Resource Book on GeoInformatics

Indian Institute of Technology

Delhi
Contents
CONTENTS ..........................................................................................................................................................1
CONTENTS ..........................................................................................................................................................2
PART I ..................................................................................................................................................................3
1. GEOINFORMATICS.................................................................................................................................3
1.1 INTRODUCTION.....................................................................................................................................3
1.2 BASICS .................................................................................................................................................3
1.2.1 What is GeoInformatics ..................................................................................................................3
1.2.2 Technology Involved in GeoInformatics.........................................................................................3
1.2.3 Advantage of GeoInformatics .........................................................................................................6
2. IMPORTANCE OF SPATIAL INFORMATION ...................................................................................8
2.1 DATA INTEGRATION IN GIS..................................................................................................................9
2.2 SPATIAL DATABASE .............................................................................................................................9
2.3 WSM AND NYKS PERSPECTIVE ..........................................................................................................9
2.3.1 Watershed Management .................................................................................................................9
2.3.2 Watershed Management Benefit .....................................................................................................9
2.3.3 Watershed Management Perspective............................................................................................10
2.3.4 Nehru Yuva Kendra Sangathan (NYKS) .......................................................................................10
2.3.5 NYKS Objective ............................................................................................................................11
2.3.6 Future Plans .................................................................................................................................11
2.3.7 NYKS Policy 2003 ........................................................................................................................12
2.3.8 NYKS and GeoInformatics............................................................................................................13
2.3.8 NYKS Perspective ........................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
3. PARTICIPATORY RURAL APPRAISAL (PRA) AND PARTICIPATORY RESOURCE
MAPPING (PRM) ..............................................................................................................................................14
3.1 PRA – INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................14
3.1.1 Key Tenets of PRA ........................................................................................................................14
3.1.2 PRA Tools.....................................................................................................................................15
3.3 PRM – INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................................15
3.5 ADVANTAGE OF PRM OVER PRA ......................................................................................................16
4. TRANSFERRING OF DATA TO DIGITAL FORM............................................................................17
4.1 DIGITISATION .....................................................................................................................................17
4.2 DATABASE DESIGN - FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS AND TERMINOLOGY ...............................................17
4.2.1. Data ..................................................................................................................................................17
4.2.2. Spatial vs. Non-spatial Data .............................................................................................................17
4.2.3. Database ...........................................................................................................................................18
4.2.4 Database Management System (DBMS).......................................................................................18
4.2.5 Queries .........................................................................................................................................19
4.2.6 Data Models .................................................................................................................................19
4.3 IMPORTANCE OF DATABASE DESIGN ..................................................................................................19
4.4 ADVANTAGE OF DIGITISATION ...........................................................................................................19
 Part I
1. GeoInformatics
1.1 Introduction
GeoInformatics, also known as Geomatics, is the science and technology of gathering,
analysing, interpreting, distributing and using geographic information. Geomatics
encompasses a broad range of disciplines including surveying and mapping, remote sensing,
Geographic Information Systems (GIS), and the Global Positioning System (GPS).

1.2 Basics
1.2.1 What is GeoInformatics
GeoInformatics is the synergy of multiple disciplines, namely, GIS, remote sensing,
photogrammetry, cartography, GPS and geodesy. It is fundamental to all the disciplines
which use data identified by their locations. GeoInformatics deals with spatial and non-
spatial data, their methods of acquisition, management, analysis, display, and dissemination.
Applications of GeoInformatics are mainly oriented to real world management problems
pertaining to natural and man-made environments.

1.2.2 Technologies Involved in GeoInformatics

Although technology for geo-information management is changing so rapidly that it is
difficult to keep pace, yet the user interfaces of these systems is a fairly stable technology
based on storage techniques and manipulation requirements. The core business of this
specialisation consists of thematic, spatial and temporal data manipulation and the design of
systems that accommodate this manipulation. The tools used are those of thematic/spatial
database design, GIS application development for spatial analysis, and general computer
programming. Special topics include higher-dimensional topology, fuzzy logic, temporal and
spatial data, object-oriented application development, spatial database design, and Internet
programming techniques.

GeoInformatics deals with:

• Geographic Information System - GIS: A Geographic Information System, or a

GIS is a relational database whose main feature is the use of a common coordinate
system for accessing both spatial data (on objects) and descriptive or attribute
information defining those objects. The attribute information can be stored as tables,
graphs or plain text containing information defining the object or feature. Because
these objects (points, lines, polygons) are stored in real world coordinates, when
accessing the system spatial objects can appear with their linked attribute data on any
part of the globe. This feature makes GIS ideal for storing information for making
and understanding maps. A GIS possesses facilities for various forms of analyses of
the data linked by the system to the objects. This feature helps in making maps
interactive and more useful in understanding the relationship between spatial objects
and the context in which they exist. Because GIS stores data like any other database,
its data can be dated and thus a GIS can serve as a useful tool for monitoring change
in quantities and relationships, over time and between locations.
GIS incorporates analysis that combines relational databases with spatial
interpretation and outputs often in form of maps. A more elaborate definition is that
of computer programmes for capturing, storing, checking, integrating, analysing and
displaying data about the earth that is spatially referenced.

Typically, a GIS is used for handling maps of one kind or another. These might be
represented as several different layers where each layer holds data about a particular
kind of feature. Each feature is linked to a position on the graphical image on a map
and a record in an attribute table. GIS can relate on the basis of common geography,
revealing hidden patterns, relationships, and trends that are not readily apparent in
spreadsheets or statistical packages, often creating new information from existing
data resources.

Hidden in most data is a geographical component: an address, postal code, census

block, city, county, or latitude/longitude coordinate. With GIS, you can explore the
spatial element of your data to display soil types, track crime patterns, analyze animal
migration patterns, find the best location for an expanding business, model the path of
atmospheric pollution, and make decisions for many types of complicated problems.

o Map: A map is a graphic representation of some part of the earth’s surface. A

map usually contains a series of themes or coverages that are often combined
to form the final product. A map also contains descriptive information (e.g.,
legend) to help readers interpret the details on the map.
The term ‘map’ is also used to describe a GIS View.
 A map can provide an interpretation of features on the earth’s surface. Scale,
map units and data layers (themes or coverage) are an inherent part of a GIS
and allow users to conduct spatial queries and measure distances in their
projects when needed.

o Map Scale: The map scale tells the user how the map relates to the real world
features it represents. There are many ways of representing map scales.

Representative Fraction Scale: Describes the relation between a single map

unit to the number of same units in the real world, e.g., 1:1000 (1 inch on the
map = 1000 inches in the real world).

Graphic Scale Bar: Compares the map units to an established real-world unit
of measure, e.g., 1 inch = 2.5 miles. It helps user measure real-world distances
on the map.

o Co-ordinate Systems: In a GIS, locations on the earth’s surface described by

points, lines, and polygons are defined by a series of x, y co-ordinates. Co-
ordinate systems can be self-described or in units that relate to the real world.
Decimal degrees; degrees, minutes, seconds; meters; and feet are all examples
of units of measure in a co-ordinate system.

o Projection Systems:

• Remote Sensing : Remote sensing involves the use of instruments or sensors to

"capture" the spectral and spatial relations of objects and materials observable at a
distance — typically from above them, e.g., via aerial photography (e.g., cameras
carried on aeroplanes) and satellite imagery. Remotely sensed data is widely used in
fields such as meteorology, minerals exploration and natural resources management
and provides a good input source for GIS analysis.
 • Global Positioning System – GPS: The Global Positioning System consists of
constellation of 24 earth-orbiting satellites so that there are at least 4 guaranteed
satellites above the horizon for any point on earth at any time. In general there are
normally 8 or so satellites "visible" to a GPS receiver at any given moment. Each
satellite contains an atomic clock. The satellites send radio signals to GPS receivers
so that the receivers can find out how far away each satellite is — sometimes with
millimeters precision — at a given time. Because the satellites are orbiting at a
distance of 11,000 miles overhead, the signals are fairly weak by the time they reach
a GPS receiver. That means we have to be outside in a fairly open area for the GPS
receiver to work. The GPS has become a very versatile input source for latitude, and
longitude information in the recent past.

• Photogrammetry: Using aerial photographs and techniques for making accurate

measurements from them, photogrammetry is the source of most data on topography
(ground surface elevations) used for input to GIS.

1.2.3 Advantage of GeoInformatics

Ever-growing understanding and acceptance that the Earth functions as a complex system
composed of myriad interrelated mechanisms have made Earth scientists realize that existing
information systems and techniques used are often inadequate. Currently, the unmanaged
distribution of available data sets, lack of documentation about them, and the lack of easy-to-
use access tools are major obstacles for scientists and educators alike. These obstacles have
hindered scientists and educators in the access and full use of available data and information,
and hence have constrained scientific productivity and the quality of education. Recent
technological advances, however, provide practical means to overcome such problems.
Advances in computer design, software, disk storage systems as well as the growth of the
World Wide Web (WWW) now permit for the first time the management of Gbytes to
terabytes of data and the easy distribution of information to scientists, educators, students,
and the general public.

The ultimate goal of the Earth Science community is a fully integrated data system populated
with high quality, freely available data, as well as, a robust set of software to analyze and
interpret the data. This system would feature rich and deep databases and convenient access.
These capabilities are needed to attack a variety of basic and applied Earth Science problems.

Thus, their solution requires data analysis that is far more complex than provided by
traditional geographic information systems (GIS). The extent, complexity, and sometimes
primitive form of existing data sets and data bases, as well as the need for the optimization of
the collection of new data dictate that only a large, cooperative, well coordinated and
sustained effort will allow the community to attain its scientific goals. With a strong
emphasis on ease of access and use, the resulting data system would be a very powerful
scientific tool to reveal new relationships in space and time and would be an important
resource for students, teachers, the public at large, governmental agencies and industry.

Fundamental new discoveries will require the availability of databases that encompass a
variety of temporal and spatial scales. Because of the need to integrate heterogeneous data
sets and tools to analyze them, the GeoInformatics program provides the focus for
community participation in a national experiment to enhance and retain the pre-eminent role
in the world for Earth Sciences research. It is also going to be the catalyst for the creation of
a global data base.

Global climate change and shrinking resources have heightened our awareness of how much
we depend on the dynamic and complex systems of the Earth's environment. Managing
existing resources and unearthing new ones while maintaining a sustainable environment
requires an enhanced level of cooperation and a judicious use of our growing geo-databases.

The emerging field of GeoInformatics enables us to take advantage of the unprecedented

amount of digital geodata and computing power available through electronic networks.
GeoInformatics exploits the enormous potential of the World Wide Web and grid computing
to link computing and data resources to allow users to turn observational and computational
geodata into knowledge. GeoInformatics facilitates collaborative multi-disciplinary research
and increases our capacity to understand the Earth as a dynamic and complex system in
which natural resources can be managed in a sustainable way.

As database is developed and entity is stored with their attributes in the database making the
alterations easy. Also establishing the relationship between the entities is easy and possible.
By defining these relationships we can link any data and thus the system becomes robust and
flexible.

By putting maps and other kind of spatial information into digital form, connections between
activities based on geographic proximity can be made. Looking at data geographically can
often suggest new insights, explanations. These connections are often unrecognized without
GeoInformatics, but can be vital to understanding and managing activities and resources.
2. Importance of Spatial Information
With the intent to develop national spatial information and introduce e-government, more
and more geo-spatial information shall be required to be created and used. The requirements
to the quality of spatial data shall also be enhanced. In applications such as e-government and
e-business, geo-spatial information acts as “carrier” of various spatial-related social-
economic or natural resource information. When the social-economic and natural resource
data is integrated with the geo-framework (as shown in figure below), people can implement
location-based query, analysis and statistics, and make more wise and informed decisions.

The geo-framework has the following characteristics:

• The ideal method for improving data usability of a geo-framework would be based on
a feature-oriented data model. To link with various social-economic and natural
resource information, the geo-spatial data must be modeled as identifiable features
according to the geographic entities existing in the real world. In other words, the
geo-spatial framework must use feature as the basic modeling unit. In the context of
watershed management the basic unit can be the land parcel.

• The geo-framework is usually multi-scaled to meet the application from macro to

micro level. In the case of natural resource management also it shall follow the
hierarchy of river system at the macro level to the watershed at the micro level.
• Geo-spatial data from different region and with different scale must be made
according to the same standards, including data model, projection, representation, etc.
And the description of the same entity in different dataset should be consistent.
 • The relationships among features should be modeled. Multi-datasets integration must
handle horizontal, vertical (overlay), and temporal integration. For example, the
relations among watersheds and the implications of manmade interventions on the
water resources and thereby on the livelihoods of the locals should be modeled.

2.1 Data integration in GIS

A GIS makes it possible to link, or integrate, information that is difficult to associate through
any other means. Thus, a GIS can use combinations of mapped variables to build and analyze
new variables.

By using GIS technology and water resources information, it is possible to simulate the total
resource availability and the required demand (inclusive of agriculture, domestic and/or
industrial) and take decisions that help in sustainable development of this precious resource.

2.2 Spatial Database

In various fields there is a need to manage geometric, geographic, or spatial data, which
means data related to space. The space of interest can be, for example, the two- dimensional
abstraction of (parts of) the surface of the earth – that is, geographic space. At least since the
advent of relational database systems there have been attempts to manage such data in
database systems. Characteristic for the technology emerging to address these needs is the
capability to deal with large collections of relatively simple geometric objects, for example, a
set of 100 000 polygons (plots in the case of watershed).

2.3 Watershed Management and NYKS Perspective

2.3.1 Watershed Management
The analysis, protection, development, operation or maintenance of the land, vegetation and
water resources of a drainage basin for the conservation of all its resources and for the benefit
of its residents are the activities under watershed management.

To improve the integrated management of the nature reserves, it is essential that biological
and ecological information is available about the nature and biodiversity in and around the
natural reserves, as well as socio-economic information about the communities depending on
these resources, and that this information is regularly updated throughout monitoring
exercises. This will enable the natural resource managers, related institutes as well as the
local population to take the right management measures and to adapt if necessary.

2.3.2 Watershed Management Benefit

Some of the major benefits of watershed management may include
• More water
• Improved water quality and hygiene
• More land cultivated
• Better water management
• Soil conservation
• Less disease
 • Better quality of life
• Improved livelihoods.

2.3.3 Watershed Management Perspective

2.3.4 Nehru Yuva Kendra Sangathan (NYKS)

The Nehru Yuva Kendra Sangathan (NYKS) an autonomous body of the Ministry of Youth
Affairs and Sports, Government of India was set up in 1972 as Nehru Yuvak Kendra under
the erstwhile Ministry of Education. It currently has 500 district level offices, 2.16 lakh
village level youth clubs and 80 lakh rural youth affiliated to it in 13-35 age group. The
NYKS today prepares over 11,000 youth leaders every year. A total of 2551 youth
development centers, one on every cluster of 10 village youth clubs, and 139 rural
information technology youth development centers (RITYDC) provide support and services
to the field functionaries.

The NYKS Board of Governors, led by the Minister of Youth Affairs & Sports as its
Chairman, decides the policy and prepares roadmap for youth empowerment. The District
Advisory Committee on Youth Programme (DACYP) chaired by the District Magistrate /
Collector finalises the District Annual Action Plan after micro level planning.
The national network of NYKS' 500 district offices and monitoring mechanisms store,
analyze, direct and coordinate an awesome range of rural youth empowerment programmes
that have won kudos from national and international agencies. It has even provided
opportunities to rural youth to experience and benefit from the partnerships, from
international organizations such as the UNICEF, UNAIDS, UNESCAP, UNDP, IPPF, Save
the Children (UK) and the Child Line (India) Foundation and many others. At the national
level Ministry of Rural Development, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Ministry of
Social Justice and Empowerment, Ministry of Home Affairs, NACO, and many other non-
government agencies have synergized with the network of NYKS to reach out the last person
in rural India.

NYKS has long been a rallying point for its affiliated youth clubs and volunteers that share
its vision of a multicultural India; an environment that unites all, irrespective of gender,
religion, caste and creed, such as a truly secular society demands.
Visit any of the numerous NYKS centers across the country, and you will at once see this
Nerhuvian vision translated into action - and begin to understand why, despite so many
recent challenges, we continue to be as united as we are diverse. We believe in the humanist
ideology of Mahatma Gandhi, father of the Nation and his vision of India.
With nearly three fourth of India continuing to live in its villages, the importance of
empowering its youth cannot be overstressed. India accounts for well over 36.1% of the
world's total youth population, a large number of which are women, as our Mahila Mandals
(women's groups) will tell you. Talk to them - the thousands spread across the country - and
it will become clear how vocal these previously suppressed sections have become with
efforts of empowerment.

The NYKS gained the global reputation of being a Mass Movement. Documented records
sourced from official archives show that in the last four years alone the NYKS galvanized as
many as 1,56,000 young people into participating in leadership training programmes. Many
of these were devoted to battling HIV/AIDS, while other focused on employment, awareness
drives, work camps and literacy generation, and providing comfort and other basic relief
during recurring natural calamities.

Sports, cultural activities, adventure sports regularly provide much fillip to rural life. Large
number of the youth who received vocational training at NYKS are reaping the benefits of
gaining financial independence. There is; however rising clamour for still more programmes
promoting computer literacy and management and implementation skills. Accordingly, it is
planed to set up 500 more RITYDCs by the end of the next financial year to usher IT
Revolution in rural areas.

Their new found confidence enables volunteers to contribute even more freely to the welfare
activities that are not tied to monetary rewards, but which, they realize, they have themselves
been beneficiaries of.

2.3.5 NYKS Objectives

• To form Youth Clubs and involve the youth in nation building activities.
• To develop their values and skills so that they may become responsible and
productive citizens of India.
• To act as a catalytic agency in reaching the benefits of Central and State Government
Schemes to the rural community in general and the youth in particular.
• To inculcate in the rural youth the spirit of voluntarism and cooperation.
• To utilize NYKS network for development and promotion of programmes in priority
sectors such as employment generation, literacy, family welfare, environment
conservation, national integration, gender equality and women's empowerment.

2.3.6 Future Plans

The major programmes earmarked by NYKS include:
• Implementation of National Youth Policy
• Implementation of Rashtriya Sadbhawana Yojana
• Implementation of the schemes for adolescents Disaster Management and
preparedness
• Red Ribbon Express
• District Resource Centers (establishment of Library and other infrastructure with the
help of Raja Ram Mohan Roy Library Foundation)
• At least one self reliant Youth Club/ Mahila Mandal in each of 5.5 lakh Indian
villages
 • Empowerment of youth clubs through IT networking
• Establishing one Rural Information Technology Youth Development Centre in each
district
• Establishing 5000 Youth Development Centers all over India by the end of X Five
Year Plan
• Covering the entire districts of the country by Nehru Yuva Kendra’s by the end of X
Five Year Plan
• Extending the network of NYKS in all the tribal areas of the country
• Employment generation of youth through joint collaboration with Khadi & Village
Industries Commission

2.3.7 National Youth Policy 2003

The National Youth Policy, 2003 reiterates the commitment of the entire nation to the
composite and all-round development of the young sons and daughters of India and seeks to
establish an All-India perspective to fulfill their legitimate aspirations so that they are all
strong of heart and strong of body and mind in successfully accomplishing the challenging
tasks of nation reconstruction and social changes that lie ahead.

The earlier National Youth Policy was formulated in 1988. The socio-economic conditions
in the country have since undergone a significant change and have been shaped by wide-
ranging technological advancement. The National Youth Policy - 2003 is designed to
galvanize the youth to rise up to the new challenges, keeping in view the global scenario, and
aims at motivating them to be active and committed participants in the exciting task of
National Development.

The Policy is based on recognition of the contribution that the youth can, and should, make to
the growth and well-being of the community and endeavors to ensure effective co-ordination
between the policies, programmes and delivery systems of the various Ministries,
Departments and other Agencies. The thrust of the Policy centers on “Youth Empowerment”
in different spheres of national life.

For India to occupy her rightful place in the comity of Nations and to meaningfully discharge
the manifold obligations thereto, it would be imperative to ensure the effective pursuit of
youth development programmes which promote personality development and qualities of
citizenship and enhance commitment to community service, social justice, self-reliance,
national integration and humanism, an inclusive view of the entire universe as enshrined in
our ancient scriptures. The Policy, therefore, recognizes these inter-related values and
principles as its basic premise.
2.3.8 NYKS and GeoInformatics
It is imperative to enable the youth to utilize the technology of GeoInformatics in local
problem solving and build the capacity of the rural youth in modern technologies related to
watershed management.

Main objectives behind empowering youth are:

• To build up the technological capacity of selected volunteers of NYKS in
GeoInformatics for local problem solving related to natural resources and watershed
management.
• To prepare spatial resources profile of the selected blocks / watersheds.
• To develop an information generation mechanism focused on watershed management.
• To evolve an institutional mechanism for linking the activities to local level planning
for sustainable development.
3. Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) and Participatory
Resource Mapping (PRM)
3.1 PRA – Introduction
Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) is a label given to a growing family of participatory
approaches and methods that emphasize local knowledge and enable local people to make
their own appraisal, analysis, and plans. PRA uses group animation and exercises to facilitate
information sharing, analysis, and action among stakeholders. Although originally developed
for use in rural areas, PRA has been employed successfully in a variety of settings. The
purpose of PRA is to enable development practitioners, government officials, and local
people to work together to plan context appropriate programs.

Participatory rural appraisal evolved from rapid rural appraisal, a set of informal techniques
used by development practitioners in rural areas to collect and analyze data. Rapid rural
appraisal developed in the 1970s and 1980s in response to the perceived problems of
outsiders missing or miscommunicating with local people in the context of development
work. In PRA, data collection and analysis are undertaken by local people, with outsiders
facilitating rather than controlling. PRA is an approach for shared learning between local
people and outsiders, but the term is somewhat misleading. PRA techniques are equally
applicable in urban settings and are not limited to assessment only. The same approach can
be employed at every stage of the project cycle.

3.1.1 Key Tenets of PRA

• Participation - Local people's input into PRA activities is essential to its value as a
research and planning method and as a means for diffusing the participatory approach
to development.
• Teamwork - To the extent that the validity of PRA data relies on informal interaction
and brainstorming among those involved, it is best done by a team that includes local
people with perspective and knowledge of the area's conditions, traditions, and social
structure and either nationals or expatriates with a complementary mix of disciplinary
backgrounds and experience. A well balanced team will represent the diversity of
socioeconomic, cultural, gender, and generational perspectives.
• Flexibility - PRA does not provide blueprints for its practitioners. The combination of
techniques that is appropriate in a particular development context will be determined
by such variables as the size and skill mix of the PRA team, the time and resources
available, and the topic and location of the work.
• Optimal ignorance - To be efficient in terms of both time and money, PRA work
intends to gather just enough information to make the necessary recommendations
and decisions.
• Triangulation - PRA works with qualitative data. To ensure that information is valid
and reliable, PRA teams follow the rule of thumb that at least three sources must be
consulted or techniques must be used to investigate the same topics.
3.1.2 PRA Tools
PRA is an exercise in communication and transfer of knowledge. Regardless of whether it is
carried out as part of project identification or appraisal or as part of country economic and
sector work, the learning by doing and teamwork spirit of PRA requires transparent
procedures. For that reason, a series of open meetings (an initial open meeting, final meeting,
and follow up meeting) generally frame the sequence of PRA activities. Other tools common
in PRA are:
• Semi-structured interviewing
• Focus group discussions
• Preference ranking
• Mapping and modeling
• Seasonal and historical diagramming.

3.3 PRM – Introduction

Participatory Resource Mapping is a tool used by practitioners of participatory methods to
acquire a systematic and graphic understanding of the layout of a farmer’s landscape and of
his setting in the village space. This tool permits a picturesque representation of a farmer’s
village environment in term of its make-up, the location of objects or features and their
disposition with respect to other related or neighbouring objects. The process evolves with an
external facilitator encouraging the farmers to make a graphic representation or drawing of
their surroundings, preferably using a familiar object as drawing material, most often on the
bare ground. Thereafter, following the objective of the study exercise the farmers are
requested to indicate in the drawing of their own environment, relevant physical features, and
in the process providing descriptive information that the facilitator records as attribute data.
The outcome of this process therefore, is often a map of a farmer’s environment covering the
themes that reflect the objective of the exercise, and descriptive notes taken by the
facilitators, that may comprise, through not exclusively, dates of events, names of farm
owners, time taken to walk to a points, local names and sightings of wildlife. Not only does
the process facilitate a spatial appreciation of a village landscape by an outsider, but it also
strengthens the farmer’s sense of mastery over his environment.

Therefore, in the capture of information from local communities by integrated PRM and GIS,
the farmer participation facilitates the incorporation of local perception and perspectives into
the conception phase in watershed and natural resources management process

3.4 Value of PRM and its strengthening through GIS

In the practice of participatory methods, amongst the most widely used tools are those that
encourage the local people to express themselves within the context of their environments
and without the inconvenience of language barriers. PRM is recognized as important tool. As
it is very often used as the ‘entry’ tool for participatory methods and approaches by
practitioners in a village, it permits more villagers to participate especially through spatial
analysis. It also facilitates the identification of resource persons in the village as well as the
identification of the more reluctant participants. Finally, during the PRM process itself, most
objects (farms, plots, trees, etc.) should be identified spatially, in the village. Subsequently,
the information thus acquired from the villages is analyzed.

The situation of improper storage and management of spatially-linked information is a

weakness which constrains the value of time bound spatial information in process like
monitoring and thus requires repetitions of similar studies within short intervals in same
locations, that lead to the common syndrome of ‘villager fatigue’. For research data to serve
the purpose of demonstrating the value of local knowledge, especially retrospectively, and
eventually putting local people in a ‘real world’ context., it should be in a storable,
retrievable, transformable form, and one in which it can be combined and integrated say in a
regional, national or international context. A GIS presents such an opportunity. Therefore,
integrating PRM and GIS helps in better analysis and data preservation.

3.5 Advantage of PRM over PRA

In PRM database is maintained. Every bit of information collected is stored in database and
thus act as useful data for present and future reference. In PRA it is not converted in soft /
digital form. Thus the data collected and hard work done is of no use with passage of time.
One cannot refer back to the old data. Data comparison is difficult. Also linkage and
comparison of different places with similar characteristics is difficult. Hence valuable data
collected, time and money invested is lost.

In GIS based PRM, all information is mapped and stored in digital form, it is reusable, and
secure. One can preserve all information in databases and use it as and when required.
4. Transferring of Data to Digital Form
4.1 Digitisation
Conversion of map into intelligent maps is known as digitization process. Digitizing means
converting the map in digital format, which contains all information given on map in the
form of layers of different themes such as landuse, drainage, etc.. All data is connected to the
database.

4.2 Database Design - Fundamental Concepts and Terminology

4.2.1. Data
Data are facts. Some facts are more important to us than others. Some facts are important
enough to warrant keeping track of them in a formal (organized way). Important data are like
the valuables we keep in a bank. They are a small subset of our total possessions but they are
so important that we protect them by putting them in a special, safe place. "Data" is a broad
concept that can include things such as pictures (binary images), programs, and rules.
Informally, data are the things (entities that are physical or virtual) you want to store in a
database.

4.2.2. Spatial vs. Non-spatial Data

Spatial Data: Spatial data includes location, shape, size, and orientation. For example, the
spatial data for a square object shall include:
• Its center (the intersection of its diagonals) specifies its location
• Its shape (is a square)
• The length of one of its sides specifies its size
• The angle its diagonals make with, say, the x-axis specifies its orientation.

Spatial data includes spatial relationships. For example, the arrangement of ten bowling pins
is spatial data.

Non - Spatial Data: Non-spatial data (also called attribute or characteristic data) is that
information which is independent of all geometric considerations. For example, a persons
height, mass and age are non-spatial data because they are independent of the persons
location.
Its interesting to note that, while mass is non-spatial data; weight is spatial data in the sense
that someone’s weight is very much dependent on its location.

Spatial vs. Non-spatial Data

It is possible to ignore the distinction between spatial and non-spatial data. However, there
are fundamental differences between them:

o Spatial Data are generally multi-dimensional and auto correlated.

o Non-Spatial Data are generally one-dimensional and independent.
These distinctions put spatial and non-spatial data into different philosophical camps with
far-reaching implications for conceptual, processing, and storage issues. For example, sorting
is perhaps the most common and important non-spatial data processing function that is
performed. It is not obvious how to even sort locational data such that all points end up
nearby their nearest neighbours. These distinctions justify a separate consideration of spatial
and non-spatial data models.

4.2.3. Database
A database is a collection of facts, a set of data. It is like the contents of a bank's vault. The
information in a phone book is an example of a database. Here the fact is that the book itself
is not the database, rather, the database is the information stored on the pages of the book, not
the pieces of paper with ink on them.

4.2.4 Database Management System (DBMS)

A database management system is a data repository along with a user interface providing for
the manipulation and administration of a database. A phone book is an example of a DBMS.
A DBMS is understood to be a software system, a program (or suite of programs) that is run
on a digital computer. A few examples of commercially available DBMSs include Sybase,
Oracle, DB2, Access, and dBase. A DBMS is like a full-service bank, providing many
features and services.

A DBMS provides a number of functions to create, edit, manipulate and analyse spatial and
non-spatial data in the applications of a GIS.
Major functions of a database are as follows:
• Creating records of various data types - integer, real, character, data, image etc.
• Operations - sort, delete, edit, select etc.
• Manipulation - input, analysis, output, reformatting etc.
• Query - will be made by a standardized language such as SQL
• Programming - will be useful for application programs
• Documentation - metadata or description of the contents of the database.

The DBMS are formulated using different philosophy of data manipulation procedures. Out
of these, four types of data models have become popular:
• Hierarchical Model - Several records or files are hierarchically related with each
other. For example, a typical organization structure is always hierarchical.
• Network Model
• Relational Model
• Object Oriented Model

Although all four types are used, the relational model has been most successful in GIS. Well
known relational databases include dBase, Oracle and Info. Object oriented model is a new
concept that has been recently developed.
There has been debate on which of the two - layers or object oriented is efficient in GIS.
Layers may be efficient for natural resources management, for example with different layers
of land use, soil, geology, agriculture, forests etc.
On the other hand object orientation may be more convenient for facility management with
grouped attributes.
4.2.5 Queries
Many DBMSs provide a user interface consisting of some sort of formal language.
• A data definition language (DDL) is used to specify which data will be stored in the
database and how they are related.
• A data manipulation language (DML) is used to add, retrieve, update, and delete
data in the DBMS.
• A query is often taken as a statement or group of statements in either a DDL or a
DML or both. Some researchers view queries as read-only operations, no data
modifications are allowed.
• A query language is a formal language that implements a DDL, a DML, or both.
Examples of query languages include SQL (Structured Query Language) and Query-
by-Example.

4.2.6 Data Models

A data model is mathematical formulation consisting of two parts
• A notation for describing data, and
• A set of operations used to manipulate that data.
A data model is a way of organizing a collection of facts pertaining to a system under
investigation. There is no universally agreed upon best data model. However, in general a
DBMS is seen to be composed of three levels of abstraction:
• Physical: This is the implementation of the database in a digital computer. It is
concerned with things like storage structures and access method data structures.
• Conceptual: This is the expression of the database designer’s model of the real world
in the language of the data model.
• View: Different user groups can be given access to different portions of the database.
A user group’s portion of the database is called their view.

4.3 Importance of Database Design

One can say database design is back bone of any data storage process. A good database has
very long life and also data retrieval is easy and fast.

4.4 Advantage of Digitisation

There are many advantages of Digitisation.
• Paper maps are static, hence any change in map may cost time and money. But with
the help of digitised map one can make changes easily.
• All information is marked on single map, which makes it difficult to read. Sometime
one has to refer separate paper maps to see different characteristic of certain area. But
with the digitised map, one can make active the features one needs to view.
• Data preservation and data transfer is easy.
• Data analysis is possible.
• Data linkage is possible.