History : Themes in Indian History - I For Class 12

Bricks, Beads and Bones

Q 1 What helps Archeologists the most in studying the Harappan and Mohenjodaro
cultures? Marks (2)
The Harappan script is not of much help to the archeologists. It isthe material
evidence that helps the archaeologists in the reconstruction of the Harappan life.
Organic material such as cloth, leather, wood and reeds gets easily decomposed
while stone, burnt clay, metal survive best. These materials such as bead, pottery,
ornaments, household objects are available which helps to piece together parts of a
fascinating history of the Harappan and Mohenjodaro cultures.

Q 2 What is meant by the term ‘Chert’? Describe the purpose it served? Marks (2)
‘Chert’ was a type of stone, generally cubical with no markings. It was used in the
system of weights by the people of Harappan culture. It was of precise
measurement, in which the lower denominations of weights were binary from 1 to
12,800, while the higher denominations followed the decimal system.

Q 3 What were the characteristics of the seals used by the Harappan culture? Marks
(2)
1.The seals used generally had a line of writing, which probably had name and
title of the owner.
2.The seal had a motif(generally an animal) which conveyed a meaning to those
who could not read.
3.The inscriptions were short and written right to left.
4.The script has not been deciphered to date.

Q 4 How do archaeologists identify the centres of craft production? Marks (2)

In order to identify the centres of craft production the archaeologists looks for the following:
1. Raw material such as stone nodules, whole shells, copper ore;
2.Tools
3.Unfinished objects;
4.Rejects and waste material. In fact, waste is one of the best indicators of craft work.

Q 5 Why was seal important on the bags in which the goods were sent by the people
in Harappan culture? Marks (2)
1.The seal served many purposes such as it established the identity of the
seller/sender.
2.If the seal reached the receiver without any harm it meant that that bag
wasnot tempered along the way thus establishing the credibility of the carrier.

Q 6 Why was the term saddle querns used for a particular type of quern stone?
Marks (2)
The saddle quern was produced by grinding the hand stone using parallel motions
that was pushing and pulling the hand stone, which formed a shape looking like a
saddle. Hence this particular type of quern stone was called saddle quern. The hand
stones for saddle querns were either roughly spherical or roughly hemispherical and
used with one hand.

Q 7 Which type of designs was used by the Harappans to decorate their pottery?
Marks (2)
The most common type of decorated pottery was a black-on-red ware. The surface
of this pottery type was mostly decorated with typical designs of either geometric or
naturalistic patterns. The most common motifs were interlocking circles, scales, and
combs; naturalistic motifs included indigenous animals (peacocks, antelope, and
zebras were common) and plants, with occasional human depictions as well.

Q 8 What are hoards? Marks (2)

In archaeology, a hoard is a collection of valuable objects or artifacts, sometimes
purposely buried in the ground in side pots or containers. Such hoards can be of
jewellery or metal objects usually buried with the intention of later recovery by the
hoarder. Hoarders sometimes died before retrieving the hoard, and these surviving
hoards may be uncovered by metal detectorists, members of the public and
archaeologists much later.

Q 9 Discuss the importance of ‘Chanhudaro’ and ‘Balakot’ in the Harappan culture?

Marks (2)
‘Balakot’ was a Harappan settlement located near the coast. It was a specialized center in
making shell objects-including bangles, ladles and inlays which were taken to other
settlements. Chanhudaro is one of the best known settlements of the Harappan civilisation.
This settlement was entirely devoted to craft production which included bead-making, shell-
cutting, metal-working, seal making and weight making.

Q 10 Discuss the evidence which indicates Mohenjodaro as a planned town? Marks

(2)
Labour was mobilised at a very large scale. Once the platform was in place, the
activity was restricted to that fixed area. It seems that first the settlement was first
planned and then implemented. All the bricks used in the Mohenjodaro buildings
were uniform in size; the ratio was fixed where thelength was four times and breadth
being twice of the height of the brick. The bricks were either sun dried or baked.

Q 11 Briefly describe the Mohenjodaro settlements? Marks (2)

The settlements in the Mohenjodaro were divided into two sections, one smaller but
higher and the other larger but lower. These were named by the archaeologists as
the Citadel and the Lower town respectively. The Citadel was built on mud brick
platform, and was walled and separated from the lower town. Lower town was also
walled. Several other buildings were made on the platform that served as a
foundation.

Q 12 Describe the kind of food that was available to the people of Harappan cities?
Marks (2)
The Harappans ate wide range of plants and animal products, including fish. The
archeologists have found grain such as wheat, barley, lentils, chickpeas, sesame at
the Harappan sites. In Gujarat Millets have been found, rice was found rarely. Bones
of cattle, fish, fowl, sheep, goat, buffalo, pig, boar, deer and gharial are found at the
sites of Harappan centers which indicate that these animals were either domesticated
or hunted by the Harappan people.

Q 13 Discuss the agricultural practices carried out by the Harappans? Marks (2)
It is very difficult to reconstruct actual agricultural practices carried out by the
Harappans. Terracotta sculptures of the bull and their representations on the seals
show that bull was known to the Harappans. From this the archaeologists can infer
that the oxen were used for ploughing the fields. Moreover, the archaeologists have
found terracotta models of the plough at sites in Cholistan and at Banawali
(Haryana). Evidence of a ploughed field, associated with early Harappan levels have
also been found at Kalibangan.

Q 14 With what were the early archaeological cultures in the region prior to the
Mature Harappan culture associated? Marks (2)
There were several archaeological cultures in the region prior to the Mature
Harappan. These cultures were associated with distinctive pottery, evidence of
agriculture, pastoralism and some variety of crafts. The settlements were small in
size and had no large buildings.

Q 15 Mark the land and sea route for the people of Harappan culture to reach their
source of raw material and markets on the given map. Marks (5)

Q 16 How are the findings classified by the Archeologists? Marks (5)

Recovering artifacts is the initial phase of the archaeological enterprise. Archeologists then classify their
finds. They employ various methods to classify their findings.
 1.One method they follow is classification of their find in terms of material such
as, stone, clay, metal, ivory etc.
2.The second method is in terms of functions. It is more complicated than the
first one. The archaeologists decide whether the find is a tool, ornament or
both or something meant for ritual use.
3.Function of an artifact is often understood by comparing it with present day
things.
4.Moreover place where an artifact was found also plays an important role, such
as if it was found in bath, grave, kiln or in a drain.
5.At times indirect evidence is taken into account, such as to find about clothing
archaeologists have to depend on indirect evidence like depictions in the
sculptures.
6.At times archaeologists have to develop a frame of reference. For example the
first Harappan seal was understood better when compared with the finds in
Mesopotamia.

Q 17 Identify the difference between the technique of excavation by John Marshall

and R.E.M. Wheeler? Marks (5)
John Marshall excavated the region along the horizontal units. He measured
uniformly through out the mound and ignored the stratigraphy of the site. This was
followed by the fact that all the artifacts recovered from the same unit were grouped
together, even if they were leveled at different stratigraphic layers. Following this
technique valuable information about the context of these finds was lost. This
problem was rectified by R.E.M. Wheeler. He recognized that stratigraphy of the
mound had to be strictly followed rather than digging mechanically along the uniform
horizontal lines. Accuracy was broughttothe practice of archaeology.

Q 18 Who was Cunningham? How did Cunningham miss the significance of

Harappa? Marks (5)
Cunningham was the first Director-General of ASI. He began archaeological
excavations in the mid nineteenth century. His main interest was in the archaeology
of early history from6thcentury BCE - 4th century CE, and later periods. So, site like
Harappa did not fit well in his area of investigation. Although Harappan artifacts were
found during the 19thcentury and some of these reached Cunningham but he did not
realise how old these were.
An Englishman gave a Harappan seal to Cunningham but he was unable to judge the
importance of the findings, and was unable to place it in the time frame, as he was
familiar with the thought that Indian history began with the first cites in the Ganga
valley. From this incidence we can conclude that Cunningham missed the significance
of Harappa.

Q 19 Was there an authority present during the Harappan culture? Justify your
answer. Marks (5)
Historians have diverse views regarding the presence of a central authority in Harappa.
1.Some archaeologists are of the opinion that there were no rulers in the
Harappan society and everybody in the state enjoyed equal status.
2.Others are of the opinion that there was no single ruler but different rulers.
Mohenjodaro had separate ruler, Harappa had separate and so on.
3.While others base their opinion on, the uniformity of the artefacts used such
as, bricks, seals, weights and measures, planned settlements, suggest that
there was one single state.
The last opinion appears to be more plausible as it is doubtful that such complex decisions were made and
implemented collectively by entire communities.
Q 20 Why seals and sealing were used during the Harappan period? Marks (5)
Long distance communication was made possible by using seals and sealing. When a
bag of goods was sent from one place to another, its mouth was tied with rope. On
the knot was affixed some wet clay on which one or more seals were pressed,
leaving an impression. If the bag reached with its sealing intact, it meant that it had
not been tampered with. The sealing also conveyed the identity of the sender.
Numerous Harappan seals have been found at Mesopotamian cities.

Q 21 Did the people of Harappan culture believe in life after death? Describe their
burials. Marks (5)
The archeologists are not sure as to whether the people during the Harappan culture
believed in life after death, however copper mirror, necklace of beads, semi precious
stones were buried in the burials for both males and females. The dead were
generally laid in pits, the difference lay in the way the pits were built, and some were
hollowed out spaces lined with bricks. Ornaments and pottery are found buried in
some graves, indicating that the Harappans believed in afterlife. In some instances
dead were buried with copper mirrors. But on the whole they did not believe in
burying precious things with the dead.

Q 22 Describe the ‘Great Bath’ of the Harappan culture? Marks (5)

The ‘Great Bath’ was a large rectangular tank surrounded by corridors on all thefour
sides. There were two flights of stairs on north and south leading into the tank. The
tank was made water tight by laying bricks on the edge and using mortar of gypsum.
Rooms were built on the three sides of the tank, with one room having a large well.
The water from the tank overflowed into a huge drain. Across the lane there was a
smaller building with eight bathrooms,four at each side of a corridor, with drains
from each bathroom connecting to a drain that ran along the corridor.

Q 23 What was done for irrigating the field in the Harappan culture? Marks (5)
As the Harappan sites are located in semi-arid lands irrigation was required. River
Ravi and Bias provided large scale irrigation to Indus Valley settlements around
Harappa. Water was abundant so an advanced drainage system also existed. The
Harappans channeled water onto their fields with little provision for drainage. Though
there is no evidence of canal in this region, it is suspected that canals might have
silted. Traces of canals have been found at the Harappan sites at Shortughai in
Afghanistan. However at Dholavira in Gujarat some water reservoirs have been
found, which were used to store water for agricultural purpose. It is also possible
that water drawn from the wells was used for irrigation purposes.

Q 24 Discuss the Agricultural practices during Harappan culture. Marks (5)

Though it is not known whether they scattered the seeds on ploughed land, the
finding of grains indicate that agriculture was practiced during this time, the
presence of a bull on the seal found from this site also indicates that bull was known
as an oxen that wasused for ploughing. Model of plough has been found at Cholistan
(Pakistan) and Banawali; which indicates that it was familiar and was used in
agriculture. An evidence has been found at Kalibangan (Rajasthan) that two different
crops were grown together as two sets of furrows at right angles to each other.
Q 25 Name and Mark on the map the Harappan site found in India. Marks (5)
The names of Harappan sites found in India are Lothal, Dholavira, Kalibabgan, Nagehwar, and
Rakhigarhi.

Q 26 Where are the problems of archaeological interpretation most evident in

Harappan civilisation? Marks (8)
The archeologists face many problems in the interpretations and construction of
religious practices. Early archeologists thought that various objects which are
unusual and unfamiliar might had some religious significance. Terracotta figures of
women, heavily jeweled, with elaborate headdress were classified as mother
goddess. Similarly the statues of men, made from rare stones, in the standard
posture like, seated with one hand on the knee, like a priest king were assigned
religious significance. Structures such as Great baths, fire altar found at Kalibangan
and Lothal have also been assigned ritual significance.
Attempts have been made by the archaeologists to reconstruct religious beliefs by examining some seals
which depict ritual scenes. Seals with plant motifs signify nature worship. Seals with animal motifs such as
one horned bull depict worship of composite creatures. In some seals, a figure shown seated cross-legged in
a ‘yogic’ posture, sometimes surrounded by animals, has been regarded as a depiction of ‘proto-Shiva’, that
is, an early form of one of the major deities of Hinduism. Besides, conical stone objects have been
classified as lingas.
Many reconstructions of Harappan religion are made on the assumption that later traditions provide
parallels with earlier ones. While this is possible in the case of stone querns and pots, it becomes more
speculative when we extend it to religious symbols.

Q 27 All the raw material required by the Harappan people was not available locally.
Discuss the ways and means how they out- sourced the material? Marks (8)
All the raw materials required by the Harappan people were not locally available. So,
Harappans used different ways to procure rocks and minerals required for the
production of utilitarian objects such as grinding stones and chipped stone tools as
well for the manufacture of ornaments such as beads and inlay.
1.These people established various settlements near the source of raw materials
such as Shortughai in Afghanistan near the source of lapis lazuli, Lothal near
the source of carnelian and Nageshwar and Balakot near the areas where
 shell was available. The Khetri deposits of Rajasthan must have been an
important source of copper. Steatite was procured from Rajasthan and north
Gujarat.
2.Another method adopted by the Harappans to procure raw material was to
send expeditions to areas such as Gujarat and Karnataka. Most varieties of
semi-precious stone used for bead manufacture came from Gujarat and Gold
came from the Kolar fields of Karnataka. These expeditions established
communication with local communities. Two wheeled carts were an important
mode of transport for the people and the goods. Bronze and terracotta
models of carts have been found at various sites.
3.The people of Harappa maintained trade relations with distant lands to trade in
raw material. The Harappans probably had trade links with Oman, this is
established by the fact that Omani and Harappan copper had traces of nickel,
which suggests a common origin. Copper was sent to the present day region
of Mesopotamia through Oman. The people of Harappa probably traded with
Mesopotamia through the ports in Oman and Dilmun and island in Bahrain.
Harappan seals have been found in these far lands.

Q 28 How can we say that Harappa maintained contacts with distant lands? Marks
(8)
The people of Harappa maintained trade relations with distant lands to trade in raw
material. The main source of long-distance trade includes a number of Harappan and
Harappa related artifacts found at sites outside the subcontinent and foreign objects
found at Harappan sites.
1.The Harappans probably had trade relations with the Oman peninsula. Chemical
analyses have shown that both the Omani copper and Harappan artifacts
have traces of nickel, which suggests a common origin. There are similarities
between certain other types of objects found at this site such as a square
steatite seal, fragments of pottery, carnelian beads, a cubical stone weight,
etc. and Harappan artifacts. The imports from Oman may have included
chlorite vessels, shells, etc.
2.There is literary as well as archaeological evidence for Harappan trade with the
Mesopotamia. Mesopotamian texts mention contact with regions named
Dilmun (probably the island of Bahrain), Magan and Meluhha, possibly the
Harappan region. The archaeological evidence for Harappan –Mesopotamian
trade consists mainly of a few Harappan or Harappan related seals and
carnelian beads at Mesopotamian sites.
3.It is likely that communication with Oman, Bahrain or Mesopotamia was by sea.
Mesopotamian texts refer to Meluhha as a land of seafarers. Besides, seals
and sealing depicting ships and boats have been found.
4.The most important evidence of trade with Afghanistan comes from an isolated
Harappan trading outpost at Shortughai. The Harappans had established a
settlement at Shortughai in Afghanistan near the source of lapis lazuli.

Q 29 Describe the material used and the ways of making craft by the Harappan
people? Marks (8)
Various materials were used by the Harappans to make Crafts, like, stones such as
carnelian, jasper, crystal, steatite; metals like copper, gold, bronze; shell, faience
and terracotta.
 1.They made beads of carnelian, agate amethyst, turquoise, lapis lazuli, etc.
Some times beads were made of two or more stones by cementing together,
while some of stone with gold caps.
2.They were made in varied shapes such as cylindrical, spherical. Some were
decorated by painting and some had designs etched on them.
3.They manufactured bangles out of shells, glazed faience and terracotta and
carved ivory and worked shells into ornaments, bowls and ladles.
4.They made weapons, all types of tools, domestic objects and statues from
copper and bronze.
5.They were skillful craftsmen in making gold and silver ornaments. Necklaces,
silver- bangles were well crafted.
6.With great artistic ability they engraved their famous seals mostly in steatite.
Thousands of seals with beautiful figures of animals such as unicorn, bull,
tiger, bison, goat, buffalo have been discovered by the archaeologists. The
most outstanding seal is the ‘Pashupati seal’.
7.Statues made of stone, bronze and terracotta were not abundant but were
refined.
One of the most known bronze figurines is perhaps the ‘dancing girl’. The
Harappans have made rough terracotta statuettes of women with elaborate
head dresses. Two statues in stone - one is a torso in red sand stone and the
other is a bust of a bearded man- have also been found.
8.The Harappans made brilliant models of animals, specially, monkey and
squirrel. These were used as pinheads and beads.

Q 30 Discuss the layout Pattern of residential building and the citadel in

Mohenjodaro era? Marks (8)
Mohenjodaro has a planned layout based on a grid of streets, which were laid out in
perfect patterns. The buildings of the city were particularly advanced. All the
structures were constructed of same-sized sun dried bricks of baked mud and burned
wood.The city of Mohenjodaro was divided into two parts, the so called the citadel
and the lower City.The Lower Town at Mohenjodaro provides examples of residential
buildings. Most of the residential buildings were centered on a courtyard, with rooms
on all sides. Various activities like cooking, weaving etc. were done in the courtyard
particularly during the hot and dry seasons. There were no windows along the walls
on the ground floor so secrecy could be maintained. The residential building’s main
entrance was like that it did not provide view of courtyard and interior. Every house
had a bathroom paved with bricks, which was connected through the wall to the
covered drains lining the major streets. A variety of buildings were of two storeys. In
some houses remains of staircases to reach second storey or roof have been found.
Many houses had wells which were approachable from outside for the use of
outsiders. It is estimated that in Mohenjodaro total number of wells was around 700.

Q 31 Describe the layout pattern of Harappan cities? Marks (8)

Mohenjodaro has a planned layout based on a grid of streets, which were laid out in
perfect patterns. The buildings of the city were particularly advanced. All the
structures were constructed of same-sized sun dried bricks of baked mud and burned
wood.The city of Mohenjodaro was divided into two parts, the so called the citadel
and the lower City.The Lower Town at Mohenjodaro provides examples of residential
buildings. Most of the residential buildings were centered on a courtyard, with rooms
on all sides. Various activities like cooking, weaving etc. were done in the courtyard
particularly during the hot and dry seasons. There were no windows along the walls
on the ground floorso secrecy could be maintained. The residential building’s main
entrance waslike that it did not provide view of courtyard and interior. Every house
had a bathroom paved with bricks, which was connected through the wall to the
covered drains lining the major streets. A variety of buildings were of two storeys. In
some houses remains of staircases to reach second storey or roof have been found.
Many houses had wells which were approachable from outside for theuse of
outsiders. It is estimated that in Mohenjodaro total number of wells was around 700.

Q 32 Answer the questions related to the passage given below:

About the drains, Mackay noted: “It is certainly the most complete ancient system as
yet discovered.” Every house was connected to the street drains.
The main channels… Very long drainage channels were provided at intervals with
sumps for cleaning. It is a wonder of archaeology that “little heaps of material…was
not always carted away when the drain was cleared”. Drainage systems were not
unique…houses were built of mud bricks, drains were made of burnt bricks. (2+2+4)

a) Site one example of smaller settlement having drainage system. 2

b) How can we say that the drains at Harappa civilisation were cleaned at regular
intervals? 2

c) How were the drains at Harappa cleaned? 4 Marks (8)

Answer the questions related to the passage given below:

About the drains, Mackay noted: “It is certainly the most complete ancient system as
yet discovered.” Every house was connected to the street drains.
The main channels… Very long drainage channels were provided at intervals with
sumps for cleaning. It is a wonder of archaeology that “little heaps of material…was
not always carted away when the drain was cleared”. Drainage systems were not
unique…houses were built of mud bricks, drains were made of burnt bricks. (2+2+4)

a) Site one example of smaller settlement having drainage system. 2

b) How can we say that the drains at Harappa civilisation were cleaned at regular
intervals? 2

c) How were the drains at Harappa cleaned? 4

(8 Marks)
(Ans)
a) The most unique aspect of town planning in the Harappan civilisation was the system of
underground drainage. In smaller settlements such as Lothal, the houses were built of mud
bricks and drains were made of burnt bricks smoothened and joined together seamlessly.

b) The drains of Mohenjodaro were periodically cleaned out is attested by little heaps of
material mostly sand that have frequently been found alongside the drains. The more fine clay
would be readily carried off by the rush of water whereas the heavier particles of sand were
deposited.

c) Every house at Mohenjodaro had drains connected to the street drain. The main channels
were made of bricks set in mortar with brick or stone covers that could readily be lifted to
remove for cleaning. Many of the most important drains were covered with limestone
slabs. Every house had one or two apertures in its walls through which the waste water
ran out into a soak pit into which solid matter settled while waste water flowed out into
the street drains. Very long drainage channels were provided at intervals with sumps for
cleaning.

Q 33 Processing of food required grinding equipment as well as vessels for mixing,

blending and cooking. These were made of stone, metal and terracotta. This is an
excerpt from one of the earliest reports on excavations at Mohenjodaro, the best-
known Harappan site:

“Saddle querns … are found in considerable numbers… and they seem to have been
the only means in use for grinding cereals. As a rule, they were roughly made of
hard, gritty, igneous rock or sandstone and mostly show signs of hard usage. As
their bases are usually convex, they must have been set in the earth or in mud to
prevent their rocking. Two main types have been found: those on which another
smaller stone was pushed or rolled to and fro, and others with which a second stone
was used as a pounder, eventually making
a large cavity in the nether stone. Querns of the former type were probably used
solely for grain; the second type possibly only for pounding herbs and spices for
making curries. In fact, stones of this latter type are dubbed “curry stones” by our
workmen and our cook asked for the loan of one from the museum for use in the
kitchen.” (4+2+2)

a) What do you know about the saddle querns? 4

b) What was required in the processing of food? 2
c) Which type of saddle querns is called “curry stones”? 2 Marks (8)
(Ans)
a) i) Saddle querns were the only means of grinding cereals and pulses. Such types of
grinders have been found in considerable number.
ii) They were a kind of hand operated mil for grinding corn.
iii) They were made of hard, gritty rock or sandstone.
iv) The remains of saddle querns show signs of hard usage.

b)Grinding equipment as well as vessels for mixing, blending and cooking was required in the
processing of food. These equipments were made of stone, metal and terracotta.

c) The type of quern in which the second stone was used as pounder, which eventually made
a cavity in the base stone was called “curry stones”. This type was possibly used only for
pounding herbs and spices for making curries.

Q 34 Answer the questions related to the passage given below:

Much later, in 1947, R.E.M. Wheeler, then Director-General of the ASI, tried to
correlate this archaeological evidence with that of the Rigveda, the earliest known
text in the subcontinent. He wrote:
“The Rigveda mentions pur, meaning rampart, fort or stronghold. Indra, the Aryan
war-god is called puramdara, the fort-destroyer. Where are – or were – these
citadels? It has in the past been supposed that they were mythical … The recent
excavation of Harappa may be thought to have changed the picture. Here we have a
highly evolved civilisation of essentially non- Aryan type, now known to have
employed massive fortifications … What destroyed this firmly settled civilisation?
Climatic, economic or political deterioration may have weakened it, but its ultimate
extinction is more likely to have been completed by deliberate and large-scale
destruction. It may be no mere chance that at a late period of Mohenjodaro men,
women, and children, appear to have been massacred there. On circumstantial
evidence, Indra stands accused.” (2+2+4)

a) What is the opinion of R.E.M. Wheeler regarding the destruction of Harappa

civilisation? 2

b) What has been found from the ‘Deadman lane’? 2

c) What is the popular opinion among the historians regarding the destruction of
Harappa civilisation? 4 Marks (8)
(Ans)
a) Mortimer Wheeler pointed out that the Harappan culture was destroyed by the Aryans. The
Aryans were more skilled at warfare and were powerful than the Harappans. It appears that in
the last phase of Mohenjodaro, men, women and children were massacred in the streets and
houses.

b) Sixteen skeletons of people with the ornaments that they were wearing when they died
have been found from the Deadman lane in 1925.

c) The Harappa civilisation flourished between 2700 BCE to 1850 BCE. Historians are of the
opinion that the decline of the Harappa civilisation was not the result of a single event. It was
a slow decline and a result of combination of factors such as over-exploitation of the
environment, drastic changes in the river-courses, series of floods, water-logging and
increased salinity of the irrigated lands. Finally, the weakened cities became easy victims of
the raiders from Central Asia, whose arrival heralded a major cultural discontinuity in South
Asia.