EE460 Paper 5004640925 Roongthip Srisethkul

Faculty of Economics, Thammasat University

Is Manufacturing a
Sustainable Growth Driver
of Thailand?

Submitted to
Assoc. Prof. BHANUPONG NIDHIPRABHA

5004640925 ROONGTHIP SRISETHKUL
Semester2, Academic Year 2009
Is Manufacturing a Sustainable Growth Driver of Thailand?

Table of Contents
Abstract ................................................................................................................................................... 2
1. Thailand Industrialization in the last twenty years (1990 to present) ................................................ 2
2. Sustainable Development concept ..................................................................................................... 8
2.1 Necessity for sustainability ........................................................................................................... 9
2.2 Headline Indicator of Sustainable Development ........................................................................ 10
3. Thailand Manufacturing sector and sustainable development: case study of Map Ta Phut Industrial
Estate .................................................................................................................................................... 10
Background ....................................................................................................................................... 10
3.1 Economically: Maintaining high and stable levels of economic growth ..................................... 11
3.2 Environmentally: Reducing environmental problems and Effective protection of environment
.......................................................................................................................................................... 13
Air Pollution .................................................................................................................................. 13
Pollution from Illegal Disposal of Industrial Waste ....................................................................... 16
Water Resources ........................................................................................................................... 16
Changing Marine and Coastal Ecosystems ................................................................................... 16
3.3 Socially ........................................................................................................................................ 17
Employment .................................................................................................................................. 17
Crime rate ..................................................................................................................................... 17
Household shortage of tap water ................................................................................................. 19
Unbearable of Air pollution .......................................................................................................... 20
Precarious Health of Rayong ......................................................................................................... 21
4. Along the road of Thailand Manufacturing Development: Are we growing sustainably? ............... 21
Concluding Remarks .............................................................................................................................. 22
Bibliography .......................................................................................................................................... 24

1


Abstract
Thailand has no longer been an agricultural country at least for the last two decades. Since
the early 1960s, Thailand’s economic structure has been dramatically changed in accordance with
the first National Development Plan (1961 – 1966), which favored Import Substitution approach of
Industrialization. Magnificent resources have been diverted from agricultural sector to
industrialization process and thus manufacturing sector through infrastructure investment, policies
to promote private investment, and other government promotions. Manufacturing sector has
become the main sector that generates income to Thailand GDP and her economic growth. The
importance of manufacturing sector to Thai economy is obvious and this creates a need to evaluate
the performance of the sector if it has a potential to drive Thai economy continuously in the long
run. In other words, whether or not manufacturing sector is a sustainable growth driver of Thai
economy is questionable. This paper will firstly provide the background and fundamental nature of
Thailand manufacturing sector in the last twenty years. Secondly, the concept of Sustainable
Development will be discussed, with the supporting argument of the need for sustainability in
manufacturing sector. The headline criteria of sustainability will be stated and used to evaluate the
manufacturing sector. With the current environmental issues of Map Ta Phut Industrial Estate, it is
selected to be a case study in this paper.
1. Thailand Industrialization in the last twenty years (1990 to present)
Throughout the last twenty years, figure1.1 and figure 1.2 illustrate that the manufacturing
sector has been produced roughly one‐third of growing GDP of Thai economy each year. Agricultural
sector also has produced growing real values of its products, however at a relatively lower rate. As a
result the Agricultural share of GDP in the last twenty years has been roughly only 10 percent.
GDP at 1988 prices by economic activities,
1990‐2007
8000000
7000000
6000000
million Baht
5000000
Service and others
4000000
Manufacturing
3000000
2000000 Agriculture
1000000
0
1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2001 2003 2005 2007

Figure1.1 GDP at 1988 prices by economic activities, 1990 – 2007, (source: Office

of the National Economic and Social Development Board, and National Statistical
Offi )
2


GDP share of each sector, 1990 ‐ 2008
0.60
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
‐
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
Agri/GDP Manu/GDP
Construction/GDP (Services and others)/GDP

Figure1.2 GDP share of each sector, 1990 ‐ 2008, (source: Office of the National
Economic and Social Development Board, and National Statistical Office)
In terms of the contribution to Thailand’s annual economic growth, in figure1.3, during the
normal years manufacturing sector generates real growth to economy around 3 percents, or one‐
third of annual economic growth.. In other words, one‐third of the country’s economic growth
comes from manufacturing sector. However, during the economic recession in 1997, manufacturing
is also the sector that drove economy down as it generated negative growth of ‐3.86 percent in
1998, causing the fluctuation in output level. Nonetheless, the sector rebounded sharply in the
following year. In 1999 it is manufacturing sector that generated positive growth of 3.44 percent,
driving the economy out of the slump. This additional productions were the result of the increase in
exports since 1997 (Nidhiprabha, 2009) that enables the manufacturing sector e.g. automobile
industry to export more to the world.
Agricutural, Manufacturing, and Services growth contribution
of annual Thailand real economic growth 1990 ‐ 2007
12.00%
10.00%
8.00% Agricultural growth
6.00% share
4.00%
2.00% Services & other
economic activities
0.00%
growth share
‐2.00%
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
Manufacturing
‐4.00% growth share
‐6.00%
‐8.00%
‐10.00%
‐12.00%

Figure1.3 Agricultural, Manufacturing, and Services & other economic activities growth
contribution of annual Thailand real economic growth, 1990 – 2007, excluding 2000 data,
(source: Office of the National Economic and Social Development Board and National
Statistical Office)
3


Import to GDP and Manufacturing to GDP 1991 ‐ 2007
0.75
0.7 39.00%
0.65 37.00%
0.6
0.55 35.00%
Import to
0.5 33.00% GDP
0.45
0.4 31.00%
Manufact
0.35 29.00% ure to
0.3 GDP (RHS)
27.00%
0.25
0.2 25.00%

Figure1.4 Import to GDP and Manufacture to GDP, 1991 – 2007, (source: Bank of Thailand,
Office of the National Economic and Social Development Board and National Statistical Office)
The manufacturing sector is an import dependent sector as figure1.4 shows the correlation
between import and manufacturing products to GDP. Because we need to import machineries,
capital goods, and raw materials in order to produce the manufacturing products, when
manufacturing sector expands, imports increases accordingly as more imported materials are
needed and more capital and machineries are invested since investors expect the economy to
expand. While in 1997 crisis, there was a sharp reduction in domestic consumption of goods and
services. As a result the manufacturing production especially for income sensitive products e.g.
automobile halted. Manufacturing share to GDP dropped in 1997 (in figure1.4) as Demand dropped.
The capacity utilization rate of manufacturing machine shrank. There is no need to build a new
factory or invest new machinery, so Import to GDP ratio dropped mainly because of the reduction in
imports of machineries, capital goods, and materials, and reduction in demand for imported final
goods by public.
The Manufacturing Production Index (MPI) has a positive trend in long run represented by
the green line in figure 1.5. As every shock is followed by a rebound to the long term path, it seems
that the manufacturing sector could continuously keep growing in the long run. This conclusion
should not be raised before looking into the detailed characteristics of the product categories that
make up the whole sector.
4


Figure1.5 Thailand Manufacturing
Production Index (MPI), January 2001 ‐
March 2010, monthly,
(source: Bank of Thailand)

Manufacturing Production Index (MPI) MPI of Domestic Market oriented products
(X<30%)

MPI of Export oriented products MPI of Ultra Export oriented products
(30%<X<60%) (X>60%)
Figure1.6 Manufacturing Production Index of overall sector, domestic market oriented, export oriented, and ultra export
oriented product, Jan 2001 to Mar 2010, monthly (Source: Bank of Thailand) 5


Not only import dependent, the manufacturing sector depends heavily on export as two‐
thirds of total manufacturing production are ‘export‐oriented products’, which include the product
categories that are exported by more than 30% less than 60%, and ‘ultra‐export oriented products’,
of which the product categories are exported by more than 60% of their production. The level of
manufacturing production is then affected by world economic condition and export
competitiveness. Manufacturing sector is import dependent, export dependent, and is affected by
the world economy. It is then highly dependable on external factors that are uncontrollable.
Figure1.6 provides a deeper detail behind the upward trend of the overall MPI. The
Domestic market oriented production is the least fluctuating as it is driven mainly by domestic
consumption, but also grows at slower rate than Ultra‐export oriented production as its production
is limited by domestic market size. The export oriented production comes with more fluctuation as it
depends more on world market demand, which consequently depends on the world business cycle
and foreign income elasticity of demand for Thai export (Nidhiprabha, Macroeconomic Perspective
on Thailand's Post‐Crisis Recovery, 2000). The Ultra export oriented category grows at the fastest
rate. Its production in 2010 is triple of its level in 2001. However as Ultra export oriented category is
highly dependent on the world economic condition. The current US financial crisis badly hit its
production level as shown in the bottom‐right figure in figure1.6. There is a sharp drop in MPI in the
last quarter of 2008 and beginning of 2009. The sharp rebound came afterwards. Figure1.6 is also
evident that the manufacturing sector in each category is resilient. A rebound always follows a slump
in all categories of manufacturing productions. The slump is then just a temporary event. In long run
the manufacturing sector still keeps on growing.
As export is the main factor that drive manufacturing sector. The rate of growth in
manufacturing has a lot to do with the export competitiveness. To be able to compete in the world
competition, the ability to differentiate our products, the bilateral and multilateral trade agreement
with trade partners, the level of market and product diversification are among the keys that we need
to improve. Additionally according to Nidhiprabha(2007), “Foreign direct investment has
transformed Thailand’s Traditional agriculture‐based economy into a modern manufacturing
economy”, the ability to attract the flow of foreign direct investment into manufacturing sector is
crucial as well.
When looking at the economy by economic activities, manufacturing sector is obviously a
crucial sector of Thai economy. Table1.1 shows the Gross Provincial Products (GPP) at current
market prices in 2002 of the top per capita GPP provinces in Central, Eastern, and Northeastern
Regions of Thailand. The highlighted provinces are those that have the greatest number of licensed
manufactories located in. These provinces account for the highest per capita GPP in their region and
also some are among the highest per capita GPP of the country. The highest per capita GPP is from
Rayong province, where eight industrial estates (including Map Ta Phut Industrial Estate), five
industrial districts, and two industrial communities, or 1,720 manufactories in total (Chiangmai
University, 2007) are located in. The manufacturing production in Rayong accounts for more than
one‐third of the Gross Regional Products (GRP) of manufacturing in Eastern region, and also
generates 8 percent of GDP of manufacturing sector (Macroeconomic Analysis Group, 2009). With
the current environmental and social issues in Map Ta Phut, Rayong, Map Ta Phut Industrial Estate is
6


selected as a case study of Thailand manufacturing sector in evaluating the performance of
Thailamanufacturing sector.
GROSS PROVINCIAL PRODUCT AT CURRENT MARKET PRICES BY REGION AND PROVINCES: 2002
Gross Provincial Per capita GPP. Per capita GPP. rankings

Province
Product (GPP.) (Baht)
(Million Baht) Of the Region Of the Country
Bangkok And Vicinities
Samut Sakhon 171,521 369,657 1 2
Samut Prakan 365,731 338,326 2 3
Bangkok 1,653,510 208,856 3 7
Pathum Thani 116,068 192,803 4 8
Nakhon Pathom 88,033 97,060 5 13
Nonthaburi 69,227 82,708 6 15
Central Region
Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya 197,078 268,498 1 4
Saraburi 79,831 148,109 2 9
Lop Buri 56,038 73,540 3 19
Sing Buri 14,849 61,358 4 27
Chai Nat 20,184 54,113 5 32
Ang Thong 14,722 53,534 6 33
Eastern
Rayong 277,896 515,577 1 1
Chon Buri 268,622 263,873 2 5
Chachoengsao 95,299 147,066 3 10
Prachin Buri 51,298 101,379 4 11
Trat 13,628 66,803 5 24
Chanthaburi 22,481 48,554 6 36
Nakhon Nayok 12,696 48,460 7 37
Sa Kaeo 20,057 46,754 8 40
Northeastern Region
Khon Kaen 76,494 42,053 1 46
Nakhon Ratchasima 100,494 37,624 2 48
Loei 18,655 31,247 3 58
Udon Thani 46,477 31,089 4 59
Mukdahan 8,533 28,827 5 62
Ubon Ratchathani 49,057 28,423 6 63
Chaiyaphum 28,493 25,463 8 65
Buri Ram 37,093 24,355 9 66
Roi Et 30,506 24,211 10 67

Table1.1 Gross Provincial Products at current market prices: 2002, top per capita GPP ranking
provinces in Central, Eastern, and Northeastern Region, (source: Office of the National Economic
and Social Development Board)
7


The aforementioned overview of Thailand manufacturing sector reviews a positive long term
growth trend and the resilience of manufacturing sector. However, this is an only one side of a big
picture. Whether or not manufacturing sector could be a long term growth driver that would
actually benefits the country is still questionable. To see whether the manufacturing sector is a
sustainable growth driver of Thai economy, there is a need for the criteria to judge. Next, the
concept of sustainable development will be discussed. Together with the argument for the need of
sustainable manufacturing sector, the criteria to be used will be proposed. With the overall
manufacturing sector data, Map Ta Phut Industrial Estate will be used as a case study to evaluate the
whole sector.
2. Sustainable Development concept
“Sustainable Development delivers basic environmental, social and economic services to all
residents of a community without threatening the viability of the natural, built and social systems
upon which the delivery of these services depends.” ‐ International Council for Environmental
Initiatives (ICLEI), 1994
Proposed by the International Council for Environmental Initiatives (ICLEI), the concept of
Sustainable Development is a pattern of economic development that needs to go together with the
social and environmental development in order to utilize the limited resources to meet human
needs with regard of social cost, and sufficient maintenance of environment so that the human
needs can be met not only in the present, but also for future generations. In order to become
‘sustainable’, the three main dimensions; economic, social, and environment must be mutually
concerned in the sense that the long term development of one dimension could lead to the
improvement of the others two dimensions or at least will not harm or worsen the being of another
dimension. For example, the expansion of economy (Economic Dimension) reduces overall poverty
level (Social Dimension) and also increases people’s concern about environment preservation
(Environmental Dimension).
Economic
Social Environ.

Figure2.1 Illustration of Sustainable Development concept for simplicity, the scope of each
dimension is not necessarily equal.
8


For simplicity the Sustainable Development concept is illustrated in figure2.1. Sustainable
Development is the triangle area where the three dimensions intersect. The scope of each
dimension (represented by the size of the circle) needs not to be perfectly equal. However in
order to be sustainable the three dimensions must be considered altogether.
2.1 Necessity for sustainability
Growing importance of Trade of Thai Economy
Degree of Openness to trade = (X+M)/GDP
Exports/GDP Imports/GDP
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
Figure2.2 Growing Importance of Trade of Thai Economy, 1979 – 2009, (source: Bank of
Thailand)
As the world is moving toward globalization, the markets and trade have very strong
implications socially, environmentally, and economically for both developed and developing
countries. This social and economic recognition could lead to the ethical dilemmas when the topic of
human right violation becomes another factor in determining the trade. There is an increasing
number of issues of whether or not the countries that respect human rights should trade with those
countries that do not respect, or should the countries that abide by international environmental
agreement trade with the countries that violate. The Organization for Economic Co‐Operation and
Development (OECD) members, for example, has included the social and environmental issue when
making economic decision. The globalization then is moving toward the moral dimension together
with economic dimension. Consequently, there is an increasing interest widely in ensuring that the
human rights dimensions; social and economic responsibility, are included in decision‐making and
benefit (Munoz, 2006). As a small economy that depends considerably on international trade,
Thailand could not ignore this global trend either. Figure 2.2 indicates the growing degree of
openness to trade of Thai economy in the last thirty years. The annual volume of trade, which is the
sum of exports and imports, has exceeded Thailand annual GDP since 2000. The need to evaluate
Thailand’s sustainability especially in manufacturing sector becomes evident.
The evaluation of sustainability in dimensions of social and environmental is rather
qualitative. As a result there is no clear critical point that could be used to judge whether the
manufacturing sector has reached the sustainability level or not. The concept of sustainability used
in this research paper is the ongoing process rather than the end goal. In other words, the objective
of sustainable evaluation is to see a direction of Thailand manufacturing sector; is it moving toward
9


sustainable development or not? The judgment of sustainability of manufacturing sector will base on
its historical performance up until now to see if the sector has been being on the path of sustainable
development. Have we fallen out of the path sometimes? If so are we going to get back on the track
again?
2.2 Headline Indicator of Sustainable Development
The headline indicator of Sustainable Development to be used in this research paper is
modified from the headline indicators proposed and implemented by the National government’s
Department of Environment, Transport and Regions of the United Kingdom (UK) in 1999. The
headline indicators are split into three main criteria as follows;
1. Maintaining High and stable levels of economic growth – high and stable growth level of
manufacturing, high and stable GDP per capita of manufacturing sector, high and stable
level of Foreign Investment
2. Reducing environmental problems and Effective protection of environment – emission
of harmful chemical gas, air pollution, water pollution, whole ecosystem, etc.
3. Social progress which recognizes the needs of everyone – success in tackling poverty,
health, crime rate, social well‐being
We will use Map Ta Phut, which is one of main industrial estate of Rayong, as a case study.
Each criteria of sustainability will be applied by firstly looking at each dimension; economic,
environmental, and social respectively, then combining the three dimensions to see if manufacturing
sector has balanced these three or has been biased toward some dimension.
3. Thailand Manufacturing sector and sustainable development: case study of
Map Ta Phut Industrial Estate
Background
Map Ta Phut Industrial Estate is located in municipal area, Rayong province. The industrial
estate started operating in 1982 with initial area of 11,347,200 square meters. Since 1988 it has
received the development aid according to the East‐Coast‐development policy from the government
and has been under the control of Industrial Estate Authority of Thailand (I‐EA‐T). As the main
production base of petrochemical, chemical products, steel and metal, and oil refinery, Map Ta Phut
Industrial Estate area was enlarged to cover 32,000,000 square meters area. This enlargement has
potentially provides agglomerating benefits, increases the efficiency, lowers production and
transportation costs, and consequently enabled Thailand to compete in the global market (Industrial
Estate Authority of Thailand, 2009).
However, this rapidly growing industry and increasing manufacturing cooperation in Map Ta
Phut area have been causing surrounding areas the environmental problems and people in
surrounding community the health problems such as air pollution, shortage of water, etc. Such
problems have accumulated and exposed continuously during the last ten years and the intensity
10


tends to rise over time. The latest problem has appeared since 2007 when the non‐governmental
organization with people in surrounding community requested for the verdict of declaring Map Ta
Phut Industrial Estate the ‘Pollution Control zone’ from the administrative court. On 29th September
2009, the administrative court released the verdict of holding 76 industrial projects to invest in Map
Ta Phut and surrounding area with the total investment of 2.9 hundred thousand million baht. Then
on 2nd December 2009, 11 projects were allowed to continue while the rest of 65 projects were still
on hold, delaying the investment of 2.3 hundred thousand million baht into the region. The reasons
why this enormous investment is very essential to the economy are that most of these on hold
project are petrochemical industry, steel industry, industrial estate, port, power factory and so on,
which all have high forward and backward linkages (Macroeconomic Analysis Group, 2009).
3.1 Economically: Maintaining high and stable levels of economic growth
For overall manufacturing sector, the sub criteria of high and stable of manufacturing share
of GDP is met as shown in figure1.2. Throughout the last twenty years, the manufacturing share of
GDP has been roughly stable with gradual increasing share from 28.62 percent in 1990 to 34.52
percent in 2007. The manufacturing growth share of GDP growth in figure1.3 reflects the relatively
stable high growth share in normal years, but in recession year it is then fluctuating.
From Rayong case study, figure3.1 shows that Rayong GPP per capita is enormously greater
than the Sub‐Central, Eastern, Western, and Northern GRP, and the country GDP per capita. Rayong
GPP per capita is six times higher than Thailand GDP per capita with an increasing trend as shown in
table3.1. The growth rate of Rayong GPP is high but its stability is questionable.
The levels of net flow of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) into Thai economy in various
sectors in 1996 – 2005 are shown in figure3.2. The level of net flow of FDI into Thailand
manufacturing sector is not stable as volatility is the nature of FDI. The volatile characteristic of FDI
could cause a virulent impact on stability of economy at macro level as evidenced by the 1997
currency crisis (Nidhiprabha, Thailand and New Regionalism, 2007). Additionally the unstable FDI
could impede the consistency development of manufacturing sector as well.
450,000
400,000
350,000
Rayong GPP per capita
300,000
Sub‐Central GRP per capita
250,000
Baht
Eastern GRP per capita
200,000
Western GRP per capita
150,000
Northern GRP per capita
100,000 GDP per capita
50,000
‐
2005 2006 2007

Figure 3.1 Rayong GPP per capita, GRP per capita, and GDP per capita, 2005 – 2007, (source:
Office of the National Economic and Social Development Board, Office of the Prime Minister) 11


Year GPP of Rayong (Million Baht) GPP growth of Rayong

1996 112,408 -
1997 133,547 18.81%
1998 155,799 16.66%
1999 219,105 40.63%
2000 276,261 26.09%
2001 - -
2002 515,577 -
2003 - -
2004 - -
2005 451,884 -
2006 536,897 18.81%
2007 604,896 12.67%
Table3.1 Gross Provincial Product of Rayong (million Baht) and GPP growth of Rayong,
1996 – 2007, (source: Office of the National Economic and Social Development Board)
Net Flow of Foreign Direct Investment to GDP in various
sectors, 1996 ‐ 2005
2.50%
2.00%
Industry
1.50%
percent to GDP
Financial institutions
1.00% Trade
Agriculture
0.50% Services
Real estate
0.00%
(1996)
(1997)
(1998)
(1999)
(2000)
(2001)
(2002)
(2003)
(2004)
(2005)
(2006)
(2007)
(2008)
‐0.50%

Figure3.2 Net Flow of Foreign Direct Investment to GDP classified by sector, 1996 – 2005, (source: Bank

of Thailand)
Note: 1. The figures cover investment in non‐bank sector
2. Direct Investment = Equity Investment plus loans
3. From April 2004 onwards inputs for private financial flow data are obtained through data sets
electronically
4. From April 2004 onwards inputs for private financial flow data are obtained through data sets
12


3.2 Environmentally: Reducing environmental problems and Effective protection of
environment
Air Pollution
According to the research report of Chiangmai University (2007), the highly condensed of
industries in Rayong can collectively release Nitrogen Oxides(NoX) and Sulfer Dioxide to the air by
more than the capacity of the air to absorp, causing the air pollution.
Thailand National Annual report of pollution in 2006 revealed the detection of more than 40
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) in Map Ta Phut area. Twenty one of these can cause cancer. The
empirical data in 2006 ‐ 2009 from Pollution Control Department revealed the three VOCs that can
cause cancer; 1,3 Butadiene, 1,2‐Dichloroethane, and Benzene, are emitted more than the standard
values as shown in figure3.3, figure3.4, and figure3.5.
• 1,3 Butadiene (Standard Value = 0.33 microgram/cubicmetre)

1,3 Butadiene is a colorless gas with a mild aromatic or gasoline‐like odor. It is widely used in
styrene‐butadiene polymers, acrylonitrile‐butadiene‐styrene resins, and other compounds (Brown J.
A., 2009). There is a record that the

Synthetic rubber workers in the past had increased incidence of leukemia attributed to chronic
and heavy exposure to 1,3‐butadiene. Acutely, it is not very toxic. [Lewis R. "Overview of the Rubber
Industry and Tire Manufacturing." in Occupational Medicine STAR 14(4): 710, 1999.] In reproductive
studies of mice, 1,3‐butadiene causes testicular damage. Some animal studies found birth defects
after high doses during early pregnancy. [Frazier, p. 277‐8] Causes CNS depression at high
concentrations; May have effects on the bone marrow… in Human data: Narcosis did not occur in
volunteers exposed to 8,000 ppm for 8 hours [Carpenter et al. 1944]. (Brown J. A., 2009)

From figure 3.3, 4 out of 6 stations (including Map Ta Phut Health Office and Muang Mai
Map Ta Phut Health Office) detected the excess emission of 1,3 Butadiene as high as 6,000 ppm in
2006 and 2008. The emission detected in three stations has a declining trend and go below the
standard value again in 2008. In the beginning of 2009, there are only two stations left that still
violate the standard value.

13


Annual Average Emission of 1,3 Butadiene in Map Ta Phut, Rayong
0.70
Standard Value
0.60 (Microgram/cubicmetre)
Microgram/cubic metre
Map Ta Phut Health Office,
0.50 Mueang District
0.40 Mabchalut temple
0.30
Wat Nong Faeb School
0.20
Muang Mai Map Ta Phut
0.10 Health Office
0.00 Baan Plong Community
Sept Nov Jan Mar May Jul Sept Nov Jan Mar May Jul Sept Nov Jan
06 ‐ 06 ‐ 07 ‐ 07 ‐ 07 ‐ 07 ‐ 07 ‐ 07 ‐ 08 ‐ 08 ‐ 08 ‐ 08 ‐ 08 ‐ 08 ‐ 09 ‐
Aug Oct Dec Feb Apr Jun Aug Oct Dec Feb Apr Jun Aug Oct Dec Baan Tak Won Health Office
07 07 07 08 08 08 08 08 08 09 09 09 09 09 09

Figure3.3 Annual Average Emission of 1,3 Butadiene in Map Ta Phut, Rayong, September 2006 – December 2009,
(source: Pollution Control Department, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment)
• 1,2‐Dichloroethane (Standard Value = 0.4 microgram/cubicmetre)
1,2‐Dichloroethane is a colorless viscous liquid, with characteristic odor, turns dark on
exposure to air, moisture and light. The vapor is heavier than air and may travel along the ground;
distant ignition possible. The substance can be absorbed into the body by inhalation of its vapor,
through the skin and by ingestion and a harmful contamination of the air can be reached very
quickly on evaporation of this substance at 20 Celsius degree. The effects of short‐term exposure to
the vapor are eyes irritation, skin tract, and respiratory tract. The vapor hay cause lung edema or
cause effects on the central nervous system, kidneys, and liver, resulting in impaired functions. If a
human gets exposed to the vapor in long‐term, the repeated contact with skin may cause dermatitis
(NIOSH, 2010).
Figure3.4 revealed incredibly huge excess emission of 1,2‐Dichloroethane in the air
surrounding Muang Mai Map Ta Phut health office area in 2006 – 2009. The average annual
emission reached its peak at 24 microgram/cubic meters, sixty times higher than the safety standard
value in 2006. Though there is a declining sign, the current average emission is four times greater
than standard. The average emission of 1,2‐Dichloroethane in Map Ta Phut health office also four
times exceeds the standard.
14


Annual Average Emission of 1,2‐Dichloroethane in
Map Ta Phut, Rayong
24.00
22.00 Standard Value
20.00 (Microgram/cubicmetre)
18.00 Map Ta Phut Health
Office, Mueang District
16.00
Mabchalut temple
14.00
12.00
10.00
8.00 Muang Mai Map Ta Phut
6.00 Health Office
2.00
0.00 Baan Tak Won Health
Office
Figure3.4 Annual Average Emission of 1,2‐Dichloroethane in Map Ta Phut, Rayong, September 2006 – December
2009, (source: Pollution Control Department, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment)

• Benzene (Standard Value = 1.7 microgram/cubicmetre)
Benzene is a colorless to light‐yellow liquid with an aromatic odor. Today it is used mainly in
closed processes to synthesize organic chemicals. As an organic solvent, benzene can induce narcosis
and anesthesia acutely. After chronic exposure, it can cause aplastic anemia and leukemia. [ACGIH]
Significant benzene exposure increases the risk of leukemia during the 10 years following exposure.
In other human data: It has been stated that 3,000 ppm is endurable for 0.5 to 1 hour [Flury 1928]. It
has also been stated that exposure at 19,000 to 20,000 ppm for 5 to 10 minutes is fatal; exposure at
7,500 ppm for 30 minutes is dangerous; exposure at 1,500 ppm for 60 minutes induces serious
symptoms (Brown J. A., 2009)
With safety standard of 1.7 microgram/cubicmetre, most of stations have been finding the
excess level of emission most of the time. In 2009, Muang Mai Map Ta Phut health office and Map
TA Phut Health Office are the stations that find the highest excess emission by 3.9 and 3.1
microgram/cubicmetre respectively, doubling the safety standard value. This is one of the sound
evidence showing that Map Ta Phut Industrial Estate could not support the next phrase of
petrochemical projects that are on hold by the court on 29th September 2009 since the emission of
Benzene of initial petrochemical industries has already violated the safety level.
15


Annual Average Emission of Benzene in
Map Ta Phut, Rayong
5.0
4.5 Standard Value
(Microgram/cubicmetre)
4.0
3.5 Map Ta Phut Health
Office, Mueang District
3.0
Mabchalut temple
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0 Muang Mai Map Ta Phut
0.5 Health Office
Sept Nov Jan Mar May Jul Sept Nov Jan Mar May Jul Sept Nov Jan
06 ‐ 06 ‐ 07 ‐ 07 ‐ 07 ‐ 07 ‐ 07 ‐ 07 ‐ 08 ‐ 08 ‐ 08 ‐ 08 ‐ 08 ‐ 08 ‐ 09 ‐
Aug Oct Dec Feb Apr Jun Aug Oct Dec Feb Apr Jun Aug Oct Dec Baan Tak Won Health
07 07 07 08 08 08 08 08 08 09 09 09 09 09 09 Office

Figure3.5 Annual Average Emission of Benzene in Map Ta Phut, Rayong, September 2006 – December 2009,
(source: Pollution Control Department, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment)
Pollution from Illegal Disposal of Industrial Waste
Even during the hot issue of Map Ta Phut environmental problem since 2006, the illegal
disposal of industrial waste still continues. Within four years there are at least seven case of illegal
disposal detected in surrounding communities and outside municipal areas. For example, the case of
unknown chemical waste disposal that has similar odor to thinner in Nikom Pattana sub district the
chemical waste causes skin irritation and spread the filthy smell throughout the community.
(Pollution Control Department, การดําเนินการแก้ ไขปั ญหามลพิษในพื ้นที่มาบตาพุด, 2010).
Water Resources
In 2009, Pollution Control Department detected more than 240,000 MPN per 100 cc of
coliform and fecal‐coliform bacteria in public canal where the household and industrial used water
are disposed into. High level of Total Dissolved Solid (TDS) substance is found in canals where
industrial used water is poured in. However the level of TDS is still below the standard value. No
significant harm of heavy metal or TDS contamination is found in surface water but in ground water.
There is heavy metal contamination e.g. lead manganese, arsenic, and selenium in the ground water
found in 2009. All the sea water quality detecting stations nearby the end of canals find the over
limit of phosphate contamination of 769 – 4,031 milligram per liter (Chiangmai University, 2007).
However, still there is no clear sign of severe harm that’s sufficient to ruin water resource beyond
replenishment
Changing Marine and Coastal Ecosystems
The rapid expansion of industrial estate area on land and into the sea in Eastern coasts
especially in Rayong leads to coastal erosion in surrounding coasts. In 2005, Department of Mineral
Resources indicated Rayong as a red zone has a risk of severe coastal erosion. Rayong has already
16


lost the area of 422 rai from coastal erosion and 3,188 rai of coastal aqua culturing area. Also the sea
water quality has long been contaminated by the disposal of used water of household and
expanding industries into the canals (Chiangmai University, 2007).
3.3 Socially
Employment
E mployme nt by
E c onomic 1999 2000 2001 2002
Ac tivitie s (% )
Agriculture 48.4 48.7 46.6 46.2

Manufacturing 18.4 19.1 19.5 21.1
Services 33.2 32.2 33.9 32.7
Table3.2 Percentage of total Employment in each economic activities, 1999
– 2002, (source: National Statistical Office)
With GDP share of more than 30 percent for manufacturing sector (figure1.2), it generates
employment roughly only 20 percent as shown in table3.2. In terms of employment, the sector does
not generate as much employment as service and agricultural sector because manufacturing sector
is moving toward capital intensive production, rather than labor intensive.
Crime rate
As the new investment keeps flowing into new projects in Rayong Industrial Estate, it
generates employment and induces a flow of immigrants into the province. As shown in figure3.6
the number of in‐migrants into Rayong municipal area exceeds the number of out‐migrants in 2000
– 2003 resulting in more condensed population in municipal area. The more crowded population
however does not have clear relationship with increasing number of crimes in figure3.6. In other
words the increase in population does not lead to huge increase in number of crimes. Table3.3
shows the problems of poor households in 4 Eastern provinces. For Rayong, piped water drinking
and supply is the main problem rather than crime. Lack of money for education is the second, then
followed by crime problem
17


In-migrants, Out-migrants, and Population Density in
Municipal area, Rayong
12,000 800
700
10,000 In‐migrants
600
8,000
500 Out‐migrants
6,000 400
300 Population
4,000 Density (per
200 sq.km.) (RHS)
2,000
100
0 0
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003

Figure3.6 In‐migrants, out‐migrants, and population density in

municipal area, Rayong (source: Department of Local Administration,
Ministry of Interior)

Cases known in Rayong province, 1994 ‐ 2003
800
700
600
500 Violent crime

Number of cases
400
Offences against life
300 and body, safety of
persons, morality
200 Offences against
property
100
0
1994 1996 1998 2000 2002
Figure3.7 Cases known in Rayong province, 1994 – 2003, (source: Rayong Provincial
Statistical Office)
18


NUMBER AND PERCENTAGE OF HOUSEHOLDS IN POOR COMMUNITIES WHICH RESPONSE THE IMPORTANCE PROBLEMS IN
COMMUNE BY TYPE OF PROBLEMS, CENTRAL REGION (EXCLUDING BANGKOK) AND PROVINCES: 2006
Central and Provinces

Households and type of
Total Chachoengsao Chon Buri Rayong Sara Buri
problems
Households Percent Households Percent Households Percent Households Percent Households Percent
Households 30,247 4,122 6,107 13,584 6,434
Type of problems
To chase away 1,504 5.0 210 5.1 741 12.1 169 1.2 384 6.0
The dwelling degenerate 4,560 15.1 405 9.8 1,843 30.2 889 6.5 1,423 22.1
High rental on land and house 3,589 11.9 261 6.3 894 14.6 1,157 8.5 1,277 19.9
Census registration to be absen 3,104 10.3 311 7.5 748 12.2 738 5.4 1,307 20.3
the welfare
Electric 3,451 11.4 460 11.2 371 6.1 1,652 12.2 968 15.0
Piped water drinking and 7,339 24.3 728 17.7 1,534 25.1 4,095 30.2 982 15.3
supply
Drain away water 4,299 14.2 601 14.6 1,115 18.3 1,761 13.0 822 12.8
Manage of garbage 3,120 10.3 150 3.6 1,102 18.0 1,571 11.6 297 4.6
Crime 4,661 15.4 904 21.9 1,279 20.9 2,139 15.7 339 5.3
Drug 5,584 18.5 667 16.2 2,680 43.9 1,582 11.6 655 10.2
Aids 991 3.3 16 0.4 411 6.7 429 3.2 135 2.1
Lack of money for education 6,189 20.5 303 7.4 1,315 21.5 2,355 17.3 2,216 34.4
In need of child care 1,687 5.6 12 0.3 430 7.0 462 3.4 783 12.2

Table3.3 the characteristics of population and social problems in poor communities in 4 provinces of Central
Region, 2006, (source: National Statistical Office, Ministry of Information and Communication Technology)
Household shortage of tap water
Household shortage of tap water has long been a problem of Rayong municipal residents as
more and more of water capital, especially surface water, are used in the expanding several
industrial estates around municipal area. A severe sign of shortage became clear in March 2003
when there was a competing strive for water supply between farmers and industries. Though there
have been a number of government projects aiming at increasing the supply of surface water capital
to meet the skyrocketing demand of water, it could only reduce the amount of shortage with if there
are no such projects. Three hundred seventy‐four projects are proposed to enlarge the surface
water storage capacity by 1,534 million cubic meters in 2007 – 2010. The other two hundred and ten
projects in 2011 – 2015 are to add additional of 1.848 million cubic meters. Given the same rate of
investment growth that flows into industrial projects in the future as in 2007, the increasing supply
of surface water still could not meet the faster increasing demand. It is estimated that the shortage
however would still exist and might be even more acute (Chiangmai University, 2007).
19


Unbearable of Air pollution
For industrial development objective, the planned residential area in Rayong city plan was
changed into industrial development area. Buffer zone between residential community and
manufactories was transformed into an oil refinery. Without buffer zone, there is no absorption area
of pollution from industries to community. It was eventually too hard to bear for the students in
Maptaphut Pittaya School as more than one hundred students get ill as a result of air pollution from
manufactories and oil refinery. The school then had to move out of the area in 1997 (Weekly‐
Manager, 2009). This could be the evidence that the pollution problem in Rayong has long been
accumulated at least for twenty years.
Srisuwan Chanya, chairman of Stop Global Warming Association, and Environmental
Committee member of Lawyers Council of Thailand, suggested that the natural wind direction in
Rayong plays a role in magnifying the adverse effect of air pollution in Rayong. Geographically the
wind flows from the sea to land, from the industrial area in the south to the residential community
in the north, thus bringing the VOCs and industrial dusts to the community (Chanya, 2009). The
empirical data in figure3.8 supports his argument. The dark green area represents the area where
the residents have the least level of Benzene contamination in urinal test, while the red is the area
with highest Benzene contamination in the residents’ urine. Most of the red zones are in the North
of the Industrial Estates.

Figure3.8 the Voronoi map illustrating the level of benzene contamination in urinal test of
population in various areas in Rayong (source: Faculty of Law, Chulalongkorn University)

20


Precarious Health of Rayong
Number of patients per 1000 population and Total patients in Eastern region, by province in 2008
Number of patients per
Rayong Chonburi Chachoengsao Pra Cheen Buri Sa Kaew Chantaburi Trat
1000 population
Neoplasm and Cancer 16.80 10.13 ‐ ‐ ‐ 16.37 15.13

Respiratory system 695.82 451.79 603.55 443.13 315.14 495.37 577.90
Neuropathy 48.36 30.72 45.71 36.61 28.13 28.13 53.83
Total patients 2866.96 1794.97 2528.02 1982.12 1263.93 1263.93 2776.08

Table3.3 Number of patients per 1000 population and Total patients in Eastern region, by province in 2008
(source: National Statistical Office)

The listed three diseases in table3.3; neoplasm and cancer, respiratory disease, and
neuropathy, are the possible diseases a person could have higher risk to get if he or she gets
exposed to hazardous chemical gases for a long time, ceteris paribus. In 2008 Rayong ranks number
1 of having highest total patients per 1000 population in Eastern Region. It is also among the top
three provinces that have highest number of the patients of the three diseases. With remarkably
high number of patients with respiratory disease of 695.82 per 1000 population, nearly seventy
percent of Rayong residents have problem with respiratory illness. This number coincides with the
evidence of long term over limit emission of Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) from industrial
factories in the atmosphere. Especially in Map Ta Phut district, the Ministry of Public Health of
Thailand indicates that the number of patients with respiratory disease and Cellulitis patients in Map
Ta Phut district increases by 88 and 57 percent respectively (Matichon, 2007).
Cancer is another disease that is claimed to be another adverse effect of the expanding
industrial projects in Rayong. During 2001 – 2003, the National Cancer Institute revealed that
Rayong is one of the provinces that the residents get cancer the most, especially lung cancer. The
smoking behavior of Rayong residents cannot be claimed as a main cause of lung cancer as the
percentage of Rayong people who smoke is below the country average.
4. Along the road of Thailand Manufacturing Development: Are we growing
sustainably?
The aforementioned three pillars of sustainable concepts; economic, environmental, and
social, are interrelated. The summary of evaluation of Thailand manufacturing sector in each
dimension is presented in table3.4. The manufacturing sector has been achieving its high and stable
economic growth, historical data and the nature of manufacturing structure predicts a good future
of manufacturing sector in the long run. The economic dimension of manufacturing sector has been
doing well. Environmentally, there exist environmental problems. The marine and coastal ecosystem
is changing as a result of the long term environmental pollution. The over limit emission of
hazardous Volatile Organic Compounds to the atmosphere has been detected for more than two
years and still keep occurring, reflecting the ignorance of the firms, government, and other relating
sectors. Even though there are a number of regulations and articles in the constitution that clearly
states about the protection of environment and the right to participate and human right of the
affected community, they are barely used and practically ineffective. The case of Article 67 of 2007
Constitution can be a good example of the ignorance of environment and social dimensions of the
21


government. Illegal hazardous industrial waste disposal are continuously found, reflecting the
ineffectiveness of enforcing the regulations and the ignorance of firms. However this might be a
good sign that the public are becoming more active in monitoring the environment. Historical data
does not show that there is a permanent serious concern of environment. For social dimension, the
emission of pollution has long eradicated people’s health. The shortage of water supply of
households as a result of a continually increasing demand for water of industries has never been
eliminated. Human rights according to Article 57 in 2007Constitution clearly states the right of a
person to the information and reason of the government about any projects that might harm the
environment, health, or the interest of community, and the government must listen to them before
approving or implementing such projects. This is practically ignored. The community does not
actually have such rights. The economic dimension seems to be the only dimension that meets the
criteria of sustainability and gains most of interest by the sectors that benefit from it. Obviously,
using the aforementioned criteria, we conclude that up until now Thailand manufacturing sector has
not been growing sustainably. There is no clear sign that we are really moving toward sustainability
in the long term but toward economically biased growth. Though Map Ta Phut has recently gained
the attention from the public and there are a number of new committee and projects aiming at
solving the social and environmental problems in Map Ta Phut, it is uncertain whether or not this is
simply a temporary policy that comes and goes like in the past. Consequently, we need to take time
to see if such efforts really aim to eliminate the root of the problems. If so, then this could be said
that at least Thailand manufacturing sector is one step closer to the path of sustainable growth.
Economic Environmental Social

• high and stable GDP • environmental • unsolved shortage of
share problems have existed water problems
• high but unstable GDP • no evidence of • remarkable number of
growth share effective protection of chronic health
• unstable level of FDI environment problems
• etc. • ecosystem is • poor living
worsening environment
Table3.4 evaluation of manufacturing sector in terms of economic, environmental, and social aspects

Concluding Remarks
Sustainable development concept is not only important to manufacturing sector in the sense
that it implicitly goes together with globalization trend, it is also the way that enables manufacturing
sector to grow together with the betterment of country in all aspects. The high and stable growth
does not necessarily come with the cost of impaired environmental and social suffering as Thailand
manufacturing sector recently experiences. When Economic growth of the country is the only
22


utmost objective of the government, with sole profit‐oriented investors and shareholders, the
Economic dimension seems to be the only dimension that gains most of interest by the people who
benefits from the Map Ta Phut Industrial Estate. The lack of effective enforcement of law and
regulation, transparency and accountability of government and firms make it impossible to
effectively control the external cost of manufacturing sector on environment and society. According
to Lucio Munoz (2006), if corporations operate in an environment where nonmarket pressures (e.g.,
effective laws and regulations) or market pressures are weak or ineffective, such as in the case of
developing countries, the corporations will tend to display more unsustainable development
patterns. The World Development Report (WDR, 2003) indicates that to promote growth that is
socially and environmentally responsible, we need to create efficient institutions supported by a
process based on equity and inclusion. Without economic incentive or strict regulation, the firms
have no incentive to concern the social costs but only their private costs. In order to survive in the
world competition, sustainable development becomes more and more important for manufacturing
sector. To find the way for sustainable developing of Thailand manufacturing sector, the root of
problems needs to be eliminated directly. What we actually need is the real action of law,
transparency of government and private sector, and real power of people to participate and monitor
the actions of firms and government. Without sustainable development, the manufacturing sector
would generate only minimal real value added to the society after the incurred cost of environment
and society are taken into account.

23


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Figure1.1 GDP at 1988 prices by economic activities, 1990 – 2007, (source: Office

Gross Provincial Per capita GPP. Per capita GPP. rankings

Year GPP of Rayong (Million Baht) GPP growth of Rayong

Figure3.2 Net Flow of Foreign Direct Investment to GDP classified by sector, 1996 – 2005, (source: Bank

Agriculture 48.4 48.7 46.6 46.2

Figure3.6 In‐migrants, out‐migrants, and population density in

500 Violent crime

Central and Provinces

Neoplasm and Cancer 16.80 10.13 ‐ ‐ ‐ 16.37 15.13

Economic Environmental Social

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