proctors and even the one who will check the test or the scorer.
D. SCORRABILITY the test should be easy to score; directions for scoring is clear,
provide the answer sheet and the answer key.
E. APPROPRIATENESS the test item that the teacher constructed must assess the
exact performances called for in the learning objectives. The test item should
require the same performance of the student as specified in the learning
objectives.
F. ADEQUACY the test should contain a wide sampling of items to determine the
educational outcomes or abilities so that the resulting scores are representatives
of the total performance in the areas measured.
G. FAIRNESS the test should be biased to the examinees. It should not be
offensive to any examinee subgroups. A test can only be good if it is also fair to
all test takers.
 H. OBJECTIVITY represents the agreement of two or more raters or test
administrators concerning the score of a student. If the two raters who assess the
same student on the judge is valid, thus lack of objectivity reduces test validity in
the same way that lack reliability influence validity.

Factors affecting the Validity of a test Item

1. The test itself.

2. The administration and scoring of a test.
3. Personal factor influencing students’ response to the test.
4. Validity is always specific to a particular group.

Ways to Reduce the Validity of the Test Item

1. Poorly constructed test items

2. Unclear directions
3. Ambiguous items
4. Reading vocabulary too difficulty
5. Complicated syntax
6. Inadequate time limit
7. Inappropriate level of difficulty
8. Unintended clues
9. Improper arrangement of items

Test Design to Improve Validity

1. What is the purpose of the test?

2. How well do the instructional objectives selected for the test represent the
instructional goals?
3. Which test items format will best measure achievement of each objectives?
4. How many test items will be required to measure the performance adequately
on each objective?
5. When and how will the test be administered?

Reliability of a Test

Reliability refers to the consistency of measurement, that is, how consistent test
results or other assessment results from one measure to another. We can say that a
test is reliable when it can be determined by means of Pearson Product Correlation
Coefficient, Spearman-Brown Formula and Kuder-Richardson Formula .

Factors Affecting the Reliability of a Test

1. Length of the lest

2. Moderate items difficulty
3. Objective scoring
4. Heterogeneity of the student group
5. Limited time

Four Methods of Establishing Reliability

1. Test-retest Methods. A type of reliability determined by administering the same

test twice to the same group of students with any time interval between test. The
results of the scores are correlated using the Pearson Product Correlation
Coefficient (r) and this correlation coefficient provides a measure of reliability.
This indicates how stable the test over a period of time.
 2. Equivalent-Form Method. A type of reliability determined by administering two
different but equivalent forms of the test (also called parallel or alternate forms) to
the same group of students in close succession. The equivalent forms are
constructed to the same set of specifications that is similar in content, type of
items and difficulty. The result of the test scores are correlated using the Pearson
Product Correlation Coefficient (r) and this correlation coefficient provides a
measure of the degree to which generalization about the performance of
students from one assessment to another assessment is justified. It measures
the equivalence of the tests.
3. Split-Half Method. Administer test once. Score two equivalent halves of the test.
To split the test into halves that are equivalent, the usual procedure is to score
the even-numbered and the odd-numbered separately. This provide two score for
each student the result of the test scores are correlated using the Spearman-
Brown formula and this correlation coefficient provides a measure of internal
consistency. It indicates the degree to which consistent results are obtained from
two halves of the test.
4. Kuder-Richardson Formula. Administer the test once. Score total test and
apply the Kuder-Richardson formula. The Kuder-Richardson formula is
applicable only in situation where students responses are scored dichotomously
and therefore is most useful with traditional test items that are scored as right or
wrong. KR-20 estimates of reliability that provide information about the degree to
which the items in the test measure that same characteristics, it is an assumption
that all items are of equal difficulty. (A statistical procedure used to estimate
coefficient alpha, a correlation coefficient is given.

Descriptive Statistics of Test Scores

Statistics play a very important role in describing the test scores of students.
Teachers should have a background on the statistical techniques in order for them to
analyze and describe the results of measurement obtained in their own classroom;
understand the statistics used in the test and research reports; interpret the types of
scores used in testing.

Descriptive Statistics – is concerned with collecting, describing and analyzing a

set of data without drawing conclusions or inferences about a large group of data in
terms of tables, graphs, or single number (example average score of the class in a
particular test).

Inferential Statistics – is concerned whit the analysis of a subset of data leading

to prediction or inferences about the entire set of data or population.

We shall discussed statistical techniques used in describing and analyzing test

results.

1. Measures of Central Tendency (Averages)

2. Measures of Variability (Spread of Scores)
3. Measures of Relationship (Correlation)
4. Skewness

Measures of Central Tendency it is a single value that is used to identify the

center of the data, it is taught as the typical value in a set of scores. It tends to lie within
the center if it is arranged from lowest to highest or vice versa. There are three
measures of central tendency commonly used; the man, the median and mode.
 REVISED BLOOM’S TAXONOMY (RBT)

Changes in terminology between two versions are perhaps the most obvious
differences and can also cause the most confusion. Basically, Bloom’s six major
categories were changed from noun to verb forms. Additionally, the lowest level of the
original, knowledge was renamed and became remembering. Finally, comprehension
and synthesis were retitled to understanding and creating. In an effort to minimize the
confusion, comparison images appear below.

Caption: Terminology changes “The graphic is a representation of the NEW verbage

associated with the long familiar Bloom’s Taxonomy. Note the change from Nouns to
Verbs [e.g., Application to Applying] to describe the different levels of the taxonomy.
Note that the top two levels are essentially exchanged from the Old to the New
Version.” (Schultz, 2005) (Evaluation moved from the top to Evaluating in the second
from the top, synthesis moved from second on top to the top as creating). Source:
http://www.odu.edu/educ./11schult/bloomstaxonomy.htm

Old taxonomy – evaluation was the highest level, higher than synthesis. In the past,
educators have accepted that critical thinking was higher than creative thinking.

Revised Taxonomy – to create which corresponds to synthesis, is considered the

highest level of the cognitive process. This means that the ability to create new
knowledge is now believed to pose on anyone the greatest cognitive demand.

Cognitive process, their definitions and examples

Cognitive Process Definition Example

Remembering Retrieving, recognizing and Vocabulary, terms,
recalling relevant reference, terminology,
knowledge from long-term meaning(s), facts, factual
memory information
Understanding Constructing meaning from Meaning(s) abstractions,
oral, written, and graphic representations, words,
messages through phrases, and compare
interpreting, exemplifying,
classifying, summarizing,
inferring, comparing and
explaining
Applying Carrying out or using a Principles, laws,
procedure through conclusions, methods
executing or implementing theories, abstractions,
generalization, process and
select
Analyzing Breaking material into Hypotheses, conclusions,
constituent parts, assumptions, relationships,
determining how the parts cause-effects, attribute
relate to one another and to
an overall structure or
 purpose through
differentiating, organizing,
and attributing
Evaluating Making judgments based Accuracy, consistency,
on criteria and standards reliability, critique
through differentiating,
organizing and attributing
Creating Putting elements together Design an appropriate
to sampling procedure for a
given research proposal

BLOOM’S TAXONOMY

The Cognitive Process Dimension

Knowledge Remember Understand Apply Analyze Evaluate Create
Dimension
Factual
List Summarize Classify Order Rank Combine
knowledge
Conceptual
Describe Interpret Experiment Explain Assess Plan
Knowledge
Procedural
Tabute Predict Calculate Differentiate Conclude Compose
Knowledge
Meta-
Appropriate
Cognitive Execute Construct Achieve Action Actualize
use
Knowledge

Samples of Objective-Test Item Relationship

Knowledge Level
Objective : The student will be able to identify various types of schizophrenia
Test Item : Which of the following is not a type of schizophrenia?

a. hebephrenic b. catatonic c. paranoid d. autistic

Comprehension
Objective : The student will be able to provide examples of several psychological
concepts.
Test Item : Which of the following would be an instance of compliance?
a. moving away from the group norm regardless of prior opinions
b. maintaining one’s belief in the face of group pressure to change those
beliefs.
c. following group norms in overt behavior but not cognitively
d. seeking group consensus without carefully considering all possible
arguments.

Application Level
Objective : The student will be able to calculate the expected date of delivery.
Test Item : If Cathy’s cycle is regular and her last menstrual period is April 20, 2010,
when is the expected date of delivery?
a. January 20, 2011
b. January 27, 2011
c. January 13, 2011
d. January 30, 2011
Analysis Level

Objective : The student will be able to make generalizations about the research
results.
Test Item : Nurse Bryan has carried out a number of experiments on the bargaining
process. Generalizing from his results, we can conclude that

a. The more threatening the weapons that bargainers acquire, the more
likely they care to compete.
b. The more threatening the weapons that bargainers have, the more
likely they are to cooperate.
c. Threatening weapons do not influence bargaining as much as saving
face does.
d. We cannot accurately conclude any of the above

Evaluation Level
Objective : The student can recognize the values and points of view used in a
particular judgment of a work.
Test Item : Which of the statements can correctly be made about Organization and
Management.

a. An organization (or company) is people. Values make people persons;

value give vitality, meaning and direction to a company. As the people
of an organization value, so the company becomes.
b. Management is the process by which administration achieves its
mission, goals and objective.
c. Management effectiveness can be measured in terms of
accomplishment of the purpose of the organization while
management efficiency is measured in terms of the
satisfaction of individual motives.
d. Management principles are universal therefore, one need not be
concerned about peoples, culture, values, traditions and human
relations.