598 THE JOURNAL OF TIlE AMERICAN OIL C[IE)s
37
U greatly p r e p o n d e r a t e s in the same position. Note
that one is an animal fat and the other a vegetable
fat. Application of the method to the hypothetical
f a t of known constitution (No. 1) shows t h a t the
mathenmtical process is a valid one. As will be de-
scribed later, other investigators are in agreement
with the results.
It seems reasonable to conclude that for fats such
as these, in which C16-Cls component acids predomi-
nate arid in which shorter or longer components are
present in relatively small proportions, the process is
likely to give a good representation of the actual
structure.
Shortly a f t e r the foregoing procedure was described
in 1959, A. S. Richardson, in private correspondence,
described a much simpler method of calculation giving
the same results, which p r e s u m a b l y he will describe.
Quite rece~ltly Yomlgs (6) has announced the dis-
eovery and development of another process for deter-
mini~lg the proI)ortions of the glyceride types and
isomers, based on separati(m by means of chromatog-
r a p h y of the products of partial oxidation of the
u n s a t u r a t e d molecules. Analyses by Youngs confirm
the accuracy of V a n d c r W a l ' s results.
D u t t o n (7) has described recently the application
of the counter-curt(rot distribution technique to the
analysis of cocoa butter. Ilis article, when published,
will contain references 1o other work by means of the
same procedure.
H a m m o n d (8) has employed the t e m p e r a t u r e gradi-
ent technique in resear(.h (m glyceride structure. His
results also agree with those of V a u d e r Wal.
I t should be obvious by now t h a t rather t h a n being
Interesterification of Edible Fats
W. Q. B R A U N , Wilson and Company, Chicago, Illinois
URING T H E L A S T T E N Y E A R S , rearranged lard has
D become a v e r y i m p o r t a n t shortening ingredient.
I t is p r e p a r e d f r o m n a t u r a l lard by redistribut-
ing the f a t t y acid radicals among the triglyceride
molecules.
That esters can exchange acid groups has been
]Known for almost one h u n d r e d years. I n 1865, Friedel
and Crafts, of F r i e d e l - C r a f t s reactions fame, heated
a m i x t u r e of a m y l acetate and ethyl benzoate at
300~ in a sealed tube. W h e n they analyzed the
contents of the tube, they found ethyl acetate and
a m y l benzoate as well as the original a m y l acetate
and ethyl benzoate (1). This classical experiment was
the first demonstration of interesterification~ the ex-
change of aeyl and alkyl groups between esters:
R C O O R ' + R " C 0 0 R ' " ~ R C O O W " -4- R " C O O R '
I n this discussion the t e r m interesterification will
r e f e r only to an exchange of acid or alcohol groups
by esters. This is sometimes also called ester inter-
change or transesterification. Although we are p r i m a r -
ily concerned with the interesterifieation of edible fats,
it will be necessary to refer to a n u m b e r of related
ester reactions f r o m time to time. 1. Esterificatio~ is
the f o r m a t i o n of an ester and w a t e r f r o m an alcohol
and acid. 2. Hydrolysis is the splitting of an ester b y
SOCIETY VOL.
a helter-skelter, unpredictable, unordered mixture of
triglyeeride components, the n a t u r a l f a t s are highly
organized and quite predictable.
END is not yet. Another great problem is the
T IlEexplanation of how both plants and animals can
produce such complicated but precisely organized
substances as fats. This is p a r t l y the biochemist's and
the enzymologist's job, but the m a t h e m a t i c a l relation-
ships discussed in this p a p e r must be satisfied b y a n y
system of synthesis they evolve. Indeed these indi-
viduals m a y v e r y profitably be guided thereby.
F r o m the point of view of the chemist in industrial
fats and oils a knowledge of the s t r u c t u r e of fats is
as i m p o r t a n t as a road m a p to the traveller. Research
heretofore has been done without real knowledge of
the s t r u c t u r e of the substances involved and has there-
fore been carried on in a state of semiblindness. Now
we shall be able to see where we are, what we have to
work with, and what we can hope to achieve. The
results should be better products, more economically
produced, with advantages to all concerned.
REFEI~ENCES
1. I I i l d i t c h , T. P., " T h e C h e m i c a l C o n s t i t u t i o n of N a t u r a l F a t s , "
3 r d ed., J o h n W i l e y a n d Sons I n c . , N e w Y o r k ( 1 9 5 6 ) .
2. M a t t s o n , F. H., a n d Beck, L. W., J . Biol. Chem., 219, 735
(1956).
3. M a t t s o n , F. H., a n d L u t t o n , E. S., J . Biol. Chem., 288, 868
(]958).
4. K a r t h a , A. R. S., doctoral thesis, U n i v e r s i t y of l~Iadras, J u l y
] 9 4 9 ; J . A m . Oil C h e m i s t s ' Soc., 30, 280 ( 1 9 5 3 ) : J . A m . Oil C h e m i s t s '
Sot., 80, 326 ( 1 9 5 3 ) ; J . A m . Oil C h e m i s t s ' Sot., 31, 85 ( 1 9 5 4 ) .
5. V a n d e r "Wal, R. J., J . A m . Oil Chemists' Sot., 37, 18 ( ] 9 6 0 ) .
6. Y o u n ~ s , C. G., p a p e r p r e s e n t e d at the 5 1 s t a n n u a l md!etin~,
A m e r i c a n Oil Chemists' Society, Dallas, Tex., A p r i l 4 - 6 , 1960.
7. D u t t o n , I t . J., Scholfield, C. R., and Mounts. T. L.. oal)er Ore-
s e n t e d b e f o r e the D i v i s i o n of A g r i c u l t u r a l a n d Food C h e m i s t r y , A m e r i -
(.an C h e m i c a l Society Meeting, Cleveland. O., April 5 - 1 4 , 1960.
8. J o n e s , G. u a n d H a m m o n d , E. G., J . A m . Oil C h e m i s t s ' Soc..
in press.
water. F r e e alcohol and acid are formed. 3. Saponi-
fication is the splitting of an ester by alkali. Soap and
alcohol are formed. 4. Alcoholysis is a displacement of
the alcohol radical o f an ester by another alcohol.
5. Acidolysis is a displacement of the acid radical of
an ester b y another acid.
Interesterification of Triglycerides
F a t s have three ester linkages per molecule. There-
fore the interchange possibilities are many. Not only
can the f a t t y acid groups exchange positions within
the molecule, but each f a t t y acid can also trade places
with a n y one of three f a t t y acids in another molecule:
Interesterification within Molecules
CH2OCOR' CH2OCOR" CH~OCOR'
I t I
CHOCOR'r ~-- CHOCORr ~ CHOCOR"
I ! t
CHo.OCOR'" CH2OCOR" CH~OCOt~"
Interesterification between Molecules
CH2OCOR~ CH2OCOR" CH2OCOPJ' CH2OCOR"
r I I I
CHOCOR,' + CHOCOR" ~-- CHOCOR' W CHOCOR"
I t r ]
Ctt~OCOI~' C H ~ O C O R " C H 2 O C O R " CH~OCOR'
NOVEMBER, 1960 BRAUN: INTERESTERIF1CATIONOF EDIBLE
CH~OCOW' CH.~OCOR'
I I
CHOCOR" + CHOOOR'
I I
Ctt~OCOR' CH.oOCOR"
Interesterification in the liquid phase is often called
r a n d o m interesterification. This differentiates it f r o m
directed interesterification which will be discussed
later. I t is assumed t h a t the f a t t y acids regroup them-
selves among the glyceride molecules according to
chance. Triglyceride analyses are not very exact, but
they do indicate a completely randonl a r r a n g e m e n t
at reaction equilibrium (2,3). The glyeeride compo-
sition of r a n d o m l y interesterified fats can be calcu-
lated with the following statistical formulas if the
f a t t y acid compositions are known(4) :
W h e r e A, B, C, etc., are the molar percentages of
f a t t y acids a, b, c, etc.
glyceridea-a-a=l• A.A.A. m o l e %
10,000
glyceridea-a-b -=3X A.A.B. mole%
IO,OO0
glyceridea-b-c =6•
A.B.C__mole%
10,000
If, f'or example, 50 mole % of tristearin were inter-
eslerified with 50 mole % of t r i o M n the equilibrium
mixture should have the followinz ('mnposition:
50.50.50
stearic - stearic -- stearic = 1 • -- 12.5%
10,0(}(}
50.50.50
stearic -- stearic --olcic = 3 • -- 37.5%
lO,O0(I
steari(. -- oleic -- olcic =- 3 • 50.50.50 _ 37.5%
10,000
oMc - oleie - oleie = 1 • 50.50.50 _ 12.5%
10,000
I t will be noted t h a t 75% of the imeresterificd fat:
would ,onsist of glycerides which were not present in
the original mixture. This of course is an extreme
case. Most n a t u r a l fats are closer to random dis-
tribution and therefore undergo less change d u r i n g
interc.~terification.
Although interesterifieation has been known for
nearly a century, it was not applied to fats until
the 1920's. N o r m a n n (5,6) and Van l~oon (7), two
E u r o p e a n industrial fats and oils chemists, were the
pioneers in this field. W o r k i n g independently, they
interesterificd a v a r i e t y of f a t lnixtures. A m o n g these
were stearins and vegetable oils, beef f a t and coconut
oil, beef fat and t r i b u t y r i n to simulate butter, tristea-
rin and triacetin. Their search for catalytic materials
was extensive. A m o n g those found to be effective
were tin, cadmium, lead, zinc and their compounds,
sulfonic acids, and compounds of alkaline earth metals
and alkali metals. Included with the latter were the
alkali metal alcoholates which are used extensively
today.
A f t e r N o r m a n n disclosed that fats can be interes-
terified, Griin (8,9) studied the theoretical aspects
of the reaction. H i s analyses of interesterified mix-
t u r e s s h o w e d t h a t all of the t h e o r e t i c a l l y p o s s i b l e
compounds, including positional isomers, were formed.
Some of his results were in good agreement wilh the
theory of random arrangement.
599
Interesterificated fats were not an immediate com-
mercial success. Nevertheless the contributions of
Normann, V a n Loon, and Griin provided an excellent
s t a r t i n g point for those who did later research in
this field.
Lard Interesterification
Large-scale interesterification is a postwar develop-
ment p r i m a r i l y concerned with lard. Interesterifiea-
tion had been used to make confectionery fats f r o m
mixtures of coconut oil a n d vegetable fats (10), but
this a p p a r e n t l y was not a sizeable operation.
To appreciate w h y lard lends itself so well to inter-
esterifieation, it is necessary to consider two character-
istics of n a t u r a l lard. One of these is a large, coarse
crystal s t r u c t u r e which gives it a dull, u n a t t r a c t i v e
appearance. The other is its poor creaming quality,
that is, its inability to incorporate enougb air into
cake batters while these are being mixed. This leads
to poor texture and volume in the baked cakes.
[t has been known for years that lard glycerides
have unique properties. The well-known B5mer test
for lard adulteration, devised in 1913, is based on the
melting point of the t r i s a t u r a t e d glycerides (11). I n
1935, Hilditch (12) was able to show t h a t most of the
palmitic acid in lard is attached at the beta position
of the glyceride molecule, instead of the more nmner-
ous alpha positions. This work has been eonfirmed
with more refined teehniques (13). D i s a t u r a t e d beta
palmito stearo-glyeerides are now reeogMzed as the
cause of the coarse crystal structure of lard. Althongh
randomized lard still contains a p p r o x i m a t e l y 25%
disatnrated glyeerides, less t h a n 5% are of the beta
pabnito type.
The late A. E. Bailey (14) associated the crystal-
lization habits of lard with its poor creaming power
and a p p a r e n t l y was the first to use interestcrifieation
for the purpose of b r e a k i n g up the responsible glyc-
eride eonfignration. The resultant product was com-
parable to good quality vegetable fat shortenings in
appearance and creaming quality. ~mall amonnts of
interesterified lard were produced in the late 1920's
(15). The rcaetion was carried on| in the absetme of
air at about 200~ with sodium hydroxide plus glyc-
erol as catalyst. The p r o d u c t was handieapped b y the
absenee of natural antioxidants like the toeophorols
whieh occur in cottonseed and soybean oil but not
in lard.
Low-Temperature Interesterification
Two technological advances finally triggered com-
mercial lard interesterification. One of these was the
development and a p p r o v a l of effective antioxidants.
The American Meat I n s t i t u t e played a m a j o r role in
this. The other was the discovery of l o w - t e m p e r a t u r e
interesterifieation, first disclosed by E c k e y (16).
Since reaction rates increase with temperature, fat
interesterifieation was originally carried out at tem-
peratures as high as practicable. E v e n so it took hours
to arrive at a random equilibrium at 200~ Eekey
however was t r y i n g to direct the reaction a w a y from
its usual randoln endpoint. I n the course of his work
he forum that under the p r o p e r conditions some cata-
lysts were still active below the melting point of fat,
and at 50~ they were so active that equilibrium was
reached within 30 minutes (17).
Sodium and potassium and their lower aleoholates,
amides, and hydrides are all very effective low-tern-
600 T~E JOURNAL OF Tile AMERICAN OIL CHEMISTS' SOCIETY
p e r a t u r e catalysts. I t seems likely that these materials
are actually precursors of the real catalyst, which
p r o b a b l y is a compound of the alkali metal and a
glyceride. According to Eckey, compounds of sodium
with nmterials much more acidic t h a n alcohol will not
bring about interesterification at low temperatures.
The alcoholates are the most convenient to use, and
sodium methoxide is the most p o p u l a r of these. Spe-
cial precautions are necessary when the alkali metals
and hydrides arc used, because hydrogen is liberated.
W h e n sodium amide ages, it m a y f o r m nitrogen ox-
ides which can detonate spontaneously (18). Sodium
methoxide is easier to handle, but its use also requires
care because the reaction between water and sodium
methoxide is very exothermic. There have been in-
stances where open containers have ignited in moist
atmospheres.
The use of sodium methoxide for low-temperature
lard interesterification has been patented (19,20).
P a t e n t s have also been g r a n t e d for its use in p r e p a r -
ing other shortenings (21,22), as well as confectionery
fats which contain coconut oil (23,24). I t has a num-
ber of advantages over the old high-temperature
methods. The reaction ~.an be carried out in ope, i
kettles, equilibrium is reached more quickly, and
the d a n g e r of thermal damage to the f a t is greatly
reduced. Howew..r high- and low-temperature inter-
esterifications have the same effect on glyceride com-
position, crystal structure, and creaming properties
if they are continued nntil a r a n d o m equilibrium
exists.
F a t s which are to be interesterified should be low
in moisture, free f a t t y acids, peroxides, and other
extraneous materials which will react with sodium
methoxide. The catalyst concentration should be kept
as low as practicable to p r e v e n t excessive losses re-
sulting f r o m saponification by the sodium radical and
m e t h y l ester formation by the methyl radical. L a r d
which has been filtered and v a c u u m dried but not
refined requires about 0.20% sodium methoxide.
The f a t should take on a reddish brown hue a few
minutes a f t e r the catalyst has been added. This color
p r o b a b l y is due to the sodium-glyceride compound
believed to be the true catalyst. I f it does not appear,
more catalyst is required. I n the t e m p e r a t u r e range
of 60 to 85~ the reaction reaches equilibrium within
t h i r t y minutes a f t e r the color change occurs. W i t h
m a n y fats either the melting point or cloud point
can be used to follow the reaction. W i t h lard these
determinations are of no value since interesterifieation
changes the melting point of lard only slightly. There-
fore cooling curves or single point dilatometrie meas-
urements are generally used. The cooling curve of
lard has a characteristic h u m p which disappears a f t e r
interesterification.
A f t e r the f a t has been interesterified, the catalyst
m a y be inactivated either with water or acid. W h e n
w a t e r is used the saponified acids can be removed with
conventional refining equipment. The alkaline water
also removes most of the color bodies formed d u r i n g
the reaction. I f the fat is to be used as a food, the
methyl esters must be removed. These come out read-
ily d u r i n g steam deodorization.
Directed Interesterification
A r a n d o m a r r a n g e m e n t of f a t t y acids is not always
the most desirable one. E c k e y (17) f o u n d t h a t inter-
esterification can be directed away f r o m its usually
VOL. 37
r a n d o m endpoint if the f a t is allowed to crystallize
d u r i n g the reaction. The t r i s a t u r a t e d glycerides crys-
tallize first. This removes them f r o m the reaction and
upsets the equilibrium of the liquid phase, which in
t u r n forms more trisaturates in an effort to regain
equilibrium. This continues until most of the satu-
rated acids have been precipitated. Eckey was able
to get 19% t r i s a t u r a t e d glycerides f r o m cottonseed
oil, which contains 25% s a t u r a t e d acids. I f this f a t
had been r a n d o m l y interesterified, it would have
contained only about 1.5% t r i s a t u r a t e d glycerides
and more t h a n 40% disaturated mono-unsaturated
glycerides.
Directed interesterification has also been used to
separate d i s a t u r a t e d mono-unsaturated glycerides. To
accomplish this, catalyst was added to chilled oils in
which most of the crystals were disaturated mono-
u n s a t u r a t e d glycerides. These served as nuclei for
the f o r m a t i o n of more of the same crystals (25,26).
N o n r a n d o m interesterification has m a n y possibili-
ties. A m o n g them are the p r e p a r a t i o n of shortenings,
confectionery fats, and m a r g a r i n e s (16)' as well as
the removal of saturated f a t t y acids from oils. IIow-
ever as with r a n d o m interesterification, the p r i m a r y
application at the present time is concerned witb the,
p r e p a r a t i o n of lard shortening. R a n d o m l y r e a r r a n g e d
lard is softer and has a lower melting point t h a ,
conventional shortening. Consequently it has to he
firmed u p with about 10% of t r i s a t u r a t e d glyeerides.
W i t h directed interesterifieation the t r i s a t n r a t e d glyc-
erides are one of the reaction products. The resultant
f a t also has a better plastic range because it is lower
in disaturated mono-unsaturated glycerides (27).
Directed interesterification is relatively slow because
of the lower t e m p e r a t u r e s used and the time required
for crystallization. Solid catalysts like sodium metal
and sodium methoxide tend to become coated, which
slows down the reaction still more. This coating effect
has been overcome by the use of a dispersion of liquid
sodium-potassium alloy. These liquid spherical parti-
cles slough off the coating as it is formed, and as a
result the f a t is always exposed to active catalyst (27).
A f t e r the catalyst has been added, the lard is sent
t h r o u g h a series of heat exchangers to lower the tem-
p e r a t u r e gradually. The course of the reaction can
be followed b y cloud-point determinations. W h e n the
desired a m o u n t of trisaturates has been formed, the
catalyst is destroyed. This is done while the f a t is
still in a semisolid state because a n y rise in tem-
p e r a t u r e while the catalyst is active will reverse the
reaction. W a t e r plus carbon dioxide has been recom-
mended to reduce saponification (27). After the cata-
lyst has been destroyed, the f a t is melted so t h a t the
soaps can be removed.
ICIonoglycerides
lV[onoglycerides m a y be p r e p a r e d either by the ester-
ification of f a t t y acids with glycerol or the glycerolysis
of triglycerides. Glycerolysis is generally used for the
p r e p a r a t i o n of food grade emulsifiers.
CH2OH CH2OCOR CH2OCOR CH2OCOR
CHOH § C H O C O R __~ C H O H + CHOCOR
I I --I I
CH20H CH2OCOR CH2OH CH2OH
glycerol tri- mono- diglyceride
Both alcoholysis and interesterification occur. At
NOVEMBER, 1960 BRAUN: I N T E R E S T E R I F I C A T I O N OF E D I B L E
equilibrium there is an essentially r a n d o m m i x t u r e of
glycerol, mono-, di-, and triglycerides. The reaction
cannot be driven to completion by adding an excess
of glycerol, because of its limited solubility. I t ranges
f r o m 22.5% at 200~ to 40% at 250~ (28). Most
commercial monoglyceride mixtures are p r e p a r e d at
about 200~ with sodium hydroxide as catalyst and
contain 40 to 45% a l p h a monoglycerides plus about
4% beta monoglycerides. Mutual solvents have been
proposed to increase the monoglyceride content (29),
but most concentrates are made by molecularly dis-
tilling mono- and diglyeeride mixtures. The distilled
products have a monoglyeeride content of 90% or
more.
Phosphoric acid has been recommended for destroy-
ing the alkaline catalyst (30). The reaction should be
halted before a n y cooling occurs, otherwise glycerol
will d r o p out of solution and reduce the yield of
monoglyeerides.
Acidolysis plus Interesterification
F a t s like coconut oil, which contain low molecular
weight acids, m a y be modified by displacing the short
chain acids with longer chain acids (31). The reac-
tion can be carried out u n d e r reduced pressure in a
vessel equipped with a fractionating column through
which the lower molecular weight acids are continu-
ously removed as they are freed (32). The product
has a r a n d o m distribution of the r e m a i n i n g acids. The
usual high-temperature interesterification catalysts are
effective. A similar result can be obtained by using
monoesters instead of the free acids (32,33).
Interesterifieation and allied ester reactions are also
Dietary Fat and Heart Disease
DOROTHY M. RATHMANN, George M. Moffett Research Laboratories, Corn Products Company, Argo, Illinois
[TH[N TIlE PAST FEW Yb'ARS all of us in the fats
W and oils i n d u s t r y have become acutely aware
of the research indicating a relationship be-
tween heart disease and dietary fats. Besides the
potential effects on our markets, these p r o g r a m s arc
of vital concern in ternls of the health of the nation,
our families, and ourselves.
This is a controversial tel)it and an a(qive area of
research. There are i m p o r t a n t differe,wes between
experimental animals and h m n a n beings in the ways
iu which blood vessels react to the (tietary factors
presumed to lead to atheroselerosis and heart disease,
Therefore available data are inconclusive to the ex-
tent that they provide at least some degree of s u p p c r t
for each of several points of view.
My purposes in the present review are to outline the
nature of the evidence now available, to indicate the
limitations in the data, and to discuss the interpreta-
tions and hypotheses on which c u r r e n t clinical re-
search is based.
F i r s t of all, there is no doubt that fats are excellent
foods. They are highly concentrated sources of energy
and contribute much to the enjoyment we get out of
our meals. As a m a t t e r of fact a certain amount of fat
is necessary to provide the essential f a t t y acids which
601
used quite extensively in the m a n u f a c t u r e of paints
and plasticizers. These applications were reviewed by
F o r m o in the 1954 A.O.C.S. Short Course (34).
RE~'ERENCES
1. Friedel, C., and Crafts, J. 1~., Annalen 183, 207 ( 1 8 6 5 ) .
2. Norris, F. A., and Mattil, K. F., Oil and Soap ~8, 289 (1946).
3. Desnuelle, P., and Naudet, M., Bull. see. chim. 18, 90 ( 1 9 4 6 ) .
4. Bailey, A. E., " I n d u s t r i a l Oil and Fat Products," 2nd e d . Inter-
science Publishers Inc., New York ( 1 9 5 1 ) . p, 834.
5. Normann, W., Chem. Umschau 80, 250 (1923).
6. Normann, W., German P a t e n t 417,215 (1925).
7. Van Loon, Chr., British P a t e n t 249,916 (1926), Dutch P a t e n t
16,703 (1927), U. S. Pat. 1,873,513 (1932).
8. Griin, Ad., Ztschr. angew, chem. 88, 827 (1925).
9. Griln, Ad., "Chemic und Technolog-ie der Fette," Julius Springer,
Vienna (1936), Vol. 1, p. 285.
10. Gooding, C. M., U. S. Patent 2,309,949 (1943).
11. BSmer, A., Limprich, g., Kronig, R., and Kuhhnann, J., Z. Unter-
such. Nahr. Genussm. ~6, 559 (1913).
12. Hilditeh, T. P., and StMnsby, Xg. J.. Bioehem. J. 29, 99 ( 1 9 3 5 ) .
13. Quimby, O. T., Wille, R.. L., and Lutton, E. S., J. Am. Oil Chem.
Soc. 30, 186 ( 1 9 5 3 ) .
14. Bailey, A. E., " I n d u s t r i a l Oil and Fat Products," Interscience
Publishers Inc., New York (1945). pp. 301, 681.
15. Bailey, A. E., Proceedings of the Fifth Research Conference,
American Meat Institute (1953), p. 11.
16. Eckey, E. W., British Patent 574,807 (1946), U. S. Patent
2,442,531-2, 2,442,536-7 (1948).
17. Eckey, E. W., Ind. and Eng. Chem. 40, 1183 (1948).
18. Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, Interscience Publishers,
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our bodies are unable to synthesize and, in addition,
to (tarry into our tissues the fat-soluble vitamins which
are so imporlarlt to health. Lipid materials, of which
fats are one class, are importarlt constituents of all
living (.'ells and life as we know it would be impossible
without these f a t t y materials. Thus, there is no doubt
that fats are excellent foods.
Ihlwew~r, recent clinical studies have clearly shown
that there arc i m p o r t a n t differences in the way in
which our bodies metabolize fats f r o m different sources
and that these differences m a y be associated with the
development of coronary heart disease.
Oue of the bits of evidence linking heart disease with
dietary fats has come fronl population and epidemi-
clerical studies. Statistics are being amassed in all
p a r t s of the world on local incidences of various dis-
eases, the foods people eat, and the conditions u n d e r
which they live. There are v e r y serious limitations to
the accuracy of such data and consequently they m u s t
be i n t e r p r e t e d with caution. F o r example, medical rec-
ords from the United States are not directly compar-
able to those from I n d i a where few people ever see a
doctor. In addition, reliable d i e t a r y histories are dif-
ficult to obtain so the information available generally
relates to the quantities of food available in the mar-