CCNA Study Notes

1. Identify and describe the functions of each of the seven layers of the OSI
reference model.

Physical Layer

The physical layer defines the electrical, mechanical, procedural, and functional
specifications for activating, maintaining, and deactivating the physical link
between communicating network systems. Physical layer specifications define
such characteristics as voltage levels, timing of voltage changes, physical data
rates, maximum transmission distances, and the physical connectors to be used.

Data Link Layer

The data link layer provides reliable transit of data across a physical network link.
Different data link layer specifications define different network and protocol
characteristics, including the following:

Physical addressing -- Physical addressing (as opposed to network addressing)

defines how devices are addressed at the data link layer.

Network topology -- Data link layer specifications often define how devices are to
be physically connected (such as in a bus or a ring topology).

Error notification -- Error notification involves alerting upper layer protocols that a
transmission error has occurred.

Sequencing of frames -- Sequencing of data frames involves the reordering of

frames that are transmitted out of sequence.

Flow control -- Flow control involves moderating the transmission of data so that
the receiving device is not overwhelmed with more traffic than it can handle at one
time.

The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) has subdivided the
data link layer into two sublayers: Logical Link Control (LLC) and Media Access
Control (MAC).

Network Layer

The network layer provides routing and related functions that allow multiple data
links to be combined into an internetwork. This is accomplished by the logical
addressing (as opposed to the physical addressing) of devices. The network layer
supports both connection-oriented and connectionless service from higher-layer
protocols.

Transport Layer

The transport layer implements reliable internetwork data transport services that
are transparent to upper layers. Transport layer functions typically include the
following:

Flow control -- Flow control manages data transmission between devices so that
the transmitting device does not send more data than the receiving device can
process.

Multiplexing -- Multiplexing allows data from several applications to be

transmitted onto a single physical link.

Virtual circuit management -- Virtual circuits are established, maintained, and

terminated by the transport layer.

Error checking and recovery -- Error checking involves various mechanisms for
detecting transmission errors. Error recovery involves taking an action (such as
requesting that data be retransmitted) to resolve any errors that occur.

Some examples of transport layer implementations follow:

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), Name Binding Protocol (NBP), OSI transport
protocols

Session Layer

The session layer establishes, manages, and terminates communication sessions

between presentation layer entities. Communication sessions consist of service
requests and service responses that occur between applications located in
different network devices. These requests and responses are coordinated by
protocols implemented at the session layer. Some examples of session layer
implementations follow:

Apple ZIP, DEC SCP, NFS, SQL, RPC, X Windows, ASP

Presentation Layer
The presentation layer provides a variety of coding and conversion functions that
are applied to application layer data. These functions ensure that information sent
from the application layer of one system will be readable by the application layer
of another system. Some examples of presentation layer coding and conversion
schemes follow:

Common data representation formats -- The use of standard image, sound, and
video formats allow the interchange of application data between different types of
computer systems.

Conversion of character representation formats -- Conversion schemes are used

to exchange information with systems using different text and data
representations (such as EBCDIC and ASCII).

Common data compression schemes -- The use of standard data compression

schemes allows data that is compressed at the source device to be properly
decompressed at the destination.

Common data encryption schemes -- The use of standard data encryption

schemes allows data encrypted at the source device to be properly unencrypted
at the destination.

Presentation layer implementations are not typically associated with a particular

protocol stack. Some well known standards follow:

Data: ASCII, EBCDIC, Encryption

Visual Imaging: PICT, TIFF, GIF, JPEG

Video: MIDI, MPEG, QuickTime

Application Layer

The application layer interacts with software applications that implement a

communicating component. Application layer functions typically include the
following:

Identifying communication partners -- The application layer identifies and

determines the availability of communication partners for an application with data
to transmit.

Determining resource availability -- The application layer must determine whether

sufficient network resources for the requested communication are available.

Synchronizing communication -- Communication between applications requires

cooperation that is managed by the application layer.
The application layer is the OSI layer closest to the end user. That is, both the OSI
application layer and the user interact directly with the software application. Some
examples of application layer implementations follow:

TCP/IP applications -- TCP/IP applications are protocols in the Internet Protocol

suite, such as Telnet, File Transfer Protocol (FTP), and Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol (SMTP).

OSI applications -- OSI applications are protocols in the OSI suite such as File
Transfer, Access, and Management (FTAM), Virtual Terminal Protocol (VTP), and
Common Management Information Protocol (CMIP).

2. Describe connection-oriented network service and connectionless network

service and identify the key differences between them.

Connection-Oriented Network Service

Connection-oriented service involves three phases:

Connection establishment -- During the connection establishment phase, a single

path between the source and destination systems is determined. Network
resources are typically reserved at this time to ensure a consistent grade of
service (such as a guaranteed throughput rate).

Data transfer -- During the data transfer phase, data is transmitted sequentially
over the path that has been established. Data always arrives at the destination
system in the order in which it was sent.

Connection termination -- During the connection termination phase, an

established connection that is no longer needed is terminated. Further
communication between the source and destination systems requires that a new
connection be established.

Connection-oriented service has two significant disadvantages as compared to

connectionless network service:

Static path selection -- Because all traffic must travel along the same static path, a
failure anywhere along that path causes the connection to fail.

Static reservation of network resources -- A guaranteed rate of throughput

requires the commitment of resources that cannot be shared by other network
users. Unless full, uninterrupted throughput is required for the communication,
bandwidth is not used efficiently.
Connection-oriented services are useful for transmitting data from applications
that are intolerant of delays and packet re-sequencing. Voice and video
applications are typically based on connection-oriented services.

Connectionless Network Service

Connectionless network service does not predetermine the path from the source
to the destination system, nor are packet sequencing, data throughput, and other
network resources guaranteed. Each packet must be completely addressed
because different paths through the network might be selected for different
packets, based on a variety of influences. Each packet is transmitted
independently by the source system and is handled independently by
intermediate network devices. Connectionless service offers two important
advantages over connection-oriented service:

Dynamic path selection -- Because paths are selected on a packet-by-packet

basis, traffic can be routed around network failures.

Dynamic bandwidth allocation -- Bandwidth is used more efficiently because

network resources are not allocated bandwidth that they are not going to use.

Connectionless services are useful for transmitting data from applications that
can tolerate some delay and re-sequencing. Data-based applications are typically
based on connectionless service.

3. Describe data link addresses and network addresses and identify the key
differences between them.

Data Link Layer Addresses

A data link layer address uniquely identifies each physical network connection of
a network device. Data link addresses are sometimes referred to as physical or
hardware addresses. Data link addresses usually exist within a flat address space
and have a pre-established and typically fixed relationship to a specific device.
End systems typically have only one physical network connection, and thus have
only one data link address. Routers and other internetworking devices typically
have multiple physical network connections. They therefore have multiple data
link addresses.

Network Layer Addresses

A network layer address identifies an entity at the network layer of the OSI
reference model. Network addresses usually exist within a hierarchical address
space. They are sometimes called virtual or logical addresses. The relationship of
a network address with a device is logical and unfixed. It is typically based either
on physical network characteristics (the device is on a particular network
segment) or on groupings that have no physical basis (the device is part of an
AppleTalk zone). End systems require one network layer address for each network
layer protocol they support. (This assumes that the device has only one physical
network connection.) Routers and other internetworking devices require one
network layer address per physical network connection for each network layer
protocol supported. For example, a router with three interfaces, each running
AppleTalk, TCP/IP, and OSI, must have three network layer addresses for each
interface. The router therefore has nine network layer addresses.

4. Define and describe the function of a MAC address.

Media Access Control (MAC) addresses are a subset of data link layer addresses.
MAC addresses identify network entities in LANs implementing the IEEE MAC
sublayer of the data link layer. Like most data link addresses, MAC addresses are
unique for each LAN interface. MAC addresses are 48 bits in length and are
expressed as 12 hexadecimal digits: The first 6 hexadecimal digits are the
manufacturer identification (or vendor code), called the Organizational Unique
Identifier (OUI). These 6 digits are administered by the IEEE. The last 6
hexadecimal digits are the interface serial number or another value administered
by the specific vendor. MAC addresses are sometimes called burned-in addresses
(BIAs) because they are burned into read-only memory (ROM) and copied into
random-access memory (RAM) when the interface card initializes.

5. Define flow control and describe the three basic methods used in networking.

Flow control is a function that prevents network congestion by ensuring that

transmitting devices do not overwhelm receiving devices with data. There are a
number of possible causes of network congestion. For example, a high-speed
computer might generate traffic faster than the network can transfer it, or faster
than the destination device can receive and process it. There are three commonly
used methods for handling network congestion:

Buffering - Buffering is used by network devices to temporarily store bursts of

excess data in memory until they can be processed. Occasional data bursts are
easily handled by buffering. However, excess data bursts can exhaust memory,
forcing the device to discard any additional datagrams that arrive.

Source quench messages - Source quench messages are used by receiving

devices to help prevent their buffers from overflowing. The receiving device sends
source quench messages to request that the source reduce its current rate of data
transmission, as follows:

1. The receiving device begins discarding received data due to

overflowing buffers.

2. The receiving device begins sending source quench messages to

the transmitting device, at the rate of one message for each packet
dropped.

3. The source device receives the source quench messages and

lowers the data rate until it stops receiving the messages.

4. The source device then gradually increases the data rate as long
as no further source quench requests are received.

Windowing - Windowing is a flow-control scheme in which the source device

requires an acknowledgement from the destination after a certain number of
packets have been transmitted. With a window size of three, the source requires
an acknowledgment after sending three packets, as follows:

1. The source device sends three packets to the destination device.

2. After receiving the three packets, the destination device sends an

acknowledgment to the source.

3. The source receives the acknowledgment and sends three more

packets.

4. If the destination does not receive one or more of the packets for
some reason (such as overflowing buffers), it does not receive
enough packets to send an acknowledgment. The source, not
receiving an acknowledgment, retransmits the packets at a reduced
transmission rate.

6. Differentiate between the following WAN services: X.25 / LAPB, Frame Relay,
ISDN / LAPD, SDLC. HDLC, PPP and DDR.

X.25 - ITU-T standard that defines how connections between DTE and DCE are
maintained for remote terminal access and computer communications in PDNs.
X.25 specifies LAPB, a data link layer protocol, and PLP, a network layer protocol.
Frame Relay has to some degree superseded X.25.

Frame Relay - Industry-standard, switched data link layer protocol that handles
multiple virtual circuits using HDLC encapsulation between connected devices.
Frame Relay is more efficient than X.25, the protocol for which it is generally
considered a replacement.

ISDN - Integrated Services Digital Network. Communication protocol, offered by

telephone companies, that permits telephone networks to carry data, voice, and
other source traffic.

SDLC - Synchronous Data Link Control. SNA data link layer communications
protocol. SDLC is a bit-oriented, full-duplex serial protocol that has spawned
numerous similar protocols, including HDLC and LAPB.

HDLC - High-Level Data Link Control. Bit-oriented synchronous data link layer
protocol developed by ISO. Derived from SDLC, HDLC specifies a data
encapsulation method on synchronous serial links using frame characters and
checksums.

PPP - Point-to-Point Protocol. A successor to SLIP, PPP provides router-to-router

and host-to-network connections over synchronous and asynchronous circuits.

DDR - dial-on-demand routing. Technique whereby a Cisco router can

automatically initiate and close a circuit-switched session as transmitting stations
demand. The router spoofs keep-alives so that end stations treat the session as
active. DDR permits routing over ISDN or telephone lines using an external ISDN
terminal adaptor or modem.

7. Log into a router in both user and privileged modes.

User EXEC – User mode entered by logging in. Prompt will be Router>. To exit use
the logout command.

Privileged EXEC – From user EXEC mode, use the enable EXEC command.
Prompt will be Router#. To exit to user EXEC mode use the disable command.

8. Use the context-sensitive help facility.

Entering a question mark (?) at the system prompt displays a list of commands
available for each command mode. You can also get a list of any command’s
associated keyworkd and arguments with the context-sensitive help feature. To
get help specific to a command mode, a command, a keyword, or arguments
perform one of the following:
Task Command

Obtain a brief description of the help system in and help

Command mode.

Configure a line or lines to receive help for the full set of full-help

User-level commands when a user types ?.

Configure a line to receive help for the full set of user-level terminal full-help

Commands for this exec session.

Obtain a list of commands that begins with a particular abbreviated-command-

entry?

Character string.

Complete a partial command name. abbreviated-command-entry<Tab>

List all commands available for a particular command mode. ?

List a command’s associated keywords. command ?

List a keyword’s associated arguments. Command keyword ?

9. Use the command history and editing features.

With the current IOS release, the user interface provides a history or record of
commands that you have entered. This feature is particularly useful for recalling
long or complex command entries including access lists. By default, the system
records 10 command lines in its history buffer. To set the number of command
lines recorded during the current terminal session use the following command:

terminal history [size number-of-lines]

To configure the number of command lines the system records, complete the
following command from line configuration mode:

history [size number-of-lines]

Useful editing commands:

Crtl-P or the up arrow key Recall commands in the history buffer starting with the
most recent

command.

Crtl-N or the down arrow Return to more recent commands in the history buffer
after recalling

commands with Crtl-P or the up arrow key.

Crtl-B or left arrow key Move the cursor back one character

Crtl-F or right arrow key Move the cursor forward one character

Crtl-A Move the cursor to the beginning of the command line

Crtl-E Move the cursor to the end of the command line

Esc B Move the cursor back one word

Esc F Move the cursor forward one word

Crtl-R or Crtl-L Redisplay the current command line

10. Examine router elements (RAM, ROM, CDP, show).

ROM Read Only, Hard Wired, Boot Strap, IOS, ROM Monitor

RAM IOS & Running Configuration (Main Memory)

NVRAM Startup Config – Saved via battery (10 yr Life Span)

Flash IOS – PCMCIA Cards or SIMMs

Shared RAM Packet Buffering – Not all platforms

The Cisco Discovery Protocol (CDP) is a media- and protocol-independent

protocol that runs on all Cisco-manufactured equipment including routers,
bridges, access servers and switches. CDP runs on all media that supports
Subnetwork Access Protocol (SNAP) including local area network, Frame Relay
and ATM media. CDP runs over the data link layer only.
specify the frequency of transmission of CDP updates. cdp timer seconds

specify the amount of time a receiving device should cdp holdtime seconds

hold the information sent by your device before

discarding it.

to disable CDP no cdp run

to disable CDP on an interface no cdp enable

delete the CDP table of information about neighbors clear cdp table

display cdp neighbor information show cdp neighbors [type number] [detail]

The show cdp neighbors command displays: Device ID, interface type and
number, hold-time settings, capabilities, platform and port ID information about
neighbors. Using the detail option displays the following additional neighbor
details: network address, enabled protocols and software version.

11. Manage configuration files from the privileged exec mode.

You can copy a configuration file from a TFTP server to the running configuration
or to the startup configuration. When you copy a configuration file to the running
configuration, you copy to and run the file from RAM. When you copy a
configuration file to the startup configuration, you copy it to the nonvolatile
random-access memory (NVRAM).

Step 1 Copy a file from a TFTP server to the router copy tftp running-config

or

Copy tftp startup-config

Step 2 When prompted enter the IP address or domain ip-address or name

name of the server

Step 3 If prompted, enter the filename of the configuration filename

file
Configuration files can also be copied from an rcp server to the local router as
well. You must first specify the remote username:

ip rcmd remote-username username

Use steps as above except replace tftp with rcp

to view the configuration in NVRRAM show startup-config

to view the current running configuration show running-config

to re-execute the configuration commands located in NVRAM configure memory

to erase the contents of NVRAM erase startup-config

12. Control router passwords, identification and banner.

Cisco routers have two levels of passwords that can be applied; user and
privileged EXEC. The user EXEC passwords are applied to the console, auxiliary
and virtual terminal lines of the Cisco router. Password authentication can be
either on the line, through a local username definition or a TACACS, extended
TACACS, TACACS+ or RADIUS server. To enter privileged EXEC mode, use the
enable command. By default, the password will be compared against the
password entered with the enable secret global command.

To uniquely identify the router, use the hostname command as follows:

set the hostname hostname name

customize the prompt prompt string

remove the configuration prompt no service prompt config

Banners

banner exec

To display a banner on terminals with an interactive EXEC, use the banner exec
global configuration command. This command specifies a message to be
displayed when an EXEC process is created (a line is activated, or an incoming
connection is made to a VTY line). The no form of this command deletes the EXEC
banner.

banner exec d message d

no banner exec

Syntax Description

d Delimiting character of your choice--a pound sign (#) for example. You cannot
use the

delimiting character in the banner message.

message Message text.

banner incoming

To specify a banner used when you have an incoming connection to a line from a
host on the network, use the banner incoming global configuration command. The
no form of this command deletes the incoming connection banner.

banner incoming d message d

no banner incoming

Syntax Description

d Delimiting character of your choice--a pound sign (#) for example. You cannot
use the

delimiting character in the banner message.

message Message text.

An incoming connection is one initiated from the network side of the router.
Incoming connections are also called reverse Telnet sessions. These sessions
can display MOTD banners and INCOMING banners, but they do not display EXEC
banners. Use the no motd-banner line configuration command to disable the
MOTD banner for reverse Telnet sessions on asynchronous lines. When a user
connects to the router, the MOTD banner appears before the login prompt. After
the user successfully logs in to the router, the EXEC banner or INCOMING banner
will be displayed, depending on the type of connection. For a reverse Telnet login,
the INCOMING banner will be displayed. For all other connections, the router will
display the EXEC banner. Incoming banners cannot be suppressed. If you do not
want the incoming banner to appear, you must delete it with the no banner
incoming command.

13. Identify the main Cisco IOS commands for router startup.

14. Check an initial configuration using the setup command.

The command parser (Command Line Interface - CLI) allows you to make very
detailed changes to your configurations. However, some major configuration
changes do not require the granularity provided by the command parser. In these
cases, you can use the setup command facility to make major enhancements to
your configurations. For example, you might want to use setup to add a protocol
suite, to make major addressing scheme changes, or to configure a newly
installed interface. Although you can use the command parser to make these
major changes, the setup command facility provides you with a high-level view of
the configuration and guides you through the configuration change process.

Additionally, if you are not familiar with Cisco products and the command parser,
the setup command facility is a particularly valuable tool because it asks you the
questions required to make configuration changes.

Note: If you use setup to modify a configuration because you have added or
modified the hardware, be sure to verify the physical connections using the show
version command. Also, verify the logical port assignments using the show
running-config command to ensure that you configure the proper port.

To enter the setup command facility, enter ‘setup’ in privileged EXEC mode:

When you enter the setup command facility after first-time startup, an interactive
dialog called the System Configuration Dialog appears on the system console
screen. The System Configuration Dialog guides you through the configuration
process. It prompts you first for global parameters and then for interface
parameters. The values shown in brackets next to each prompt are the default
values last set using either the setup command facility or the configure command.
The prompts and the order in which they appear on the screen vary depending on
the platform and the interfaces installed in the device.

You must run through the entire System Configuration Dialog until you come to
the item that you intend to change. To accept default settings for items that you
do not want to change, press the Return key.

To return to the privileged EXEC prompt without making changes and without
running through the entire System Configuration Dialog, press Ctrl-C.
The facility also provides help text for each prompt. To access help text, press the
question mark (?) key at a prompt.

When you complete your changes, the setup command facility shows you the
configuration command script that was created during the setup session. It also
asks you if you want to use this configuration. If you answer Yes, the
configuration is saved to NVRAM. If you answer No, the configuration is not saved
and the process begins again. There is no default for this prompt; you must
answer either Yes or No.

Following is a partial example of the setup routine:

Router# setup

--- System Configuration Dialog ---

At any point you may enter a question mark '?' for help.

Use ctrl-c to abort configuration dialog at any prompt.

Default settings are in square brackets '[]'.

Continue with configuration dialog? [yes]:

First, would you like to see the current interface summary? [yes]:

Interface IP-Address OK? Method Status Protocol

Ethernet0 172.16.72.2 YES manual up up

Serial0 unassigned YES not set administratively down down

Serial1 172.16.72.2 YES not set up up

Configuring global parameters:

Enter host name [Router]:

The enable secret is a one-way cryptographic secret used

instead of the enable password when it exists.

Enter enable secret []:

The enable password is used when there is no enable secret

and when using older software and some boot images.

Enter enable password [ww]:

Enter virtual terminal password [ww]:

Configure SNMP Network Management? [yes]:

Community string [public]:

Configure IP? [yes]:

Configure IGRP routing? [yes]:

Your IGRP autonomous system number [15]:

Configuring interface Ethernet0:

Is this interface in use? [yes]:

Configure IP on this interface? [yes]:

IP address for this interface [172.16.72.2]:

Number of bits in subnet field [8]:

Class B network is 172.16.0.0, 8 subnet bits; mask is /24

15. Copy and manipulate configuration files

You can copy a configuration file from a TFTP server to the running configuration
or to the startup configuration. When you copy a configuration file to the running
configuration, you copy to and run the file from RAM. When you copy a
configuration file to the startup configuration, you copy it to the nonvolatile
random-access memory (NVRAM).

Step 1 Copy a file from a TFTP server to the router copy tftp running-config

or

Copy tftp startup-config

Step 2 When prompted enter the IP address or domain ip-address or name

name of the server

Step 3 If prompted, enter the filename of the configuration filename

file

Configuration files can also be copied from an rcp server to the local router as
well. You must first specify the remote username:

ip rcmd remote-username username

Use steps as above except replace tftp with rcp

to view the configuration in NVRRAM show startup-config

to view the current running configuration show running-config

to re-execute the configuration commands located in NVRAM configure memory

to erase the contents of NVRAM erase startup-config

16. List the commands to load Cisco IOS from: flash memory, a tftp server or
ROM.

To configure a router to automatically boot an image in Flash memory, perform

the following tasks:

Task Command

Step 1 Enter configuration mode form the terminal configure terminal

Step 2 Enter the filename of an image stored in Flash memory boot system flash
[filename]

boot system flash slot0:[filename]

boot system flash slot1:[filename]

boot system flash bootflash:[filename]

Step 3 Set the configuration register to enable loading image config-register value

from Flash memory (generally 0x2102)

Step 4 Save configuration file copy running-config startup-config

To configure a route to load a system image from a network server using TFTP,
rcp or MOP, use the following commands:

Task Command

Step 1 Enter configuration mode form the terminal configure terminal

Step 2 Specify the system image to be booted boot system [rcp | tftp] filename [ip
address]

from a network server using rcp, TFTP or

or MOP. boot system mop filename [mac-address] [int]

Step 3 Set the configuration register to enable loading config-register value

image from a network server (generally 0x010F)

Step 4 Save configuration file copy running-config startup-config

To specify the use of the ROM system image as a backup to other boot
instructions in the configuration file, complete the following:

Task Command

Step 1 Enter configuration mode form the terminal configure terminal

Step 2 Enter the filename of an image stored in Flash memory boot system rom

Step 3 Set the configuration register to enable loading image config-register value

from ROM (generally 0x0101)

Step 4 Save configuration file copy running-config startup-config

17. Prepare to backup, upgrade and load a backup Cisco IOS software image.

18. List the key internetworking functions of the OSI Network layer and how they
are performed in a router.

19. Describe the two parts of network addressing, then identify the parts in
specific protocol address examples.

A network layer address identifies an entity at the network layer of the OSI
reference model. Network addresses usually exist within a hierarchical address
space. They are sometimes called virtual or logical addresses. The relationship of
a network address with a device is logical and unfixed. It is typically based either
on physical network characteristics (the device is on a particular network
segment) or on groupings that have no physical basis (the device is part of an
AppleTalk zone). End systems require one network layer address for each network
layer protocol they support. (This assumes that the device has only one physical
network connection.) Routers and other internetworking devices require one
network layer address per physical network connection for each network layer
protocol supported. For example, a router with three interfaces, each running
AppleTalk, TCP/IP, and OSI, must have three network layer addresses for each
interface. The router therefore has nine network layer addresses.

20. List problems that each routing type encounters when dealing with topology
changes and describe techniques to reduce these problems.

Distance Vector protocols, like RIP, specify a number of features designed to

make their operation more stable in the face of rapid network topology changes.
These include a hop-count limit, hold-downs, split horizons, and poison reverse
updates.

Hop-Count Limit - RIP permits a maximum hop count of 15. Any destination
greater than 15 hops away is tagged as unreachable. RIP's maximum hop count
greatly restricts its use in large internetworks, but prevents a problem called
count to infinity from causing endless network routing loops.

Hold-Downs - Hold-downs are used to prevent regular update messages from

inappropriately reinstating a route that has gone bad. When a route goes down,
neighboring routers will detect this. These routers then calculate new routes and
send out routing update messages to inform their neighbors of the route change.
This activity begins a wave of routing updates that filter through the network.
Triggered updates do not instantly arrive at every network device. It is therefore
possible that a device that has yet to be informed of a network failure may send a
regular update message (indicating that a route that has just gone down is still
good) to a device that has just been notified of the network failure. In this case,
the latter device now contains (and potentially advertises) incorrect routing
information.

Hold-downs tell routers to hold down any changes that might affect recently
removed routes for some period of time. The hold-down period is usually
calculated to be just greater than the period of time necessary to update the entire
network with a routing change. Hold-down prevents the count-to-infinity problem.

Split Horizons - Split horizons derive from the fact that it is never useful to send
information about a route back in the direction from which it came. The split-
horizon rule helps prevent two-node routing loops.

Poison Reverse Updates - Whereas split horizons should prevent routing loops
between adjacent routers, poison reverse updates are intended to defeat larger
routing loops. The idea is that increases in routing metrics generally indicate
routing loops. Poison reverse updates are then sent to remove the route and place
it in hold-down. Poison Reverse update are updates sent to other routers with an
unreachable metric.

?????? Link State ???????

21. Explain the services of separate and integrated multiprotocol routing.

22. Describe the different classes of IP addresses [and subnetting].

IP addressing supports five different address classes. The left-most (high-order)

bits indicate the network class. The following table provides reference information
about the five IP address classes:

IP Format Purpose High- Address No. Bits Max.

Address Order Range Network/Host Hosts
Bit(s)
Class

A N.H.H.H Large Org. 0 1 – 126 7/24 2^24-2

B N.N.H.H Medium Org 10 128 – 14/16 2^16-2

191

C N.N.N.H small Org. 110 192 – 22/8 2^8-2

223

D N/A Multicast 1110 224 – N/A N/A

239
E N/A Experimental 1111 240 – N/A N/A
254

IP networks can be divided into smaller networks called subnetworks (or

subnets). Subnetting provides extra flexibility, makes more efficient use of
network address utilization, and contains broadcast traffic because a broadcast
will not cross a router. Subnets are under local administration. As such, the
outside world sees an organization as a single network, and has no detailed
knowledge of the organization's internal structure. A given network address can
be broken up into many subnetworks. For example, 172.16.1.0, 172.16.2.0,
172.16.3.0, and 172.16.4.0 are all subnets within network 171.16.0.0. (All 0s in the
host portion of an address specifies the entire network.)

23. Configure IP addresses

24. Verify IP addresses

25. Prepare the initial configuration of your router and enable IP.

26. Add the RIP routing protocol to your configuration.

27. Add the IGRP routing protocol to your configuration.

28. List the required IPX address and encapsulation type.

Interface Type Encapsulation Type IPX Frame Type

Ethernet novell-ether (default) Ethernet_802.3

arpa Ethernet_II

sap Ethernet_802.2

snap Ethernet_Snap

Token Ring sap (default) Token-Ring

snap Token-Ring_Snap

FDDI snap (default) Fddi_Snap

sap Fddi_802.2
29. Enable the Novell IPX protocol and configure interfaces.

30. Monitor Novell IPX operation on the router.

31. Recognize key Frame Relay and X.25 terms and features.

32. List commands to configure Frame Relay LMIs, maps and subinterfaces.

33. List commands to monitor Frame Relay operation on the router.

34. Identify PPP operations to encapsulate WAN data on Cisco routers.

35. Configure standard access lists to figure IP traffic.

36. Monitor and verify selected access list operations on the router.

37. State a relevant use and context for ISDN networking.

38. Identify ISDN protocols, function groups, reference points and channels.

ISDN components include terminals, terminal adapters (TAs), network-termination

devices, line-termination equipment, and exchange-termination equipment. ISDN
terminals come in two types. Specialized ISDN terminals are referred to as
terminal equipment type 1 (TE1). Non-ISDN terminals such as DTE that predate the
ISDN standards are referred to as terminal equipment type 2 (TE2). TE1s connect
to the ISDN network through a four-wire, twisted-pair digital link. TE2s connect to
the ISDN network through a terminal adapter. The ISDN TA can either be a stand-
alone device or a board inside the TE2. If the TE2 is implemented as a standalone
device, it connects to the TA via a standard physical-layer interface. Examples
include EIA/TIA-232-C (formerly RS-232-C), V.24, and V.35.

Beyond the TE1 and TE2 devices, the next connection point in the ISDN network is
the network termination type 1 (NT1) or network termination type 2 (NT2) device.
These are network-termination devices that connect the four-wire subscriber
wiring to the conventional two-wire local loop. In North America, the NT1 is a
customer premises equipment (CPE) device. In most other parts of the world, the
NT1 is part of the network provided by the carrier. The NT2 is a more complicated
device, typically found in digital private branch exchanges (PBXs), that performs
Layer 2 and 3 protocol functions and concentration services. An NT1/2 device also
exists; it is a single device that combines the functions of an NT1 and an NT2.

A number of reference points are specified in ISDN. These reference points define
logical interfaces between functional groupings such as TAs and NT1s. ISDN
reference points include the following:
R--The reference point between non-ISDN equipment and a TA.

S--The reference point between user terminals and the NT2.

T--The reference point between NT1 and NT2 devices.

U--The reference point between NT1 devices and line-termination equipment in the
carrier network.

The U reference point is relevant only in North America, where the NT1 function is
not provided by the carrier network.

The ISDN Basic Rate Interface (BRI) service offers two B channels and one D
channel (2B+D). BRI B-channel service operates at 64 kbps and is meant to carry
user data; BRI D-channel service operates at 16 kbps and is meant to carry control
and signaling information, although it can support user data transmission under
certain circumstances. The D channel signaling protocol comprises Layers 1
through 3 of the OSI reference model. BRI also provides for framing control and
other overhead, bringing its total bit rate to 192 kbps. The BRI physical layer
specification is International Telecommunication Union Telecommunication
Standardization Sector (ITU-T) (formerly the Consultative Committee for
International Telegraph and

Telephone [CCITT]) I.430.

ISDN Primary Rate Interface (PRI) service offers 23 B channels and one D channel
in North America and Japan, yielding a total bit rate of 1.544 Mbps (the PRI D
channel runs at 64 kbps). ISDN PRI in Europe, Australia, and other parts of the
world provides 30 B plus one 64-kbps D channel and a total interface rate of 2.048
Mbps. The PRI physical-layer specification is ITU-T I.431.

ISDN physical-layer (Layer 1) frame formats differ depending on whether the frame
is outbound (from terminal to network) or inbound (from network to terminal). The
frames are 48 bits long, of which 36 bits represent data. Layer 2 of the ISDN
signaling protocol is Link Access Procedure, D channel, also known as LAPD.
LAPD is similar to High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC) and Link Access
Procedure, Balanced (LAPB). As the expansion of the LAPD acronym indicates, it
is used across the D channel to ensure that control and signaling information
flows and is received properly. The LAPD frame format is very similar to that of
HDLC and, like HDLC, LAPD uses supervisory, information, and unnumbered
frames. The LAPD protocol is formally specified in ITU-T Q.920 and ITU-TQ.921.

Two Layer 3 specifications are used for ISDN signaling: ITU-T (formerly CCITT)
I.450 (also known as ITU-T Q.930) and ITU-T I.451 (also known as ITU-T Q.931).
Together, these protocols support user-to-user, circuit-switched, and packet-
switched connections. A variety of call establishment, call termination,
information, and miscellaneous messages are specified, including SETUP,
CONNECT, RELEASE, USER INFORMATION, CANCEL, STATUS, and
DISCONNECT. These messages are functionally similar to those provided by the
X.25 protocol.
39. Describe Cisco’s implementation of ISDN BRI

40. Describe the advantages of LAN segmentation

41. Describe LAN segmentation using bridges

42. Describe LAN segmentation using routers

43. Describe LAN segmentation using switches

44. Name and describe two switching methods

45. Describe full- and half-duplex ethernet operation

46. Identify at least 3 reasons why the industry uses a layered model

47. Identify the functions of each layer of the ISO/OSI reference model

48. Define and explain the 5 conversion steps of data encapsulation

49. Identify the functions of the TCP/IP transport-layer protocols

50. Identify the functions of the TCP/IP network-layer protocols

51. Identify the functions performed by ICMP

The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) is a network layer Internet protocol
that provides message packets to report errors and other information relevant to
IP packet processing back to the source. ICMP is documented in RFC 792. ICMP
provides a number of helpful messages including the following:

Destination Unreachable - The ICMP destination unreachable

message is sent by a router if it is unable to deliver a packet to the
ultimate destination. The router discards the original packet.
Destinations might be unreachable for these reasons:

The source host specified a nonexistent address.

The router does not have a route to the destination (less frequent).
Destination unreachable messages include the following:

Network unreachable -- This message usually implies

routing or addressing failures.

Host unreachable -- This message usually implies

delivery failures such as a wrong subnet mask.

Protocol unreachable -- This message usually implies

that the destination does not support the upper-layer
protocol specified in the packet.

Port unreachable -- This message usually implies that

the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) port (socket)
is not available.

Echo Request and Reply - The ICMP echo request message is sent
by any host to test node reachability across an internetwork. It is
generated by the ping command. The ICMP echo reply message
indicates that the node can be successfully reached.

Redirect - An ICMP redirect message is sent by the router to the

source host to stimulate more efficient routing. The router still
forwards the original packet to the destination. ICMP redirects allow
host routing tables to remain small because knowing the address of
only one router is required (even if that router does not provide the
best path). Even after receiving an ICMP redirect message, some
devices might continue using the less efficient route.

Time Exceeded - An ICMP time-exceeded message is sent by the

router if an IP packet's Time-to-Live field (expressed in hops or
seconds) reaches zero. The Time-to-Live field prevents packets from
continuously circulating the internetwork if the internetwork
contains a routing loop. The router discards the original packet.

Router Advertisement and Router Solicitation - The ICMP Router

Discovery Protocol (IDRP) uses router advertisement and router
solicitation messages to discover the addresses of routers on
directly attached subnets. IDRP works as follows:

1.Each router periodically multicasts router

advertisement messages from each of its interfaces.

2.Hosts discover addresses of routers on directly

attached subnets by listening for these messages.

3.Hosts can use router solicitation messages to

request immediate advertisements, rather than waiting
for unsolicited messages.
 IRDP offers several advantages over other methods of discovering
addresses of neighboring routers. Primarily, it does not require
hosts to recognize routing protocols, nor does it require manual
configuration by an administrator. Router advertisement messages
allow hosts to discover the existence of neighboring routers, but not
which router is best to reach a particular destination. If a host uses a
poor first-hop router to reach a particular destination, it receives a
redirect message identifying a better choice.

Undeliverable ICMP messages (for whatever reason) do not generate a second

ICMP message. Doing so could create an endless flood of ICMP messages.

52. Configure extended access lists to filter IP traffic

53. Configure IPX access lists and SAP filters to control basic Novell traffic

54. Monitor and verify selected access list operations on the router

55. Describe network congestion problem in ethernet networks

59. Describe the features and benefits of Fast Ethernet &

60. Describe the guidelines and distance limitations of Fast Ethernet

Fast Ethernet, or 100BaseT, is conventional Ethernet but faster, operating at 100

Mbps instead of 10 Mbps. Fast Ethernet is based on the proven CSMA/CD Media
Access Control (MAC) protocol and can use existing 10BaseT cabling. Data can
move from 10 Mbps to 100 Mbps without protocol translation or changes to
application and networking software.

Fast Ethernet maintains CSMA/CD, the Ethernet transmission protocol. However,

Fast Ethernet reduces the duration of time each bit is transmitted by a factor of 10,
enabling the packet speed to increase tenfold from 10 Mbps to 100 Mbps. Data can
move between Ethernet and Fast Ethernet without requiring protocol translation,
because Fast Ethernet also maintains the 10BaseT error control functions as well
as the frame format and length.
Fast Ethernet can run over the same variety of media as 10BaseT, including UTP,
shielded twisted pair (STP), and fiber. The Fast Ethernet specification defines
separate physical sublayers for each media type:

100BaseT4 for four pairs of voice- or data-grade Category 3, 4, and 5 UTP wiring

100BaseTX for two pairs of data-grade Category 5 UTP and STP wiring

100BaseFX for two strands of 62.5/125-micron multimode fiber

In many cases, organizations can upgrade to 100BaseT technology without

replacing existing wiring. However, for installations with Category 3 UTP wiring in
all or part of their locations, four pairs must be available to implement Fast
Ethernet. The MII layer of 100BaseT couples these physical sublayers to the
CSMA/CD MAC layer (see Figure 1). The MII provides a single interface that can
support external transceivers for any of the 100BaseT physical sublayers. For the
physical connection, the MII is implemented on Fast Ethernet devices such as
routers, switches, hubs, and adapters, and on transceiver devices using a 40-pin
connector

Each physical sublayer uses a signaling scheme that is appropriate to its media
type. 100BaseT4 uses three pairs of wire for 100-Mbps transmission and the
fourth pair for collision detection. This method lowers the 100BaseT4 signaling to
33 Mbps per pair, making it suitable for Category 3, 4, and 5 wiring. 100BaseTX
uses one pair of wires for transmission (125-MHz frequency operating at 80
percent efficiency to allow for 4B5B encoding) and the other pair for collision
detection and receive. 100BaseFX uses one fiber for transmission and the other
fiber for collision detection and receive. The 100BaseTX and 100BaseFX physical
signaling channels are based on FDDI physical layers developed and approved by
the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) X3T9.5 committee.

While the 100BaseTX and 100Base T4 specifications maintain the same 100-meter
limit from the wiring closet to the desktop as 10BaseT, 100BaseFX can exceed the
100-meter limit because it uses fiber instead of UTP. However, 100BaseFX is used
primarily between wiring closets and campus buildings to better leverage its
support for longer cables.

Just as with 10-Mbps Ethernet, different wiring types can be connected through a
repeater. The 100BaseT standard defines two classes of repeaters: Class I and
Class II. At most, a collision domain can include one Class I or two Class II
repeaters. Fast Ethernet is implemented in a star topology, but even with
repeaters, the network diameter is proportionately smaller than 10-Mbps Ethernet
given Fast Ethernet's tenfold increase in packet speed. For example, using two
Class II repeaters, the maximum distance using copper wire is 100 meters (m) to
the Class II repeater, 5 m between Class II repeaters, and 100 m to the desktop.

Full-duplex technology delivers up to 200 Mbps bandwidth because it provides

bidirectional communication -- meaning that 100 Mbps is available for
transmission in each direction. Full duplex also increases the maximum distance
supported for fiber cables between two Data Terminal Equipment (DTE) devices
up to 2 km. Full-duplex communication is implemented by disabling the collision
detection and loopback functions, which are necessary to ensure smooth
communication in a shared network. Only switches can offer full duplex to directly
attached workstations or servers. Shared 100BaseT hubs must operate at half
duplex to detect collisions among end stations.

The 100BaseT specification describes a negotiation process that allows devices at

each end of a network link to automatically exchange information about their
capabilities and perform the configuration necessary to operate together at their
maximum common level. This auto-negotiation activity is performed out-of-bank
using Fast Link Pulse (FLP) Burst to identify the highest physical-layer technology
that can be used by both devices, such as 10BaseT, 100BaseT, 100BaseTX, or
100BaseT4. The auto-negotiation definition also provides a parallel detection
function that allows half-and full-duplex 1-BaseT, half-and full-duplex

100BaseTX, and 100BaseT4 physical layers to be recognized, even if one of the

connected devices does not offer auto-negotiation capabilities.

61. Distinguish between cut-through and store-and-forward switching.

Cut through switching will forward the packet as soon as the destination MAC is
known. Store and forward will forward after the packet has been received and
declared to be valid. Cut through is faster, but you may pass "bad" packets.

62. Describe the operation of the Spanning Tree Protocol and its benefit

Spanning-Tree Protocol is a link management protocol that provides path

redundancy while preventing undesirable loops in the network. For an Ethernet
network to function properly, only one active path can exist between two stations.
Multiple active paths between stations cause loops in the network. If a loop exists
in the network topology, the potential exists for duplication of messages. When
loops occur, some switches see stations appear on both sides of the switch. This
condition confuses the forwarding algorithm and allows duplicate frames to be
forwarded.

To provide path redundancy, Spanning-Tree Protocol defines a tree that spans all
switches in an extended network. Spanning-Tree Protocol forces certain
redundant data paths into a standby (blocked) state. If one network segment in the
Spanning-Tree Protocol becomes unreachable, or if Spanning-Tree Protocol costs
change, the spanning-tree algorithm reconfigures the spanning-tree topology and
reestablishes the link by activating the standby path.
Spanning-Tree Protocol operation is transparent to end stations, which are
unaware whether they are connected to a single LAN segment or a switched LAN
of multiple segments.

Election of the Root Switch

All switches in an extended LAN participating in Spanning-Tree Protocol gather

information on other switches in the network through an exchange of data
messages. These messages are bridge protocol data units (BPDUs). This
exchange of messages results in the following:

The election of a unique root switch for the stable spanning-tree network
topology.

The election of a designated switch for every switched LAN segment.

The removal of loops in the switched network by placing redundant switch ports
in a backup state.

The Spanning-Tree Protocol root switch is the logical center of the spanning-tree
topology in a switched network. All paths that are not needed to reach the root
switch from anywhere in the switched network are placed in Spanning-Tree
Protocol backup mode.

BPDUs contain information about the transmitting switch and its ports, including
switch and port Media Access Control (MAC) addresses, switch priority, port
priority, and port cost. The Spanning-Tree Protocol uses this information to elect
the root switch and root port for the switched network, as well as the root port and
designated port for each switched segment.

A BPDU exchange results in the following:

One switch is elected as the root switch.

The shortest distance to the root switch is calculated for each switch.

A designated switch is selected. This is the switch closest to the root switch
through which frames will be forwarded to the root.

A port for each switch is selected. This is the port providing the best path from the
switch to the root switch.

Ports included in the Spanning-Tree Protocol are selected.

If all switches are enabled with default settings, the switch with the lowest MAC
address in the network becomes the root switch. By increasing the priority
(lowering the numerical priority number) of the ideal switch so that it then
becomes the root switch, youforce a Spanning-Tree Protocol recalculation to form
a new, stable topology.
Spanning-Tree Protocol Port States

Propagation delays can occur when protocol information is passed through a

switched LAN. As a result, topology changes can take place at different times and
at different places in a switched network. When a switch port transitions directly
from non-participation in the stable topology to the forwarding state, it can create
temporary data loops. Ports must wait for new topology information to propagate
through the switched LAN before starting to forward frames. They must also allow
the frame lifetime to expire for frames that have been forwarded using the old
topology.

Each port on a switch using Spanning-Tree Protocol exists in one of the following
five states:

Blocking, Listening, Learning, Forwarding, Disabled

A port moves through these five states as follows:

From initialization to blocking

From blocking to listening or to disabled

From listening to learning or to disabled

From learning to forwarding or to disabled

From forwarding to disabled

Blocking State - A port in the blocking state does not participate in frame
forwarding, as shown in Figure C-5. After initialization, a BPDU is sent to each
port in the switch. A switch initially assumes it is the root until it exchanges
BPDUs with other switches. This exchange establishes which switch in the
network is really the root. If only one switch resides in the network, no exchange
occurs, the forward delay timer expires, and the ports move to the listening state.
A switch always enters the blocking state following switch initialization.

Listening State - The listening state is the first transitional state a port enters after
the blocking state, when Spanning-Tree Protocol determines that the port should
participate in frame forwarding. Learning is disabled in the listening state.

Learning State - A port in the learning state is preparing to participate in frame

forwarding. This is the second transitional state through which a port moves in
anticipation of frame forwarding. The port enters the learning state from the
listening state through the operation of Spanning-Tree Protocol.
Forwarding State - A port in the forwarding state forwards frames, as shown in
Figure C-5. The port enters the forwarding state from the learning state through
the operation of Spanning-Tree Protocol.

Disabled State - A port in the disabled state does not participate in frame
forwarding or the operation of Spanning-Tree Protocol. A port in the disabled
state is virtually nonoperational.

63. Describe the benefits of Virtual LANs.

VLANs provide the following benefits:

1. Reduced Administration Costs - Moves, adds, and changes are one of the
greatest expenses in managing a network. VLANs provide an effective
mechanism to control these changes and reduce much of the cost of hub
and router reconfiguration.
2. Controlling Broadcast Activity - Similar to routers, VLANs offer an effective
mechanism for setting up firewalls in a switch fabric, protecting the
network against broadcast problems that are potentially dangerous, and
maintaining all the performance benefits of switching.
3. Better Network Security - You can increase security easily and
inexpensively by segmenting the network into distinct broadcast groups.
VLANs therefore can be used to provide security firewalls, restrict
individual user access, flag any unwanted intrusion to the network, and
control the size and composition of the broadcast domain.
4. Leveraging Existing LAN Hub Investments - Organizations have installed
many shared hub chassis, modules, and stackable devices in the past
three to five years. You can leverage this investment by using backplane
hub connections. It is the connections between shared hubs and switches
that provide opportunities for VLAN segmentation.

CCNA Prep document

The two most significant things to study on the test are the OSI
model and TCP/IP addressing and subnetting. If you know both of
those very, very well, then you are guaranteed about 50% on the
exam. The rest comes from this sheet.

The last bit of advice is that you didn’t believe me on the importance
of knowing the OSI model, learn it backwards, forwards, sideways,
and be prepared to answer really nit-picky questions about it.
OSI Model
Application
File, print, message, database, and applications
Determines availability of the target host.
www, email, ftp, telnet, edi, quake
Presentation
Data Encryption, compression, and translation services
Determines the syntax of the data transfer.
Pict, tiff, jpet, midi, mpeg, quicktime, etc
Session
Dialog control, coordinates the comunications
Nfs, sql, rpc, x windows, asp (appletalk session protocol), DNA
SCP (digital whatzit)

Transport
End-to-end communication
Responsible for hiding the communications from the higher
layers.
TCP / UDP
Network
Routing
IP / ICMP, BootP, ARP, RARP
Routers

Data Link
Framing
Ethernet II, 802.5 (token ring), 802.3, 802.2 (802.3 with dsap and
ssap logical link control fields)
Media access control: MAC: 48 bits, 3 bytes vendor + 3 bytes serial
number
WAN:
High-level datalink control HDLC (cisco default for serial links)
Synchronous Data Link Control SDLC (uses polling)
Link Access Procedure, Balanced LAPB
x.25, slip, ppp, isdn, Frame Relay
Bridges / Switches
Physical
Wire…
v.24, v.35, x.21, g.703, hssi, etc
Repeaters / Hubs

DOD Model

Process/application application, presentation,

session
Host-to-host transport
Internet network
 Network access Datalink / physical

LAN
Ethernet
802.3 CSMA/CD | Ethernet_II | 802.2
10base2/thinnet: 185 meters
10base5/thicknet: 500 meters
10baseT: can run above 10Mbps 200ish meters
5-4-3 rule: 5 segments, 4 repeaters, 3 segments
populated
100BaseTX: 100 meters, up to 2 repeaters. Packets
between 512 and 1518.
FDDI
100 Mbps
token passing with dual counter-rotating rings
Token-ring
802.5
4 / 16 Mbps
ATM
53-byte cells

Flow Control
Contention: CSMA/CD : Carrier Sense Multiple Access,
Collision Detect
Token Passing: Token Ring, Fiddi
Polling: SDLC, some HDLC, some HP ethernet stuff

SWITCHING
Store – and – forward
Buffers whole frame before forwarding
Cut-Through
Forward frame as soon as destination address is
available
Fragment Free
Does Cut-Through after 64 bytes are received to stop collision
packets from being forwarded.

802.1d Spanning-Tree Protocol STP

detect and eliminates loops in routed network
STA: Spanning Tree Algorithm
Sends out BPDUs: Bridge protocol data units

VLAN: Virtual Lans

Create ‘logical’ networks by location, function or
department.. or protocol, or whatever.
Done with a switch using Frame-Tagging (can be used between
switches if you have ISL inter-switch link) Frame-Tagging uses
unique user-defined identifiers while within the switch fabric, and is
very scalable.

TCP/IP

Port numbers:

TCP: protocol number 6

ftp: 21
telnet: 23
smtp: 25
UDP: protocol number 17
Dns: 53
Tftp: 69
Snmp: 161
0-255: public assigned
256 – 1023: assigned to companies
1023+ user defined / source addresses
IP Addressing:
Class leading bits decimal range of first byte
A 0 1-127
B 10 128-191
C 100 192-223
Learn the rest of the stuff…. Way out of scope of this.

NOTE:
Cisco considers the mask to be the bits beyond what is ‘normal’ for
that class address, not the entire number of bits in the subnet mask,
sometimes….

IPX

Protocl Stack:
Application, presentation, session RIP, SAP, NCP,
NLSP, etc…
Transport IPX, SPX
Network IPX
Data link ODL Open Data Link
Physical whatever

IPX
Connectionless, and communicates via sockets
Each host runs its own internal ipx network in addition to
any lan network
Addressing:
10 byte address
 first 4 bytes are network – need to be unique,
otherwise whatever..
last 6 bytes are node - usually just use the MAC
address
SPX
Sequence Packet eXchange
Connection oriented protocol
Creates virtual circuits, with specific connection IDs
RIP
Routing information protocol
Distance vector protocol that establishes routes between
ipx networks
Judges based on ticks (1/18 second units) and hops
Broadcast every 60 seconds
Used to provide each server with a complete network
map
SAP
Service advertising protocol
Servers use it to advertise, clients use it to locate
services
Broadcast every 60 seconds
NLSP
NetWare Link Services Protocol
Link-state protcol to replace RIP and SAP someday…
NCP
NetWare Core Protocol
Provides access to server resources

Netware in a nutshell
-Strict client-server model (nobody is both)
-Servers provide files, printing, messaing, applications,
and databases
-Every netware server (or cisco router) creates a SAP table of all
services offered by all servers
-A client issues a GNS (GetNearestServer request) broadcast to find
out what is on the local SAP

Netware frame types Features

default on NetWare <=3.11
default on NetWare 3.12+
ethernet_ii supports tcp/ip and ipx
ethernet_SNAP appletalk, tcp/ip, and
ipx
--- all of these are incompatible… god love’m
Routing Protocols
RIP: Routing Information Protocol
Distance – vector routing protocol
Updates every 30 seconds
Route invalid timer 90 seconds: time before route
considered invalid.
Route flush timer: 240 seconds: route removed from
table
Can use metrics (1-15) to weight against some interfaces
15 hop limit

OSPF: Open Shortest Path First

Link-state routing
Very infrequent broadcast updates
Extremely granular metrics
NLSP: Novell’s Link State Protocol
Link-state
IGRP: Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (cisco proprietary)
Distance-vector
Metrics and hop count from 1-255
Measures delay in units of 10 milliseconds
Measures bandwidth – on serial connection this needs to be
set, default is T1
Measures reliability as 1-255 (255 optimal):
Measures load: 0-255 (0 = no-load)
Allows multi-path routing (dual links of equal bandwidth to 1
location)
Implements hold-downs, split horizons, and poision reverse
updates
Update timer is 90 seconds, invalid timer is 270 seconds (3
times update)
Hold down timer is 280 (3 times update +10 seconds)
flush timer is 630 seconds (7 times update)
administrative distances: (reliability of information)
0 = direct connection, 1 = static, 100 = igrp, 110 =ospf, 120 = rip,
255 = unknown
EIGRP: Enhanced IGRP
Hybrid routing protocol
Uses distance vectors, however they are triggered by changes,
not timers.
Faster convergence, multiprotocol support

Distance- vector:
Uses second-hand info
Problems detecting /closing routing loops (counting to
infinity)
Judges ‘best’ based on hop counts
Convergence can get pretty lengthy
Split horizion: enforces that inforation is not sent back
in direction it came from
 Route poisoning: Helps prevent incorrect updates by
setting route down explicitly
Hold-downs: prevents routes from changing too quickly,
to allow time for stabilization
Link-state
No-second hand info, and understands entire network
Uses LSP packets to build ‘personal’ copy of entire
network structure to route from
LSP: link-state packets or “hello packets”
Chooses ‘best’ path based on: bandwidth, congestion,
metrics, etc.
Update times can be set very lengthy as changes cause
triggered udpates.

EXTERIOR routing protocols

EGP: Exterior Gateway Protocol
Polls neighbors
exchanges info about AS with neighbors
distance vector
very simple
BGP: Border Gateway Protocol
Can detect routing loops
Can work between AS

Other Random Cisco protocols

CDP: Cisco Discovery Protocol
Runs SNAP: SubNetwork Access Protocol at the datalink
layer.
this allows routers running different protocols to still communicate
60 second updates, 180 second hold time

#show cdp interface

interface information, encapsulation info, and timing
information

#show cdp entry <name or * for all>

shows detailed information about other routers on network

#show cdp neighbors

shows summary information that is being exchanged

#show cdp neighbor detail

extended listing of info for all routers

#show cdp traffic

shows packets sent / received amount neighbors
WAN:
POTS
Plain Old Telephone Service. (politely is: pstn: public
switched telephone network)
Demarc: end of responsbility for provider, start for
customer
CPE: customer premise equipment
Local loop: wire from CO to demarc
CO: Central Office: provider POP : point of presence
SDLC
Synchronous Data-Link Control
Used originally for SNA
Point –to-point or multipoint
Bounded or unbounded media, half or full duplex
Circuit or packet-switched networks
2 node types. Primay or Secondary (controlled by
primary)
HDLC
High-Level Data-Link Control protocol
This is the default communication method for cisco routers of sync
links, and is proprietary
This came after SDLC, and was modified into LAP and LAPB.
HDLC transfer modes:
NRM: Normal Response Mode: secondaries only speak when
spoken to by pri
ARM: Async Response Mode: sec. can speak on own
ABM: Async Balanced Mode: nodes can be both pri and sec
LAPB:Link Access Procedure Balanced: built into x.25

DDR
Dial on demand Routing
be sure and setup route as static, and with specified distance over
200 to make sure it is ‘last resort’

X.25
Point-to-point communication between DTE and DCE
DTE: Data Terminal Equipment (router or terminal, or
whatever)
DCE: Data Circuit-Terminating Equipment (csu/dsi or modem)
PSE: Packet Switching Exchange: switches inside carriers
network
Addresses defined by x.121 as a 14 digit number
DNIC:Data Network Identified Code is first 4 bits of
address
Rest of address is assigned by the administrator
Full-duplex protocol
‘overbuilt’ with lots of error checking
Created SVC or PVC connections (switched or Permanent
virtual circuits)
 PLP
Packet layer protocol
x.25’s network layer protocol
modes: call setup, data transfer, idle, call clearing,
restarting
LAPB
Link Access Procedure Balanced
Makes sure frames are error free and sequenced
Types of frames:
I information sequencing, flow control, error
detect, recovery
S supervisory handles requests for, and
suspension of transmittion
U unnumbered link setup and disconnections and
error reporting

Setting up X.25 on Cisco

#interface <interface>
#encap x25
#x25 address <14 digit number>
to set the address
#x25 ips <bytes>
to configure Input Packet Size
#x25 ops <bytes>
to configure Output Packet Size
#x25 win <integer>
to configure Window Input Size
#x25 wout <integer>
to configure Window Output Size

Frame Relay
Shared Bandwidth
Can setup a CIR (Committed Information Rate)
Assumed error-checking is handled at another, higher,
layer
PVCs are created at layer 2.

DLCIs: Data-link connection Identifiers : are used to

identify virtual circuit connections.
DLCI address are assigned by the provider and then
mapped to IP addresses by the router

LMI: Local management Interface

These are autodetected in current IOS versions…..
however:
Keyword Meaning
 Cisco: defined by industry group, and default
ANSI: Annex D defined by T1.617
Q933a: Defined by ITU-T Annex A Q.933A

LMI can be used to determine the global significance of

the DLCI numbers.

Setup of Frame Relay on Cisco

#interface <interface>
#encapsulation frame-relay [ietf, or default is
cisco]
use default to talk to other cisco routers, use ietf encapsulation to
talk to non-cisco.

#frame-relay interface-dlci <dlci number>

to map dlci number to current interface, or
subinterface
Then specify an IP address for that subinterface

Optionally you can hard-code the address on the

other end.
#encap frame-relay [ietf]
#no inverse-arp
turns off auto addressing features
#ip address <ip address> <subnet mask>
#frame-relay map ip <address> <metric ? > [cisco]
[broadcast]
this lets you mix encap types, and allow broadcast
over interface

Monitoring Frame Relay

#show frame ?
ip ip statistics
lmi lmi stats
map map table
pvc pvc stats – this one displays the DLCI #
route route info
traffic protocol stats

PPP
Point to Point Protocol
Userfull for dial-up or sync links (ISDN)
Authenticate using PAP: password authentication
protocol or
CHAP: Challenge Handshake Authentication
Protocol
 ISDN
Integrated Services Digital Network
Terminal equipment types:
TE1: understands ISDN
TE2: predates ISDN and needs a TA (terminal
adapter) to work
ISDN reference points:
R: between non-isdn device and TA
S: between terminal and NT2 device
T: point between NT1 and NT2
U: point between NT1 and carrier line termination
device
ISDN protocol codes:
E: existing telephone network
I: concepts, terms, and services
Q: switching and signaling
ISDN service levels:
Connect to lines with SPIDs (service Profile
Identfiers) (phone numbers..)
BRI: Basic Rate Interface: 2B + 1D
B = 64kbs, D=16Kbps = 128kbs plus control
PRI: Primary Rate Interface: 23B + 1D
Total of 1.544Mbps

Configuring ISDN BRI

#isdn switch-type ?
tons of proprietary switch types
#interface <interface>
typicaly bri0, or something like that.
#encap ppp
ppp is method used to setup isdn phone calls
#isdn spid1 <spid1>
#isdn spid2 <spid2>

Configuring ISDN PRI

#controller <interface> <location>
typicaly something like #controller T1 1/0
#framing efs
sets Extended Super Framing, this is normal
for T1/ PRI line
#linecode b8zs
line-conding mechanism to assist with timing by preventing strings
of zeros
#pri-group timeslots <value from 1-24>
sets number of timeslots
Access lists:
Basics:
Access lists must be created, then applied to an interface
Access lists can filter incoming or outgoing from an
interface
Packets are compared only until a match is made
Packets that do not meet any criteria on the list are
discarded

Wildcard masking:
Nifty, acts like a reverse subnet mask:
Example: 0.0.0.255 would wildcard all hosts on class C
network
would indicate no wildcarding
keywords:
host: 0.0.0.0 : just specified host
any: 255.255.255.255: absolutely anything
* when using keyword it comes before IP address, when
using mask it comes after!!!!

List number scheme

List number range meaning
ip standard list
ip extended access list

ipx standard
ipx extended access list
1000-1099 IPX SAP access list

IP access list creation

#access-list <number of list> <permit | deny> <source
address> [<mask>]

IP extended access list

#access-list <number> <permit |deny> <protocol> <source>
<destination> <port>
source and destination can be masked
port can be ‘eq’ for equal, ‘neq’ not equal, ‘log’ logged, or
assorted other things
port can also be keyworeded: www, smtp, finger, ftp, telnet,
etc…..

ipx access list

#access-list <number> <permit|deny> <source network
number> <destination network number>
no wildcarding needed with ipx
-1 is used to indicate ‘any network address’

extended ipx access lists

#access-list <number> <permit|deny> <protocol> <source>
<socket> <destination> <socket>
-1 still indicates ‘any’ for socket or source address

IPX SAP access lists

#Access-list <number> <permit|deny> <source> <service type>
service type is numeric value

Applying Access list to Interface

#interface <interface>
#ip access-group <number of list> <in | out>

Monitoring:
#show access-list
shows the lists and how many matches for each line
#clear access-list counters <access list number>
clears statistics

Logging:
Keyword log can be placed at the end of extended access lists, and
info will be logged to console by default, or could be re-directed to a
error-log server
Logs include: access list number, source and destination
port/address and number of packets.

Displaying access list info

#Show ip interface <interface>
displays which list is enabled for the interface, both incoming
and outgoing
#show running-config
shows just about everything….including details of what makes
up each access-list

CISCO Things:
Startup sequence
Bootstrap from Rom
Cisco IOS from Flash
From tftp
From Rom
Configuration File from NVRAM
From tftp server
From console
Editing commands
Toggle on/off: Terminal editing / terminal no editing
Control +
A move to beginning of line
E end
F forward
B back
P previous
N most recent
Show history
Terminal history size set buffer size
Arrow keys also work to edit and scroll through buffer

Passwords
Enable secret: one-way crypto password, has priority over
‘normal’ enable password
#config terminal
#enable secret <password>
Enable password: password to switch to priv mode
#config terminal
#enable password <password>
Virtual terminal password: password to allow telnet
into router
#config terminal
#line vty 0 <max number of logins>
#login
#password <whatever password>

Banner
#banner motd <end Char>
yadda, yadda, yadda <end Char>

Hostname
#config t
#hostname <router hostname>

hostname resolution

#ip host <target hostname> <target host ip address>

this acts like a host file to allow static name resolution
#show hosts
displays configured hosts / ip addresses

#ip domain-lookup
#ip name-server <dns ip>
to configure DNS, use the 2 commands above. You can have
up to 6 dns addresses
 #no ip domain-lookup
disable dns lookkup

Interface Naming
S Serial
E Ethernet
T TokenRing
F Fiddi

Number as card/port or for 7000 series as VIP card/port (from

0) /interface (from 0)

Static Routing for IP

Config with:
#Ip route <network> <mask> <address|interface>
[distance]

Display with:
#Show ip route
#Show ip route static

Remove ip routes with:

#No ip route <network>

Default route / route of last resort : (set network and mask to

all 0s)
#Ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 <address>

IP classless:
With IP classless ‘on’ packets are forward on a best-guess directly
connected network instead of having them dropped.
- this is used with default routes

Testing:
#ping <address>
works with IP, ipx, appletalk, apollo, vines, and
decnet
#ping <fill out info as prompted>
extended ping: works with ip, appletalk, and ipx to
provide much more info
#trace <protocol> <address>
works with: ip, appletalk, clns, oldvines (cisco),
vines (banyan).

- remember that TCP is not on any of these lists… it

is a higher-level protocol.
 Subinterfaces:
How to bind multiple conflicting commands to 1
interface… use subinterfaces.
Syntax is to place a period, then a integer after the
device name.
Example: #int e0.100

Configuring Dynamic Routing for IP

RIP:
#router rip
#network <network we want to advertise>
-optional #passive <interface>
lets you run rip without advertising connection
-optional #neighbor <specific neighbor router>
lets info go over non-broadcast media (like WAN links)
-optional #debug ip rip or undebug ip rip
This shows all updates to the console (sent or
received advertisements)
-optional #no router rip
Disables rip routing

IGRP
#router igrp <autonomous system number 1-
65535>
turns on igrp and allows setting of AS number
#network <network we want to advertise>
-optional #debug ip igrp events #undebug ip
igrp events
logs to console when/what events are done
-optional#debug ip igrp transactions #undebug ip
igrp transactions
detailed log to console of what happens in each
event

display routing info:

#show ip route
This displays all routes on the router, including
how the route was ‘learned’
R = rip, C = connected, S = static, I = igrp, o =
ospf, etc

#show ip route <protocol>

displays routes ‘learned’ from specified protocol
only

#show ip protocol
 displays protocol and detailed info on timing,
sources of info, filters, etc.

#show ip interface
shows all lots of info on all interfaces

#show ip interface <interface>

shows info specific to the interface

IPX configuration
#ipx routing
to enable ipx routing

#interface <interface>
select an interface before providing specifc info for
configuring ipx

#ipx network <ipx network address> [encapsulation

<keyword for type>] [secondary]
secondary indicates if more than one encapsulation type is used on
1 interface, recomened to use sub-interfaces

table of info for configuring encapsulation types

interface type frame type keyword
ethernet 802.3 novell-
ether (default)
sap
ethernet_II arpa
ethernet_snap snap
token ring token-ring sap (default)
token-ring_snap snap
fddi fddi_snap snap (default)
sap
fddi_raw novell-fddi

Show IPX servers

#show ipx servers
this displays the contents of the SAP, listing all servers
and services

show IPX route

#show IPX route
shows the IPX routing table

#ipx maximum paths <2-512>

enable multiple paths to 1 destination

#show ipx traffic

 generates traffic statistics on ipx network usage

#show ipx interface <interface>

detailed info on specific interface

#debug ipx <all kinds of things>

lots of debug information available

Sources for IOS software:

Flash Memory
Default and normally good idea
#show flash
lists all versions stored in flash, but does not
specify which is running
#show version
specifies which version of IOS you are running
currently

Tftp server
Somewhat menu driven way to store and retrieve
information to/from tftp server
#copy flash tftp –lets you backup your ios saved in
flash
#copy tftp flash -lets you download new versions
or restore over bad versions

tftp to backup / restore config info

#copy tftp running-config
#copy running-config tftp

Configuring fallback sources for IOS software

#boot system flash <ios_filename>
to boot from flash
#boot system tftp <ios_filename> <tftp_address>
to boot from remote tftp server
#boot system rom
to boot from hard-coded ios version, this is a ‘last
resort’ kinda thing to do

IOS Commands that have little to do with routing

#show version
 os version, uptime, how it was last started up,
where ios was loaded from
hardware type and revision as well as detected
interfaces

#show processes
shows pid, Queue priority, status (TY), runtime in milliseconds,
stack space, proc name

#show memory
shows processor and I/O memory and watermarks /
freespace

#show stacks
shows cause of last crash, and esoteric info

#show buffers
reveals size of buffers for small / middle / big / very
big / large / huge

#show flash
reveals size and amount free, as well as what is
stored.

#show running-config
shows the running configuration file

#show startup-config
shows the startup configuration file

#show interface
shows the hardware and their status, including
usage stats

#show interface <interface>

shows hardware status and usage for specific
interface

#show protocol
shows protocols enabled and routing info for each
interface

#show ip protocol
shows more detail than show protocol

Connecting a Windows 95 Client to a Windows NT Server through a Cisco Router

You dial in from a Windows95 machine using the built-in dialup adapter. There is no
problem connecting to the router but when you try to log on to the Windows NT server, the
following error message is displayed:

Unable to validate password, domain not found...

There is no problem connecting via Ethernet and so you may conclude this is a Cisco
problem. Reports show that this issue will show up on Shiva LanRovers, as well as other
Remote Access Servers. It is actually a Microsoft issue.

The above problem could have several causes:

1. The workstation may be configured incorrectly. The minimum configuration in the

Network control panel should have the following:
o Client for Microsoft Networks
o Dial-Up adapter
o TCP/IP - Dial-Up adapter
2. On the Windows NT server, the administrator must have the following configured
properly on the network:
o Windows Internet Naming Service (WINS)
o Windows NT Primary Domain Controller (PDC)

Note: The PDC must be registered with the WINS. These components can coexist on
the same server, or on two different machines. Below is a brief description of each
component.

Windows NT Primary Domain Controller (PDC)

An individual server is configured to be the primary domain controller (PDC). The PDC
contains the domain's user account information and all changes to the user account
information occur on the PDC. Other servers in the domain can be configured as backup
domain controllers (BDC), or, simply servers. BDCs contain copies of the user account
information and are available to authenticate users when they log on to the domain. BDCs
also provide authentication fault tolerance. If the PDC is down for any reason, BDCs are
available to authenticate users and guarantee their access to network resources. When
changes are made to the user account information on the PDC, those changes are replicated
to each of the BDCs.

WindowsNT Windows Internet Naming Service (WINS)

WINS is designed to address the problem of locating network resources in a TCP/IP-based

Microsoft network by automatically configuring and maintaining the computer name and
IP address mapping tables, while serving basic functions such as preventing duplicate
network names. WINS is a complementary service to DHCP and has a complete, centralized
tool for administration on the WINS servers, static name tables, and replication
information.

To find out more about WINS and DHCP, access the following URL:

http://www.microsoft.com/win32dev/netwrk/dhcpwins.htm
If the above are properly configured on your network, there are a few things to do on your
Win95 client.

Configuring the Dial-Up Networking Profile

Follow these steps to configure your dial up networking profile correctly:

1. Highlight your connection profile you have configured for your WindowsNT logon;
click on your right mouse button; select Properties.
2. In this window, select Server Type.
3. In the Type of Dial-Up Server field, make sure you have PPP Windows95,
WindowsNT 3.5 Internet selected.
4. Make sure you have at least TCP/IP selected in the Allowed network protocols
section. Click TCP/IP Settings... to advance to the next window.
5. In the TCP/IP Settings window, you are faced with a couple of options:
o Server assigned IP address - This is used if the server is providing your
workstation the dial-in IP address. (DHCP)
o Specify an IP address - You have a static IP address already predefined on
your workstation.
o Server assigned name server address - This is used if the server is providing
your workstation the IP addresses for your primary and secondary DNS and
WINS servers.
o Specify name server addresses - This is used to define which DNS/WINS
server you want to connect to upon dial-up.
6. Make the appropriate entries, and then click OK.
7. Go to your Network control panel.
8. In your Network window, select the Indentification tab.
9. Enter a Computer name, Workgroup* name, and Computer Description, then click
OK.
o Workgroup name - If you have domains on your network, then you would
put the name of the domain you are part of in this field. If you have only
have workgroups, you would put the name of the workgroup you are part of
in this field. In a nutshell, this field is used interchangeably for Workgroup
or Domain.
10. From the Network window, double-click on the Client for Microsoft Networks icon.
In this properties window, select Log on to Windows NTdomain, and enter the
Windows NT domain name here. Click OK when done.
11. Reboot the machine and dial in. When you connect, you will need to logon and/or
browse for domains through your Network Neighborhood on the Win95 Client.

Posted: Mon Apr 21 14:13:42 PDT 1997

Copyright 1996 © Cisco Systems Inc. All rights reserved.

ISDN Configuration Example - IP

Sample Configuration for C2503

C2503#wr t
######
Current configuration:
!
version 10.2
!
hostname C2503
!
enable password test
!
username C4000 password cisco (See username explanation in the
following
section.)
isdn switch-type basic-dms100
!
interface Ethernet0
ip address 172.16.10.1 255.255.255.0
!
interface Serial0
no ip address
shutdown
!
interface Serial1
no ip address
shutdown
!
interface BRI0
ip address 172.16.20.1 255.255.255.0
encapsulation ppp
bandwidth 56
dialer idle-timeout 300
dialer map ip 172.16.20.2 name C4000 speed 56 broadcast
14155551234
dialer map ip 172.16.20.2 name C4000 speed 56 broadcast
14155556789
dialer hold-queue 5
dialer load-threshold 100
dialer-group 1
isdn spid1 408555432101 5554321
isdn spid2 408555987601 5559876
ppp authentication chap
!
router igrp 1
network 172.16.0.0
!
ip route 192.168.24.0 255.255.255.0 172.16.20.2
access-list 100 deny ip 0.0.0.0 255.255.255.255 255.255.255.255
0.0.0.0
access-list 100 permit ip 0.0.0.0 255.255.255.255 0.0.0.0
255.255.255.255
!
!
dialer-list 1 list 100
!
line con 0
line aux 0
line vty 0 4
password test
login
!
end

Explanation of C2503 Configuration

C2503#wr t
######
Current configuration:
!
version 10.2
!
hostname C2503
!
enable password test
!
username C4000 password cisco
The username "C4000" is the hostname of the remote router and is used by the dialer map
command below. The username is case sensitive and must match the remote router's
hostname exactly.

The password, which is used by the CHAP authentication process, is case sensitive and must
match the remote router's password exactly.

Note: To avoid confusion, the unencrypted form of the password cisco is shown in this
sample configuration. In the actual configuration, the password would appear in its
encrypted form: 7 13061E010803, where 7 denotes the encryption type and 13061E010803 is
the encrypted form of the password cisco. When entering or making changes to the
username command, always type the password in its unencrypted form and do not enter the
encryption type (7). It is set automatically.

isdn switch-type basic-dms100

• The ISDN switch type must match your carrier's equipment. If you change the
switch-type, you must reload the router for the new switch type to take effect.

interface Ethernet0
ip address 172.16.10.1 255.255.255.0

interface Serial0
no ip address
shutdown
!
interface Serial1
no ip address
shutdown
!
interface BRI0
ip address 172.16.20.1 255.255.255.0
encapsulation ppp

• PPP encapsulation is recommended over HDLC in order to allow the use of CHAP
authentication.

bandwidth 56
 • The default bandwidth setting for a BRI interface is 64k. If you configured your
dialer map statements with the speed 56 option, you should include the bandwidth
statement.

Note: This command does not control the speed of your ISDN line. It sets the correct
reference point for the BRI port's show interface statistics, for the dialer load-
threshold command, and for IGRP/EIGRP routing metrics.

dialer idle-timeout 300

• This command sets the number of seconds the ISDN connection will remain open if
no interesting traffic is being routed. The timer is reset each time an interesting
packet is forwarded.

dialer map ip 172.16.20.2 name C4000 speed 56 broadcast 14155551234

dialer map ip 172.16.20.2 name C4000 speed 56 broadcast 14155556789

• The dialer map command is used with CHAP authentication to place the initial call
to the remote router when interesting traffic is forwarded to the BRI interface. Once
the connection is active, the dialer idle-timeout command determines how long it
will remain active. A dialer map statement is required for each ISDN phone number
that will be called. Be aware though, that two dialer map statements pointing to the
same location might activate both B channels when you may only want to use one
channel.

Note: The command parameters for this example are:

172.16.20.2 = the IP address of the remote router's BRI interface. To determine this
address, type show interface bri 0 at the remote router's console prompt.

name C4000 = the hostname of the remote router. The name is case sensitive and
should match the name configured for the username command above.

speed 56 = sets the dialer speed to 56k for ISDN circuits that are not 64k end-to-end,
and should be included in both routers' dialer map statements. Most installations in
North America must be configured for 56K.

broadcast = allows the forwarding of broadcast packets. Unless broadcast packets

are specified as interesting packets by the dialer-list command, they will only be
forwarded when the ISDN link is active.

14155551234
14155556789 = the remote router's ISDN telephone numbers.

dialer hold-queue 5

• This command allows interesting packets to be queued until the ISDN connection is
established. In this example, five interesting packets will be queued.
dialer load-threshold 100

• This command is used to configure bandwidth on demand by setting the maximum

load before the dialer places another call through the second B channel. The load is
the calculated weighted average load value for the interface, where 1 is unloaded
and 255 is fully loaded. The actual load value you should configure depends on the
characteristics of your particular network. In this example, the second B channel
will be activated when the load reaches 39% of maximum utilization, which is 100
divided by 255.

dialer-group 1

• The dialer-group 1 command enables the dialer-list 1 on the BRI interface, which
determines which packets will be interesting and activate the ISDN connection.

isdn spid1 408555432101 5554321

isdn spid2 408555987601 5559876

• The isdn spid commands are used if your carrier assigns spids to your ISDN lines.

ppp authentication chap

• This command enables CHAP authentication.

router igrp 1
network 172.16.0.0

ip route 192.168.24.0 255.255.255.0 172.16.20.2

• This IP route command creates a static route to the remote router's network via the
remote router's BRI interface. This is required because dynamic routes are lost
when the ISDN link is down.

Note: The command parameters for this example are:

192.168.24.0 = the target network.

255.255.255.0 = the target network mask. A 255 in an octet's position specifies an

exact match for that octet is required, and a 0 in an octet's position specifies any
value will match.

172.16.20.2 = the address of the next hop that can be used to reach the target
network.

access-list 100 deny ip 0.0.0.0 255.255.255.255 255.255.255.255 0.0.0.0

access-list 100 permit ip 0.0.0.0 255.255.255.255 0.0.0.0 255.255.255.255
 • This access list determines which IP packets will be interesting and activate the
ISDN link. The access-list you should create depends on your particular network
design.

Note: The command parameters for this example are:

access-list 100 deny ip 0.0.0.0 255.255.255.255

255.255.255.255 0.0.0.0

defines all broadcast packets as uninteresting.

access-list 100 permit ip 0.0.0.0 255.255.255.255

0.0.0.0255.255.255.255

defines all other IP packets as interesting.

dialer-list 1 list 100

• This command points to access-list 100, which determines which IP packets will be
interesting.
•
• line con 0
• line aux 0
• line vty 0 4
• password test
• login
• !
• end

Sample Configuration for C4000

C4000#wr t
######
Current configuration:
!
version 10.2
!
hostname C4000
!
enable password test
!
username C2503 password cisco (See username explanation in the
following
section.)
isdn switch-type basic-dms100
!
interface Ethernet0
ip address 192.168.24.65 255.255.255.0
!
interface Serial0
no ip address
shutdown
!
interface Serial1
no ip address
shutdown
!
interface BRI0
ip address 172.16.20.2 255.255.255.0
encapsulation ppp
bandwidth 56
dialer idle-timeout 300
dialer map ip 172.16.20.1 name C2503 speed 56 broadcast
14085554321
dialer map ip 172.16.20.1 name C2503 speed 56 broadcast
14085559876
dialer hold-queue 5
dialer load-threshold 100
dialer-group 1
isdn spid1 415555123401 5551234
isdn spid2 415555678901 5556789
ppp authentication chap
!
router igrp 1
network 172.16.0.0
network 192.168.24.0
!
ip route 172.16.10.0 255.255.255.0 172.16.20.1
access-list 100 deny ip 0.0.0.0 255.255.255.255 255.255.255.255
0.0.0.0
access-list 100 permit ip 0.0.0.0 255.255.255.255 0.0.0.0
255.255.255.255
!
!
dialer-list 1 list 100
!
line con 0
line aux 0
line vty 0 4
password test
login
!
end

Explanation of C4000 Configuration

C4000#wr t
######
Current configuration:
!
version 10.2
!
hostname C4000
!
enable password test
!
username C2503 password cisco
The username "C2503" is the hostname of the remote router and is used by the dialer map
command below. The username is case sensitive and must match the remote router's
hostname exactly.

The password, which is used by the CHAP authentication process, is case sensitive and must
match the remote router's password exactly.

Note: To avoid confusion, the unencrypted form of the password cisco is shown in this
sample configuration. In the actual configuration, the password would appear in its
encrypted form: 7 13061E010803, where 7 denotes the encryption type and 13061E010803 is
the encrypted form of the password cisco. When entering or making changes to the
username command, always type the password in its unencrypted form and do not enter the
encryption type (7). It is set automatically.

isdn switch-type basic-dms100

• The ISDN switch type must match your carrier's equipment. If you change the
switch-type you must reload the router for the new switch type to take effect.

interface Ethernet0
ip address 192.168.24.65 255.255.255.0

interface Serial0
no ip address
shutdown
!
interface Serial1
no ip address
shutdown
!
interface BRI0
ip address 172.16.20.2 255.255.255.0

encapsulation ppp

• PPP encapsulation is recommended over HDLC in order to allow the use of CHAP
authentication.

bandwidth 56
 • The default bandwidth setting for a BRI interface is 64k. If you configured your
dialer map statements with the speed 56 option, you should include the bandwidth
statement.

Note: This command does not control the speed of your ISDN line. It sets the correct
reference point for the BRI port's show interface statistics, for the dialer load-
threshold command, and for IGRP/EIGRP routing metrics.

dialer idle-timeout 300

• This command sets the number of seconds the ISDN connection will remain open if
no interesting traffic is being routed. The timer is reset each time an interesting
packet is forwarded.

dialer map ip 172.16.20.1 name C2503 speed 56 broadcast 14085554321

dialer map ip 172.16.20.1 name C2503 speed 56 broadcast 14085559876

• The dialer map command is used with CHAP authentication to place the initial call
to the remote router when interesting traffic is forwarded to the BRI interface.
After the connection is active, the dialer idle-timeout command determines how long
it will remain active. A dialer map statement is required for each ISDN phone
number that will be called. Be aware though, that two dialer map statements
pointing to the same location might activate both B channels when you may only
want to use one channel.

Note: The command parameters for this example are:

172.16.20.1 = the IP address of the remote router's BRI interface. To determine this
address, type show interface bri 0 at the remote router's console prompt.

name C2503 = the hostname of the remote router. The name is case sensitive and
should match the name configured for the username command above.

speed 56 = sets the dialer speed to 56k for ISDN circuits that are not 64k end-to-end,
and should be included in both routers' dialer map statements. Most installations in
North America must be configured for 56K.

broadcast = allows the forwarding of broadcast packets. Unless broadcast packets

are specified as interesting packets by the dialer-list command, they will only be
forwarded when the ISDN link is active.

14085554321
14085559876 = the remote router's ISDN telephone numbers.

dialer hold-queue 5

• This command allows interesting packets to be queued until the ISDN connection is
established. In this example, five interesting packets will be queued.
dialer load-threshold 100

• This command is used to configure bandwidth on demand by setting the maximum

load before the dialer places another call through the second B channel. The load is
the calculated weighted average load value for the interface, where 1 is unloaded
and 255 is fully loaded. The actual load value you should configure depends on the
characteristics of your particular network. In this example, the second B channel
will be activated when the load reaches 39% of maximum utilization, which is 100
divided by 255.

dialer-group 1

• The dialer-group 1 command enables the dialer-list 1 on the BRI interface, which
determines which packets will be interesting and activate the ISDN connection.

isdn spid1 415555123401 5551234

isdn spid2 415555678901 5556789

• The isdn spid commands are used if your carrier assigns spids to your ISDN lines.

ppp authentication chap

• This command enables CHAP authentication.

router igrp 1
network 172.16.0.0
network 192.168.24.0
ip route 172.16.10.0 255.255.255.0 172.16.20.1

• This ip route command creates a static route to the remote router's network via the
remote router's BRI interface. This is required because dynamic routes are lost
when the ISDN link is down.

Note: The command parameters for this example are:

172.16.0.0 = the target network.

255.255.0.0 = the target network mask. A 255 in an octet's position specifies an exact
match for that octet is required, and a 0 in an octet's position specifies any value will
match.

172.16.20.1 = the address of the next hop that can be used to reach the target
network.

access-list 100 deny ip 0.0.0.0 255.255.255.255 255.255.255.255 0.0.0.0

access-list 100 permit ip 0.0.0.0 255.255.255.255 0.0.0.0 255.255.255.255
 • This access list determines which IP packets will be interesting and activate the
ISDN link. The access-list you should create depends on your particular network
design.

Note: The command parameters for this example are:

access-list 100 deny ip 0.0.0.0 255.255.255.255

255.255.255.255 0.0.0.

defines all broadcast packets as uninteresting.

access-list 100 permit ip 0.0.0.0 255.255.255.255 0.0.0.0

255.255.255.255

defines all other IP packets as interesting.

dialer-list 1 list 100

• This command points to access-list 100, which determines which IP packets will be
interesting.
•
• line con 0
• line aux 0
• line vty 0 4
• password test
• login
• !
• end

Cisco Exam
'
vijay

000

944

Security and Access Lists For the CCNA exam you

should be familiar with the concept of access lists and
how to implement access lists on the Cisco router.
Access lists are similar to packet filtering on an NT
server. They are lists of conditions that are set by the
administrator to control access to particular network
segment by controlling access to a specific router's
interface. Access lists are used for controlling access to
sensitive networks, and for optimizing the network
traffic. Access lists can be used to control inbound or
outbound traffic on the interface. It's important to
understand that the direction (inbound or outbound) is
relative to the router's interface. For example, if the
server is connected to one of the router's interfaces,
the packet addressed to that server is an outbound
traffic for the router's interface. Once the access list is
applied to the interface, all packets are analyzed and
compared with entries in the access list. If one of the
conditions in the access list matches the packets
information (could be IP address, network address,
port number, protocol type), the router acts according
to instructions in that access list. Packet is compared
with each line in the access list, starting with line 1,
then line 2 , and so on. Once the packet matches the
condition on one of the lines in the access list, the
router acts upon that condition and no further
comparisons take place If the packet does not match
any of the conditions on the access list, the packet is
discarded. This is the same as having deny any entry in
the access list. This is important to remember when
creating the access list. Access lists can be used to
control IP and IPX traffic. There are two types of access
lists - standard and extended access lists. Standard
access list can analyze the packet based on the source
IP address. Packets source IP address can be used to
either allow or deny access (either inbound or
outbound) to the interface. Extended access list can, in
addition to source IP address, also include entries for:
Destination IP address Port number Protocol type A
router can have many different access lists, but only
one access list is allowed per interface. There are two
steps in configuring access list (either standard or
extended): Create access list in global configuration
mode Apply the access list to the interface in interface
configuration mode Each access list must have a unique
number. This number must be within a specific range,
depending on the type of access list. For the CCNA exam
you must know the following access list numbers:
Access list number Access list type 1-99 IP standard
access list 100-199 IP extended access list 200-299
Protocol type-code access list 800-899 IPX standard
access list 900-999 IPX extended access list 1000-1099
IPX SAP access list Commands to configure access lists:
From the configuration mode type access-list [number]
[permit or deny] [source address] For example, access-
list 10 deny 222.122.122.100 Will create an access list
number 10 with the condition to deny packets with the
source address of 222.122.122.100 It's important to
remember that all access lists have implicit deny at the
last line. So, when we created our access list 10, it
looks like this: deny 222.122.122.100 deny any This
means that all traffic will be denied. This is not what we
wanted to achieve. To correct this problem, and deny
only packets with source address 222.122.122.100, we
need to add another line to our access list. Once again,
type access-list 10 permit any Now our access list looks
like this: deny 222.122.122.100 permit any deny any
The last line deny any will always be there because it is
inserted automatically by the router, but it will never be
used because once the condition is met, (either deny
222.122.122.100, or allow any), the router does not
read any further lines in the access list. When creating
access list with a deny directive, it's important to add
another line that allows all or some traffic, or you will
just shut down the router. When creating an access list
that includes an entire network or subnet, you should
use wildcard masking. Wildcard mask is somewhat
similar to the subnet mask. Here is an example: access-
list 12 permit 222.122.122.0 0.0.0.255 In this example
we created access list that permits traffic from all hosts
on a network 222.122.122.0. The wildcard mask of
0.0.0.255 tells the router that the first 3 octets must
match up exactly, and the last octet is any number from
0 to 255. You can have many access lists on a router,
but they don't do anything until you apply an access list
to an interface. To apply an access list to an interface,
you must first enter an interface configuration mode.
For example, from the config mode type int e0 The
router prompt will change to Router(config-if)#,
indicating that all the changes made here will only be
applied to an interface e0. To apply an access list, type
Router(config-if)#ip access-group 10 [in or out] For
example to apply an access list 10 to control an
outbound traffic, type ip access-group 10 out To
deactivate an access list type no ip access list 10 out On
a router with only 2 interfaces - one serial and one
Ethernet, applying an access list for an inbound traffic
to the serial interface produces the same effect as
applying the same access list to the Ethernet interface
for an outbound traffic. For multiport router you have to
decide whether to apply an access list to an inbound or
outbound traffic based on the needs of the network.
Extended access lists Standard access lists are very
simple to configure, but they can only filter the traffic
based on the source address. If you want to filter the
traffic based on the source and destination address, as
well as port number, you need to use extended access
lists. Extended access lists also have one important
function - logging. Configuring extended access lists is
similar to configuring standard access lists. You begin
with creating access list from a global configuration
mode. Use numbers 100-199 for extended access list. If
you enter access-list 101 ? you will see a lot more
parameters available to configure. This is because the
router knows by looking at the access list number that
you are working with an extended access list.
Router(config)#access-list 101 permit tcp
222.122.122.101 any tcp eq 23 This access list will
permit tcp traffic on port 23 (telnet) from ip address
222.122.122.101 to any ip number. Instead of using a
port number, you can use the name of the tcp protocol,
telnet for example, or it could be dns, echo, ftp, or other
tcp protocol. You can use wildcard masks with extended
access lists just like with standard access lists. To log
events triggered by the access list add log parameter to
the access list. Like this: access-list 101 permit ip
222.122.122.101 any tcp eg 23 log The logging feature
can be useful if you want to log the traffic going in or
out of the particular interface. To log all traffic, just
create an access list that permits all traffic and add log
parameter to it. IPX access lists IPX access lists are
similar to IP access lists. There are standard and
extended IPX access lists. Unlike IP access list,
standard IPX access list can filter traffic based on
source and destination address. The syntax for creating
standard IPX access list is: access-list [number]
[permit/deny] [source] [destination] Just like IP
access list IPX access list is created from the global
configuration mode For example: access-list 801 permit
40 80 This access list will permit IPX traffic from
network 40 to network 80. We use number 801 because
IPX access list number must be between 800-899 In
order to define any network in IPX access list you use
-1 (minus one) For example access-list 805 deny -1 -1
will deny IPX traffic from any network to any network.
Just like in IP access list there is an implicit deny at the
end of IPX access list. To apply an IPX access list, first
go to an interface configuration mode, then type
Router(config-if)#ipx access-group [number] [in or
out] For example: Router(config-if)#ipx access-group
801 in Extended IPX access lists With extended IPX
access lists you can filter the traffic based on Source
network/node address, destination network/node
address, IPX protocol (like SPX, SAP, NetBios, etc.), IPX
socket (similar to TCP port number). The syntax for
creating IPX extended access list is: access-list
[number] [permit/deny] [protocol] [source] [socket]
[destination] [socket] The [number] must be between
900-999 to tell the router that it's reading an extended
IPX access list. Also, just like with IP access list, you
can add log parameter to the end of IPX extended
access list to log events generated by the access list.
Example: access-list 901 deny spx any sap any sap log
This access list will deny sap traffic from any network
to any network and events will be logged. Another
example: access-list 902 deny rip 300 rip 600 log This
access list will deny all IPX rip (not the same as IP RIP)
from entering from network 300 to network 600, and all
events will be logged. The procedure and syntax for
applying the extended IPX access list to the interface is
the same as with standard IPX access list. Monitoring
access lists There are several commands that you can
use to view your access lists: from privileged mode
Show access-list will display all access lists configured
on the router, access lists numbers and all the lines in
them. To view IP access lists, use show ip interface (or
sh ip int) This will display ip interfaces configurations,
including numbers of outgoing and inbound access lists.
To view IPX access list you can use show ipx interface
This will show interfaces that are configured with IPX
protocols, and IPX access lists associated with them.
Another useful command to view access lists is show
run entered from the privileged mode. This will show
running configuration, and will show access groups
applied to particular interfaces.

Wan Technologies SDLC - Synchronous Data Link

Control is the synchronous, bit-oriented protocol used
by the SNA data-link control layer. As formally defined
by IBM, SDLC is a line discipline for managing
synchronous, code-transparent, serially transmitted bit
information over a data link. Transmission exchanges
can be full duplex or half duplex and can occur over
switched or nonswitched links. The configuration of the
link connection can be point-to-point, multidrop, or
loop. The SDLC data link allows a reliable exchange of
information over a communication facility between SNA
devices. The protocol synchronizes receivers and
transmitters and detects transmission errors. It
accomplishes these functions by acknowledging frame
receipt and by performing a cyclic redundancy check
(CRC) on the data. SDLC node types: Primary station-
Controls operations of other stations, manages links,
polls secondary stations. Secondary station - controlled
by primary stations, cannot communicate with each-
other, can also communicate with primary station, only
when polled by primary station. Use the debug sdlc
EXEC command to display information on SDLC frames
received and sent by any router serial interface
involved in supporting SDLC end station functions. The
no form of this command disables debugging output.
debug sdlc no debug sdlc HDLC - High-Level Data Link
Control is the default encapsulation type on Cisco
router over synchronous serial link. Cisco provides
HDLC serial encapsulation for serial lines. This
encapsulation method provides the synchronous
framing and error detection functions of HDLC without
windowing or retransmission. Cisco uses its own
proprietary implementation of HDLC which is not
compatible with other Non-Cisco routers. To enable
HDLC encapsulation type encapsulation hdlc from the
interface configuration mode HDLC supports the
following transfer modes: Normal Response mode -
NRM Asynchronous response mode - ARM Asynchronous
balanced mode - ABM Link Access Procedure Balance -
LAPB Dial-Up wan connections. The most common type
of dial-up wan connections are modems and ISDN.
POTS - Plain Old Telephone Service. Terminology
associated with POTS CO - Central office. The location
of telephone company's equipment where the phone
line connects to the high speed line (trunk). Local loop -
The wiring from customer's location to the nearest CO.
CPE - Customer premise equipment. Could me modem,
CSU/DSU, wiring on the customer's location. ISDN -
Integrated Services Digital Line. ISDN was developed in
mid-80'. What makes ISDN different from POTS is that
ISDN allows data to be transmitted digitally, unlike
modem connection, where data is converted into analog
signal for transmission, and then converted back into
digital signal. ISDN line can simultaneously transmit
voice, data and video over the same physical line. ISDN
used Bearer Channels (B channels) and Data channels
(D channels). B channels occupy 64Kbps bandwidth and
can transmit voice and data simultaneously. D channel
is used for signaling to pass dial string information and
occupies 16Kbps on a slow ISDN, and 64Kbps on a T1
line. There are two types of ISDN service - Basic Rate
Interface (BRI) and Primary Rate Interface (PRI). The
difference between them is the number of B channels.
BRI - 2 B channels and 1 D channel for a total of 144
Kbps. Since the D channel is used for signaling, and
does not participate in actual data transfer, the
bandwidth of the BRI is 128Kbps. BRI can operate with
almost all types of Cisco routers, like 1000, 2500, 3000,
and 4000 series routers. PRI consists of 23 B channels
and one 64Kbps D channel for a total bandwidth of
1.536 Kbps. In Europe PRI consists of 30 B channels
and one 64Kbps D channel, for a total of 1,984 Kbps
bandwidth. A BRI customer has the ability to add more
channels for an extra cost to accommodate the need for
more bandwidth. B channels are aggregated into a
single logical high-speed connection using channel
aggregation protocol, such as B channel bonding or
Multilink-PPP. ISDN supports many different protocols,
like TCP/IP, IPX, AppleTalk. Available encapsulations
for ISDN designs are PPP, HDLC, X.25, and V.120. X.25
can also be used for datagram delivery over the D
channel. Most internetworking designs use PPP as the
encapsulation. The distance limitation of ISDN is 18,000
feet from carrier's CO. This distance can be increase
using repeaters. Using repeaters may increase cost of
service. At customer premises ISDN line terminates on
the device called Terminal Adapter (TA), or sometimes
referred to as ISDN modem. One side of the TA
connects to the ISDN line, and the other side connects
to the serial interface on the router. A Cisco router can
have a BRI interface installed, in which case you can
connect it directly to the ISDN line. A router with built-
in BRI interface is called TE (Terminal End-point1), and
router that requires TA is called TE2. There are 3 types
of protocols associated with ISDN: E-series - telephone
network I-series - Concepts, aspects, interfaces Q-
series - Switching and signaling Configuring ISDN
interfaces BRI configuration involves configuration of
ISDN switch-type, and ISDN SPIDs. To see the list of
available switch types, enter isdn switch type ? from
the global configuration mode. In North America, the
most common types are 5ESS, DMS100, and NI-1. For
proper ISDN operation, it is imperative that the correct
switch type is configured on the ISDN device. A service
profile identifier (SPID) is a number provided by the
ISDN carrier to identify the line configuration of the BRI
service. If SPIDs are necessary but not configured or
configured incorrectly on the device, the Layer 3
initialization fails, and the ISDN services cannot be
used. There is no standard format for SPID numbers. As
a result, SPID numbers vary depending on the switch
vendor and the carrier. This is an example of
configuring BRI interface: Router(config)#isdn switch-
type basic-dms100 After we configured the switch type,
we must configure encapsulation type and assign SPID
numbers from the interface configuration mode. To
enter BRI interface configuration mode, type int bri0.
Router(config-if)#encap ppp Router(config-if)#isdn
spid1 0835866201 8358662 Router(config-if)#isdn
spid2 0835866401 8358664 To confirm BRI operations,
use the show isdn status command to inspect the status
of your BRI interfaces. Troubleshooting SPID problems
is done with the debug isdn q921 command. PRI
configuration Cisco IOS routers support PRI interfaces
using MultiChannel Interface Processor (MIP) cards.
MIP cards can support Channelized T1/E1 or PRI
timeslots. On Cisco routers with IOS 11.2 and older, you
cannot have both BRI and PRI interface cards. Cisco
IOS 11.3T or later will provide support for multiple
switch-types in a single Cisco IOS chassis. Configure
the ISDN switch-type for the PRI interface using the
isdn switch-type [switch type] command. Then enter
interface configuration mode by typing
Router(config)#controller T1 1/0 Router(config-
if)#framing esf Router(config-if)#linecode b8zs
Router(config-if)#pri-group timeslots 1-24 Note that
PRI channels 0-23 map to pri-group timeslots 1-24. The
same +1 mapping is used on E1-based PRI. The state of
the T1 controller is inspected with the Cisco IOS exec
command: show controller t1 To verify ISDN is
operational, use the Cisco IOS exec command show
isdn status Inspect B channel status with the show isdn
service exec command The Simple Network
Management Protocol (SNMP) uses management
information bases (MIBs) to store information about
network events. Currently, no industry-standard ISDN
MIB is available, but as of Cisco IOS Software Release
10.3(3), two Cisco ISDN MIBs are available. With these
MIBs, SNMP-compliant management platforms (for
example, HP OpenView or SunNet Manager) can query
Cisco routers for ISDN-related statistics.

X.25 X.25 was developed by the common carriers

(telephone companies, essentially) rather than any
single commercial enterprise. The specification is
therefore designed to work well regardless of a user's
system type or manufacturer. The X.25 specification
defines a point-to-point interaction between data
terminal equipment (DTE) and data circuit-terminating
equipment (DCE). DTEs (terminals and hosts in the
user's facilities) connect to DCEs (modems, packet
switches, and other ports into the PDN, generally
located in the carrier's facilities), which connect to
packet switching exchanges (PSEs, or switches) and
other DCEs inside a PSN and, ultimately, to another
DTE. X.25 defines a telephone network for data
communications. To begin communication, one
computer calls another to request a communication
session. The called computer can accept or refuse the
connection. If the call is accepted, the two systems can
begin full-duplex information transfer. Either side can
terminate the connection at any time. The X.25
specification maps to Layers 1 through 3 of the OSI
reference model. Layer 3 X.25 describes packet formats
and packet exchange procedures between peer Layer 3
entities. Layer 2 X.25 is implemented by Link Access
Procedure, Balanced (LAPB). LAPB defines packet
framing for the DTE/DCE link. Layer 1 X.25 defines the
electrical and mechanical procedures for activating and
deactivating the physical medium connecting the DTE
and the DCE. Layer 2 X.25 is implemented by LAPB,
which allows each side (the DTE and the DCE) to initiate
communication with the other. During information
transfer, LAPB checks that the frames arrive at the
receiver in the correct sequence and free of errors.
Layer 1 X.25 uses the X.21 bis physical-layer protocol
End-to-end communication between DTEs is
accomplished through a bidirectional association called
a virtual circuit. Virtual circuits permit communication
between distinct network elements through any
number of intermediate nodes without the dedication of
portions of the physical medium that characterizes
physical circuits. Virtual circuits can be either
permanent or switched (temporary). Permanent virtual
circuits (PVCs) are typically used for the most often
used data transfers, whereas switched virtual circuits
(SVCs) are used for sporadic data transfers. Layer 3
X.25 is concerned with end-to-end communication
involving both PVCs and SVCs. When a virtual circuit is
established, the DTE sends a packet to the other end of
the connection by sending it to the DCE using the
proper virtual circuit. The DCE looks at the virtual
circuit number to determine how to route the packet
through the X.25 network. The Layer 3 X.25 protocol
multiplexes between all the DTEs served by the DCE on
the destination side of the network, and the packet is
delivered to the destination DTE. Configuring X.25 From
the interface configuration mode set the encapsulation
type on this interface to X.25 by typing Router(config-
if)#encapsulation x25 Set the X.121 address of this
interface by typing Router(config-if)#x25 address
123456 Set up the LAN protocols-to-remote-host
mapping for IP and X.25. Router(config-if)#x25 map
protocol address [protocol2 address2[...[protocol9
address9]]] x121-address [option] For example
Router(config-if)#x25 map ip 172.16.26.2 2345
broadcast Because most datagram routing protocols
rely on broadcasts or multicasts to send routing
information to their neighbors, the broadcast keyword
is needed to run such routing protocols over X.25. Use
the x25 win interface configuration command to change
the default maximum number of unacknowledged
incoming packets for the interface (Sliding window
size). x25 win packets Packet count that can range
from 1 to one less than the window modulus The
default is 2 packets. The following example specifies
that five packets must be received before sending an
X.25 acknowledgment: interface serial 1 x25 win 5 Use
the x25 wout interface configuration command to
change the default maximum number of
unacknowledged packets to allow. This command
determines the default number of packets the
communication server can send before waiting for an
X.25 acknowledgment. To maintain high bandwidth
utilization, assign this limit the largest number that the
network allows. Set x25 win and x25 wout to the same
value unless your network supports asymmetry
between input and output window sizes The show
interfaces serial command provides important
information useful for identifying problems in X.25
internetworks. The following fields provide especially
important information: REJs---Number of rejects
SABMs---Number of Set Asynchronous Balance Mode
requests RNRs---Number of Receiver Not Ready events
FRMRs---Number of protocol frame errors RESTARTs---
Number of restarts DISCs---Number of disconnects To
display all traffic for interfaces using LAPB
encapsulation use the debug lapb exec command . If no
SABMs are being sent, disable the debug lapb command
and enable the debug x25 events privileged exec
command. To check that X.25 has been correctly
configured use the show running-config privileged exec
command to view the router configuration. Look for x25
map interface configuration command entries. Frame
relay Frame Relay is a method of packet-switching that
is used for communication between user devices (such
as routers, bridges, and host machines) and network
devices (such as switching nodes and modems). User
devices are called data terminal equipment (DTE) and
network devices are called data circuit-terminating
equipment (DCE). Frame relay became very popular
wan technology due to its low cost and wide
availability. On a frame relay connection the link
between the customer and the ISP's router can be
shared by other customer applications. This is called
many-to-one connectivity over a single physical line.
Frame Relay services can be provided by either a public
network or a network of privately owned equipment
serving a single enterprise The major difference
between X.25 and Frame relay is that Frame relay does
not do its own error checking, and relies on the higher
layer protocols for error checking. This makes it a faster
protocol, but requires better connection lines. Today
many Frame relay connections run over fiber optic
lines. Frame Relay uses a simple congestion notification
mechanism to inform user devices when the network
become congested. Congestion notification alerts the
higher-layer protocols that flow control is needed.
Frame relay protocol operates at Physical and Data Link
layers of the OSI model. Fame relay can use both PVC
(Private Virtual Circuit) and SVC (Switched Virtual
Circuit). SVC is a temporary connection line established
only for the duration of communication, similar to the
phone line. PVC is a permanent line similar to the
dedicated line. Current Frame Relay standards support
permanent virtual circuits (PVCs) that are configured
and managed in a Frame Relay network. Cisco IOS
software releases 11.2 and later support switched
virtual circuits (SVCs) for DTE interfaces. The Frame
relay is less expensive then the dedicated line like a T1.
When subscribing to Frame Relay, the ISP will
guarantee you a minimum bandwidth that will always
be available to you. This is called Committed
Information Rate - CIR. When the line is not saturated
with traffic, you will be able to get a much higher
transfer rate then the CIR. Frame Relay supports
encapsulation of all supported protocols in conformance
with RFC 1490, allowing interoperability between
multiple vendors. Enabling Frame Relay encapsulation
on the serial interface requires the following steps:
Step 1 Enter interface configuration mode and select
the serial interface to configure. Step 2 Enable
encapsulation on the interface. Router(config-
if)#encapsulation frame-relay [type] Sets the
encapsulation method on this interface to Frame Relay.
There are two types of Frame relay encapsulation: Cisco
and IETF. The default is Cisco. This will work only if you
have Cisco router on both sides of Frame Relay circuit.
If you have another vendor's router, you must use IETF.
Also use IETF when configuring Frame Relay on ATM
switch router. To verify the Frame relay configuration,
confirming an active permanent virtual circuit (PVC) is
active on the Frame Relay line by typing show frame-
relay pvc from the privileged exec mode. Confirm that
the "PVC STATUS=ACTIVE" message appears in the
command output. If there is no output after entering
the command, use the show interface serial0 command
to determine whether or not the serial interface is
active. The next step in configuring a Frame relay is to
assign DLCI number to a serial interface from the
interface configuration mode. The DLCI numbers are
usually assigned by the ISPs that offer Frame Relay
service. If you work on your own end-to-end Frame
relay network, you can make up your own DLCI
numbers. Use this command to assign DLCI:
Router(config-if)#frame-relay interface-dlci [number]
DLCI numbers are from 16-1007. After you enter the
above command and DLCI number, the Router prompt
changes to this: Router(config-fr-dlci)# To find out your
DLCI number on an existing Frame relay network, use
show frame-relay pvc from the privileged exec mode.
LMI - Local Management Interface. LMI is a set of
enhancements to the Frame Relay protocol. When
configuring a Cisco router with IOS prior to 11.2, you
must specify the LMI type. IOS 11.2 and newer are set
to autodetect LMI type. Check with your Frame Relay
ISP to find out the LMI type. There are 3 types of LMI:
Cisco ANSI q933a The Local Management Interface
(LMI) provides a set of enhancements to the basic
Frame Relay specification, including support for a
keepalive mechanism and statistics. You can configure
the following LMI-related parameters on the Frame
Relay interface: LMI type LMI keepalive interval LMI
polling and timer intervals (optional) LMI type is
configured from the interface configuration mode. A
keepalive interval must be set to configure the LMI. By
default, this interval is 10 seconds Configuring the
keepalive interval requires the following steps: Step 1
Enter interface configuration mode and select the serial
interface to configure. Step 2 Specify a keepalive
interface for the interface. Router(config-if)#frame-
relay keepalive 15 This sets keepalive interval to 15
seconds. Keepalive specifies how long the connection is
kept active in between the bursts of packets. A single
serial interface can have multiple virtual circuits. To
configure multiple virtual circuits, you enter a
subinterface configuration mode. Subinterface is a
logical interface that acts as a separate physical
interface. Subinterfaces operate independently of each
other. You can have one subinterface configured for IP
routing and another one for IPX routing. This is similar
to binding different protocols to a single NIC card on a
Windows OS. There are two types of Subinterfaces:
point-to-point and multipoint. Point-to-point is used
with a single virtual circuit (PVC or SVC), and multipoint
is used when the interface connects to many virtual
circuits. To assign a subinterface type, first enter
subinterface configuration mode by typing
Router(config)#int s0.17 You can use different number
then 17, it does not matter. Then specify the interface
type by entering interface Serial0.17 point-to-point This
command sets the subinterface Serial 0.17 as point-to-
point type. The IP address of the interface (or
subinterface) must be mapped to the DLCI number. The
syntax for mapping is: frame-relay map ip [ip address]
[dlci number] [encapsulation type] This must be
entered from the interface or subinterface configuration
mode. Example: frame-relay ip 222.122.122.121 17
cisco Useful commands to monitor frame relay: From
the privileged mode: show frame-relay ip show frame
relay IP statistics show frame-relay lmi show frame
relay lmi statistics show frame-relay map Frame-relay
map table show frame-relay pvc show frame relay pvc
statistics show frame-relay svc show frame-relay scv
statistics show frame-relay route show frame relay
route statistics show frame-relay traffic show frame
relay protocol statistics Show run can also be used to
see DLCI number among other things. Remember that
you cannot see DLCI number using show int command.
PPP - Point-to-Point Protocol PPP provides a standard
method for transporting multiprotocol packets over
point-to-point links. PPP is defined in RFC 1661.
Multiprotocol packets means that PPP can transport
many different protocols, like IP, IPX, AppleTalk,
DECnet, and several more protocols. PPP is a Data link
protocol, and therefore referred to as Layer 2 protocol.
PPP supports compression, authentication, dynamic
addressing. PPP uses Link Control Packets to exchange
information between devices. The PPP LCP provides a
method of establishing, configuring, maintaining, and
terminating the point-to-point connection. Before any
network-layer datagrams (for example, IP) can be
exchanged, LCP must first open the connection and
negotiate configuration parameters. This phase is
complete when a configuration acknowledgment frame
has been both sent and received. The PPP
authentication protocols (PAP and CHAP) are defined in
RFC 1334. After LCP has established the PPP
connection, an optional authentication protocol can be
implemented before proceeding to the negotiation and
establishment of the Network Control Protocols. If
authentication is desired, it must be negotiated as an
option at the LCP establishment phase. Authentication
can be bidirectional (both sides authenticate the other)
or unidirectional (one side, typically the called side,
authenticates the other). Multilink PPP (MP) is a
standard for aggregating multiple PPP links that allows
for multivendor interoperability, and is defined in RFC
1717. MP defines a way of sequencing and transmitting
packets over multiple physical interfaces. To reduce
potential latency issues, MP also defines a method of
fragmenting and reassembling large packets. The Point-
to-Point (PPP) Compression Control Protocol (CCP) is
an Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) draft RFC
that defines a method for negotiating data compression
over PPP links. These links can be either leased lines or
circuit-switched WAN links, including ISDN.
Compression increases throughput and shortens file
transfer times. Use the compress interface
configuration command at both ends of the link to
enable compression. To enable PPP encapsulation, type
encapsulation ppp from the interface configuration
mode (or subinterface configuration) To determine
what components have been negotiated (such as LCP,
IPCP, CCP, and so on), use the show interface command
on the master interface. Also show run from the
privileged mode will display details about PPP
configuration associated with a particular interface. To
troubleshoot PPP negotiation problems, use debug ppp
negotiation and debug ppp authentication.

Routing protocols For the CCNA exam you should know

some of the most widely used routing protocols. All
routing protocols can be separated into two categories:
Distance-Vector and Link- State. These two categories
are defined by the algorithms that are used to calculate
the best route. Distance-vector routing protocols: Uses
metrics (hop counts) to determine the best route.
Updates are broadcasted every 30 seconds. During this
broadcast the router sends its routing table to the
neighbor routers. To prevent routing loops, Distance-
vector protocols are limited to 15 hops. If the
destination network is more then 15 hops away
(separated by more than 15 routers, the packet will be
dropped) Link-state routing protocol Uses the
combination of metrics and bandwidth to determine the
best route. In addition to routing table, the router
builds and maintains a topology map of the network.
Router use LSP (link state packets) broadcasts to send
routing information to other routers. Updates are
broadcasted every 2 hours. Link-state protocols can
make more accurate routing decisions. Link-State
protocols require more processing power and RAM than
Distance-vector protocols. Balanced Hybrid is a
combination of the Distance-vector and Link-State
protocols. Balanced Hybrid routing protocols can
calculate the best route more accurately than Distance-
Vector with less overhead than Link-State protocol. A
Cisco router can be configured to use more than one
routing protocol at the same time and can maintain
routing tables for many different routing protocols
simultaneously. Distance-Vector protocols RIP -
Routing information protocol RIP is a distance vector
protocol. Suitable for small and medium size networks.
Low overhead, simple to implement. The main
limitation is 15 hops maximum (can't route through
more than 15 routers). To start RIP on the router, type
router rip from the router configuration mode, and then
add network number that you want RIP to advertise.
For example, Router(config-router)#network
122.122.0.0 There are different version of RIP- RIP1,
RIP2, and newer RIPng designed to be compatible with
IPv6. Different versions of RIP are incompatible with
each other. RIP version number is included in the RIP
packet. RIP sends a copy of a routing table to other
routers on the network every 30 seconds. The receiving
router compares the routing table it receives from
neighbor router with its own routing table, and if it
detects changes, updates its routing table and sends
updates to another neighbor router.When the router
configured with RIP first starts up, it issues a request
broadcast requesting the initial routing information
from the neighbor routers. RIP is defined in RFC 1058
and RFC 1723. IGRP - Interior Gateway Routing
Protocol IGRP is a Cisco's proprietary protocol initially
introduced in 1988. Just like RIP, IGRP relies on
broadcasts to update routing tables. There are many
important differences between IGRP and RIP that make
IGRP a much more advance routing protocol. Maximum
hop counts is 255. In addition to hop count, IGRP uses
Composite metrics: bandwidth, reliability, load, delay
values to determine the best route. These values can be
adjusted by the administrator. Updates are sent every
90 seconds to neighbor routers. Multipath routing - a
data can be split end send over multiple links. This
increases fault tolerance and provides more
throughput. IGRP is suitable for large networks with
complex topologies. To enable IGRP, type router igrp
[autonomous system number]. For example, router igrp
100 will enable IGRP on the router and will assign the
autonomous system number of 100. Then, from the
router configuration prompt enter the network number
that you want the router to advertise. For example:
Router(router-config)#network 222.122.122.100 Link
state protocols OSPF - Open Shortest Path First Link
state protocol, developed by IETF for use on the
Internet. OSPF is a very complex protocol with high
overhead. Advantages of OSPF: More precise
computation of the best route, ability to split network
traffic between multiple paths, fast convergency. Link
state routing tables are broadcasted only when the
change (or link failure) is detected by a router. Support
for Variable Length subnet masks. This means that
unlike the RIP that only understands the major network
numbers, OSPF can be used to route traffic between
subnets. Support for broadcast networks (Ethernet,
Token ring) and non-broadcast networks (ATM, x.25)
OSPF protocol runs on top of IP protocol and consists of
3 subprotocols: Hello, Exchange, Flooding. Flooding
protocol is used to transmit updates when change in
topology is detected by a router responsible for the link.
Database updates are transmitted in an encrypted form.
OSPF messages can be secured by a password. OSPF
routers exchange information with other OSPF routers
within the same autonomous system, but can also be
configured to send and receive updates from other
autonomous systems. EIGRP Enhanced Interior Routing
Protocol. Cisco's proprietary routing protocol, an
improved version of IGRP. EIGRP uses "Distributed
update algorithm" or "DUAL", it combines the Link-
state and Distance-Vector algorithms. EIGRP is
considered balanced hybrid protocol. Unlike IGRP that
only understands major network numbers, EIGRP can
be configured to use subnet masks and supernet masks.
The format of the EIGRP routing table is different from
IGRP routing table. Advantages of EIGRP are: Fast
convergence, Support for multiple protocols, requires
less bandwidth than Distance-vector protocols because
only partial updates are broadcasted and only when
changes in topology are detected. EIGRP does not use
periodic broadcasts. Improved loop detection and
prevention. EGP Exterior Gateway Protocol is a
Distance-Vector protocol. EGP was designed to enable
the exchange of routing information between different
Autonomous Systems (AS) An AS is a set of routers and
networks under the same administration. All parts of an
AS must remain connected. Normally, routers in the AS
only exchange routing information with other on the
same AS. The purpose of the EGP is to exchange routing
information and reachability information between
Autonomous Systems. EGP has three procedures:
Neighbor acquisition - determines whether 2 adjacent
gateways agree to become neighbors. Neighbor
Acquisition is a "two-way handshake" Becoming
neighbors means that 2 Autonomous Systems agree to
relay each other's traffic. An administrator defines the
set of routers that can define a list of potential
neighbors. The router will then accept a neighbor
acquisition request only with members on the list. If a
router receives a request from a router that has not
been configured as a potential neighbor, it will reply
with a Neighbor Acquisition Refusal. Neighbor
Acquisition can also be refused if the router has ran out
of memory and does not have enough space for extra
routing table.

Neighbor reachability - the procedure in which a router

sends "hello" packets and another router suppose to
reply with "I hear you" packets. Network administrator
can configure the frequency of "hello" packets. The
normal frequency is 30 seconds. One neighbor router
can be configured to only send "hello" packets and
another to only send "I hear you" packets. Also both
routers can be configured to send both "hello" and "I
hear you" packets.

Network reachability - the procedure in which neighbor

routers exchange the list of networks that can be
reached through each neighbor. This information is
used to update the routing tables in each of the
Autonomous Systems. The EGP router polls its partner
for a list of available networks.

EGP was developed in 1982-1984, and is not capable of

handling today's complex topologies. It is being
replaced by the BGP. EGP cannot detect and prevent
routing loops and heavily depends on the manual
configuration by the administrator. BGP - Border
Gateway Protocol Was designed to replace the EGP. The
design started in 1989, and the most recent version is
BGP-4. BGP uses "Path Vector" instead of "Distance
Vector". Path Vector enable detection and prevention of
loops in complex topology. BGP runs over TCP, and
relies on TCP for error checking and resequensing
packets. BGP-4 supports Classless Inter-Domain
Routing (CIDR). Concept of CIDR is to have IP address
and subnet mask independent of the IP address class.
CIDR is the concept behind supernetting. In
supernetting several class C addresses can be combined
into one subnet. This solves the problem in which a
medium size network needs more than one class C
network (more than 254 hosts), but does not need class
B address. By combining several adjacent class C
addresses into one network address, only one
additional entry has to be made in the routing table.
Routing updates are sent only when change in topology
is detected. BGP can be used to connect Autonomous
Systems, to relay routing tables between Autonomous
Systems , and can also be used for routing within
Autonomous Systems. Running BGP requires a lot of
manual configuration. Potential problems with routing
protocols. Routing Loops Routing loops occur when
routing tables are not updated fast enough when one of
the networks becomes unreachable. Due to the slow
convergence (updates of routing table between all
routers), some routers will end up with incorrect
routing table and will broadcast that routing table to
other routers. This incorrect routing tables will cause
packets to travel repeatedly in circles. Counting to
infinity Counting to infinity happens when packets end
up in a routing loop. The hop count increases with every
pass through a router on the network. Solutions
Defining the maximum number of hops When the
number of hops reaches this predefined value, the
distance is considered infinite and the network
considered unreachable. This will not stop routing
loops, but only limit the time that packet can travel
inside the loop. Split horizon The packets can not be
send back to the same interface that they originally
came from. During the updates, one router does not
send updates to the router that it received the
information from. Route poisoning The router sets the
cost of infinity for the unreachable network. Split
horizon with poisonous reverse Combination of split
horizon and route poisoning. Triggered updates The
router sends updates of the routing table as soon as it
detects changes in the network. Hold-Downs After the
router detects unreachable network, the routers waits
for a specified time before announcing that a network is
unreachable. The router will also wait for a period of
time before it updates its routing table after it detects
that another router came online. Hold-downs can only
partially prevent counting to infinity problem.

IP addressing and subnetting. Cisco routers can route

over 20 different protocols. The most widely used
protocol is TCP/IP, because it's a default protocol of the
Internet. There are over 100 different protocols in the
TCP/IP protocol suite. IP (Internet Protocol) is one of
the protocols in the TCP/IP protocol suite. The primary
function of the IP is addressing and routing. An IP
address is 32 bit long. Logically, we write the IP
address like this: 202.221.100.121 Notice that when we
look at an IP address, we see 4 parts, separated by
dots. This is because IP has a hierarchical structure.
Looking at this IP address we can identify that it's a
class C address because the first octet is 202 (between
192 and 223). When the computer sees an IP address,
it does not see any dots that separate the octets. The
computer sees the same address like this:
11001010110111010110010001111001 The software
responsible for interpreting the IP address (the
software that's installed when you install TCP/IP
protocol on your computer) determines the class of IP
address by looking at the first 3 bits (leading bits) of
the address. Class A address will always start with 0
Class B address will always start with 10 Class C
address will always start with 110 IP address carries
two pieces of information: The first part of IP address is
a network address, and the second part is a HOST
address. Just exactly how many bits of the address
represents the Network address is determined by the
class of address and the subnet mask. In our example,
computer reads the fist 3 bits of the address and right
away determines that it's a class C address. For the
computer it means that the first 3 octets (first 24 bits)
is a network address, and the rest is the Host address.
For the CCNA exam you must know how to recognize
classes of IP addresses and to determine the network
address and the host address part.

Class Network/Host address First byte of IP address

Default subnet mask Maximum number of Networks
Maximum number of Nodes A Net.Host.Host.Host 1-126
255.0.0.0 127 16,777,214 B Net.Net.Host.Host 128-191
255.255.0.0 16,384 65,534 C Net.Net.Net.Host 192-223
255.255.255.0 2,097,152 254 D . 224-239 . Multicast
broadcast E . 240-255 . Reserved for future use

Special addresses Purpose Network address of all 0s

"This network" Network address of all 1s "All
networks" (broadcast) Address starting with 127
Loopback. Used for testing purposes. To test TCP/IP on
your computer, ping 127.0.0.1 Node Address of all 0s
This node Node Address of all 1s All nodes on network
(broadcast) 255.255.255.255 Broadcast to all nodes
Network addresses 10.0.0.0 172.16-31.0.0 192.168.0.0
These network addresses are reserved for private
networks and are not used on the Internet. You can use
any number of IP addresses in these network addresses
range on your private network. They will be
inaccessible from the Internet, even if your network is
connected to the Internet. This offers some additional
security.

Sometimes it is necessary to divide a network into

smaller logical groups. This is called subnetting.
Advantages of subnetting are: Reduced network
congestion, Increase in network performance. To
implement subnetting, we borrow some of the bits from
the host address and use them for the subnet address.
In our earlier example, we have IP address
202.221.100.121, or
11001010110111010110010001111001. The first 24
bits is a network address (because it's a class C
network), and the last 8 bits are HOST address.
Network: 110010101101110101100100 Host:
01111001 Lets suppose we have a whole class C
network assigned to us 110010101101110101100100.
We can have 254 addresses available for us to use on
our network. If we need to divide our network into 5
subnets, we would need to borrow 3 bits from the host
address portion to use them to identify subnet address.
We will have only 5 bits left to use for host addresses.
We can have only 32 combinations with 5 bits, minus 2
because we cannot have addresses with all 1s or all 0s.
So now we can have 5 subnets with 30 hosts on each
one, totaling 150 hosts. Additionally, every subnet must
have one host address reserved for the router interface
because we need to use routers to connect our subnets.
Now we down to 29 addresses available for our
computers on our 5 subnets. 29x5=145 In the process
of subnetting we lost many of available addresses
(From 254 down to 145) In order to implement
subnetting, we use subnet masks to let our computers
know how many bits from IP address will be used for
the network address, and how many for the host
address. The default subnet mask for class C address is
255.255.255.0, in binary it looks like this:
11111111111111111111111100000000 In order to
borrow 3 bits from the host address part, we must
create a custom subnet mask like this:
11111111111111111111111111100000 or
255.255.255.224 When deciding on a subnet musk,
remember that you need 1 network ID (separate
subnet) for each WAN connection in addition to each
subnet. What it means is that if you have 2 offices
separated by a WAN link, you need at least 3 subnets:
one for each office and one just for a WAN link. The
WAN link itself will probably only need 2 IP addresses
(one for WAN router interface on each router). As you
can see, you would waste a lot of IP addresses just for
the WAN link (an entire range of IP addresses for one
subnet). Also remember that you need an IP address
for every computer, network printer, other networking
devices plus a router interface on each subnet. So, if
you are planning a subnet, and have 28 computers and
2 network printers, you need at least 31 IP addresses
for it (remember at least one for the router interface).
Remember that the subnet mask must be the same for
entire network being subnetted. Subnet mask is not a
part of an IP address, it is not included in the packets'
address header and not transmitted over the network,
it is something that you manually assign to every
computer on the network. (or can be assigned by the
DHCP server along with IP address and default
gateway) Computers look at the subnet mask to
determine if the destination IP address is on a local or
remote network. If it's determined to be on a local
subnet, it will be sent to the destination computer,
using destination computer's MAC address (physical
address). The MAC address will either be found in ARP
cache or the ARP protocol will be used to find the
destination's MAC address. If after looking at
destination's IP address and comparing it to the subnet
mask, it's determined that the destination computer is
on a remote subnet, the packets will be sent to the
default gateway (router). Each subnet must have at
least one default gateway address, and this address
must be local to the subnet. Incorrectly configured
subnet masks can cause serious problems. If sending
computer decides that the destination IP address is on
the local network, when in fact it's on a remote
network, the packet will never be sent to router, and
will be dropped after several attempts to find the
remote IP on the local network. Just like IP address,
subnet mask is 32 bits long. The number of 1s in the
subnet mask is called "prefix notation" in Cisco
terminology. An IP address 219.34.29.114 with subnet
musk 255.255.255.240 can be written like this:
219.34.29.114/28 because the subnet mask of
255.255.255.240 has 28 1s and 4 0s (looks like this:
11111111111111111111111111110000) Memorize this
table. It tells you how many network addresses will be
available with different subnet masks.

Last octet of the subnet mask Number of Subnets

Number of available Hosts for class A network Number
of available Hosts for class B network Number of
available Hosts for class C network .192 2 4,194,302
16,382 62 .224 6 2,097,150 8,190 30 .240 14 1,048,574
4,094 14 .248 30 524,286 2,046 6 .252 62 262,142
1,022 2 .254 126 131,070 510 NA .255 254 65,534 254
NA

When planning your subnets, always plan for growth. If

you need 500 host IDs on each subnet on a class B
network, choose a subnet mask of 255.255.252.0, not
255.255.255.254. Because if you will later decide to add
11 more computers on any subnet, you will have to
change the subnet mask and will have to reconfigure
every workstation and router on your entire network. A
subnet mask of 255.255.255.128 can be used on the
class C network in order to maximize the number of
available addresses when subnetting a class C network.
In order for it to work, all routers on the network must
be able to understand this type of mask. Cisco router
can understand subnet 0, but it must be enabled in the
router by issuing "ip subnet-zero" command. The
problem with this type of mask is that it only uses one
bit to identify the subnet address, and it can only be 1
or 0. Older router may not be able to understand this
subnet mask and interpret it as illegal subnet mask.