BRACED AND STRUTTED EXCAVATIONS

SYMBOLS bracing for excavations is presented herein.

Figure 1 shows two common systems for installing the strutted

Notation Dimensional Analysis bracing. In one system a continuous line of sheet 'piling' is driven in
advance of the excavation. As excavation proceeds, horizontal beams
c = cohesion M L-1 T-2 known as 'wales' are installed against and parallel with the sheet piling.
F = factor of safety - At right angles to and structurally supporting the wales in the horizontal
H = height or depth of excavation L planes are installed, across the excavation, horizontal beams known as
q = surface surcharge load per unit area M L-1 T-2 'struts'. Where the excavation is large, the struts (sometimes known as
m = coefficient - 'rakers') slope gently into the excavation. In the second system shown in
Nb = stability coefficient related to basal failure - Figure 1 vertical members known as 'soldier beams' or piles are driven at
γ = unit weight of soil M L-2 T-2 predetermined intervals along the edge of the proposed excavation. As
excavation proceeds planks (generally of wood) called 'lagging' are
Subscripts where not given above immediately inserted between the soldier beams and the retained soil. At
intervals of depth wales are placed horizontally across several soldier
b = base of excavation beams and then strutted as previously described.
u = undrained

Figure 1. Installation of bracing (a) using sheet piling; (b)

soldier beams and lagging.

Figure 2. Common types of bracing.

INTRODUCTION
Gravity retaining walls are generally permanent structures. In
many cases only temporary soil retention is required as for example
around excavations for buildings, subways or pipelines. Eventually the
excavation is either backfilled or filled with a structure which permanently
retains the surrounding soil. If the temporary excavation is greater than
about 1.3 metres most building codes require either relatively flattish side
slopes to the excavation or soil retention by a system of bracing. The
bracing may be tied back, anchored or strutted. The design of strutted
There are, of course, many variations of these two basic
methods of strutted bracing systems, depending on the size of the
excavation and the preferences of the construction contractor. Some
typical details are shown in Figure 2. There are also other methods, some
already mentioned such as tieback bracing with anchors driven through
the walls into the earth behind the wall. This method, with the tiebacks
prestressed as construction proceeds, is increasing in popularity since the
excavation is kept free of obstacles.

Braced and Strutted Excavations -- GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING-1997 -- by G.P. Raymond© 185

DESIGN LOADS - EARTH PRESSURES
The distribution of pressures against the walls of strutted
excavations cannot be accurately predicted from theory. Field
measurements show that the actual pressure distribution varies from
section to section depending on many construction variables. For a safe
excavation no single strut may be over-loaded, thus design is based on an
envelope of probable distributions, determined from field experience.
Because of this, design is based on the two main types of soil behaviour,
cohesionless and cohesive.
diagram shown in Figure 3(c) is normally used for design. The variation
in the value of maximum pressure level, ranging from 0.2 γH to 0.4 γH,
is dependent on the character of the clay, the degree of jointing or
fissuring, and the reduction in strength of the clay with time. The choice
of pressure within this range should only be made on the basis of
experience and detailed knowledge of the clay deposit.
Surcharge Loading (q)
The design of all members must include the effects of loads of
street traffic, construction equipment, supported utilities, adjacent
structures which are not underpinned, and any other loads that must be
carried by the walls of the excavation during the construction period,
(Terzaghi and Peck, 1967).

Effect of seepage and drainage

Groundwater pressures estimated in design should be
consistent with the required or permissible drawdown levels. Where
soldier beams with wood lagging are to be utilized, groundwater is
generally assumed to be at, or below, the base of the interior of the
excavation. When the wall is intended to prevent all leakage of
groundwater, maximum exterior groundwater pressures should be added
to the lateral design pressures.

Design and Installation of Members

(1) Structural Design: Members such as walls, struts, soldier piles, and
sheeting should be sized for the loads defined in Figure 3 in accordance
with normally recognized structural design requirements. The effects of
combined axial and flexural loading, unsupported span lengths and lateral
stability of the members must, of course, be considered in the design.

Details on contractor's shop drawings should show appropriate

means for posting of struts and walers, lacing of struts in both vertical and
horizontal planes to provide lateral stability, web and connection
stiffeners, brackets, and provisions for wedging and jacking of struts to
prevent horizontal movement. Details are a vital element in the adequacy
and safety of temporary earth retaining structures and should be shown
Figure 3. Pressure distribution against braced excavations completely on the contractor's shop drawings in conjunction with the
(e.g. Peck, 1969) methods and sequence of installation of all elements of the structure.
Particular attention should be given to procedures for prestressing,
wedging, or jacking to maintain tight contact for all bracing members and
to provide for uniformity of distribution of load to struts and walers.
Self Weight Loading
(1) Cohesionless Soils (c = 0): For cohesionless soils, the pressure (2) Strut Design: Struts should be designed for the loads calculated from
distribution normally used for design in Canada is shown in Figure 3(a). Figure 3 on the assumption that the members subjected to bending stresses
The area of the rectangular pressure diagram shown produces a lateral are hinged at each strut position.
thrust about 30 per cent greater than the Rankine's active value.
Long struts may be subjected to large temperature-induced
(2) Soft to Firm Clays (cu = 12 to 50 kPa): For soft to firm clays, the stresses when exposed to the sun and it may be necessary to make an
pressure distributions normally used for design in Canada are given in allowance in design for this effect.
Figure 3(b). The parameters referred to in the text and figures are:
γ = the unit weight of material, (3) Rakers and Raker Footings Design: Rakers and their connections may
H = the depth of excavation, be designed in the same way as horizontal struts.
cu = the undrained shear strength of clay beside and
immediately beneath the cut, Raker footings should be designed in accordance with the
Fb = the factor of safety against base heave, and design principles for shallow foundations subject to inclined loading.
q = the value of any surcharge on the ground surface adjacent Footings and the foundation material should be protected from freezing or
to the excavation deterioration.

Where a great depth of soft clay exists below the excavation, All raker footings should be located outside the zone of
the pressure diagram shown in Figure 3(b) is normally used with a value influence of the buried portion of soldier piles and at a distance of not less
for m = 0.4 Fb # 1. than 1.5 D from the piles, where D = the minimum design depth of
penetration required for stability of the piles below the base of the
Where a much more resistant layer is encountered at or near the excavation. No excavation should be made within two footing widths of
base of the excavation, the same Figure 3(b) is used, however, this time the raker footings on the side opposite the rakers.
m = 1.0.
(4) Soldier Piles Design: The design loads defined in Figure 3 should be
(3) Stiff to Very Hard Clays (cu > kPa): For stiff clays, the pressure used for the design of soldier piles or soldier beams. Soldier piles should

Braced and Strutted Excavations -- GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING-1997 -- by G.P. Raymond© 186

be designed as continuous members supported at strut or tieback points, of soil moving into the excavation. Immediately after placement of
and stresses should be checked for various stages of construction when lagging, wedges should be driven to force it lightly against the soil. Voids
only partial support may exist. For preliminary sizing, the members may behind the lagging should be packed by hand to reduce the amount of loss
be selected assuming walers and piles to be hinged at the support points of ground. The depth of excavation below any lagging boards that have
(i.e. the whole system is simply supported) and the calculated bending not been backfilled should not exceed one metre.
moments reduced by 25 percent. To minimize the possibility of erratic loss of ground in local
areas when excavating sands and silts below original groundwater, it is
Interim construction conditions must be analyzed to check essential that straw packing, burlap, nonwoven geotextile, or in extreme
flexural stresses in the soldier piles. When sloping berm excavation conditions, grouting be used behind the lagging as it is installed.
procedures are employed, the depth to the equivalent support point which
allows the effective span of the pile to be determined, may be estimated The design of timber lagging, in common practice, is empirical.
using the method illustrated in Figure 4. In general, the practice given in Table 1 has been found satisfactory for
excavation depths 8 metres or less. For excavation depths greater than 8
metres but less that 22 metres, the lagging thickness should be increased
by 25 mm.

Table 1. Lagging for different soldier pile spacings.

Spacing of soldier piles Thickness of lagging in

excavation < 8 m deep

Up to 2.0 m 50 mm
2.0 m to 2.5 m 75 mm
2.5 m to 3.0 m 100 mm

For depths 8 m to 22 m add 25 mm to lagging thickness.

(6) Diaphragm and Sheetpiled Wall Design: Generally diaphragm walls

and sheetpiled walls used for excavation support are designed as
continuous walls between supports, (Terzaghi, 1953).

The installation and construction in situ of diaphragm walls is critically

dependent on construction techniques and should only be carried out by
contractors of recognized competence in this field of work.

(7) Penetration of Vertical Members: If the bracing system is designed

such that there are no struts near the bottom of the excavation, the
minimum design depth of penetration to be provided should be 1.5 times
the depth required for passive equilibrium using the equivalent strut force
at excavation level. The resistance provided to the portion of wall
penetrating below the base of the excavation is computed using the
passive pressure and ignoring wall friction (Rankine theory).

For driven soldier piles, the maximum horizontal force on the

flange of the soldier pile below the bottom of the excavation may be
conservatively taken as 3 times the values computed for the width of the
Figure 4. Placement of raker struts. flange, providing that the pile spacing is greater than 5 times the flange
width (Broms, 1964 a & b) (Teng, 1975).

Unless large soil movements adjacent to the excavation can be For piles placed in a concreted base, the diameter of the
tolerated, the soldier piles should be in place before excavation concrete-filled hole may be used in place of the flange width as discussed
commences and should remain in contact with the soil at all times. in the preceding paragraph.
Consequently, no excavation behind soldier piles should be allowed.
Interim Construction Conditions
If soldier piles are installed in pre-augured holes, sloughing or The design of all members including struts, walers, sheetpiling,
caving of the holes must be prevented. Immediately after installation of walls, and soldier piles should be checked for several stages of partial
the piles, the hole should be backfilled with lean concrete. If, because of excavation when the wall is assumed to be continuous over the strut
possible caving or sloughing, pre-auguring is not possible, the soldier immediately above the excavation level and supported some distance
piles should be installed by driving. below the excavation level by the available passive resistance. (See
Figure 4 for the case where only a berm remains to support the wall). This
(5) Lagging Design: The design of timber planks or lagging should condition could produce the maximum loading in struts and walers.
conform with good practice and the lagging should be of good quality
hardwood. Lagging is installed by hand after a depth of 1 to 2 metres are Where excessive stresses or loads would result from interim
excavated. The maximum depth made each time before a section of construction conditions using regular construction procedures, trenching
lagging is placed depends on the soil characteristics. Soft clay and techniques can be employed to advantage.
cohesionless soils must be planked in short depths to reduce the amount

Braced and Strutted Excavations -- GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING-1997 -- by G.P. Raymond© 187

 Table 2. Shoring for trenches less than 6 metres deep and 2 metres wide.

Soil Type Walers Struts Sheeting

Size Spacing Size Vertical Horizontal Upright

mm m mm Spacing Spacing Spacing
m m m

Cohesive None 100x150 1.2 2 2

cu > 25 kPa required

Cohesive 150x200 1.2 150x200 1.2 2 1

cu < 25 kPa

Cohesionless free 150x250 1.2 150x200 1.2 2 close tight

running soils

Minimum upright lumber size 50 mm x 200 mm

The design of members should also be checked for the deformation is increased appreciably. No satisfactory theoretical
condition when portions of the building within the excavated area are procedures exist to determine sheeting or wall pressures at depth below
completed and lower struts are removed. Consideration must be given to the base of the excavation.
the possible increase in loading on the upper struts remaining in place;
also the span between that portion of the building that has been completed
and the lowest strut then in place must be considered in relation to flexural
stresses.

Because of the possibility of delays in construction, it is

essential that the safety of the excavation is satisfactory for long term as
opposed to short term conditions. The pressure distribution diagrams
given in Figure 3 are for short term conditions only and in certain cases
the pressure distribution can vary considerably with time. It is therefore
essential that monitoring of deformation (and hence implied stress) be
carried out systematically during construction and additional struts added
if required.

SHORING REQUIREMENTS OF SHALLOW TRENCHES

Trenches and excavations with vertical faces greater than 1.2
metres deep are generally required to be shored by statutory law. Where
trench widths do not exceed 2 metres wide and 6 metres deep minimum
shoring consists of lumber 50 mm x 200 mm minimum dimensions
supported by struts placed a minimum of 1.2 metre intervals in the vertical
direction. Minimum horizontal spacing and other minimum details are
given in Table 2.

BASAL INSTABILITY
(1) Soft to Firm Clays (cu = 12 to 50 kPa): Deep excavations in cohesive
soils are subject to base heave failures which result from over-stressing the
soil in shear (Figure 5). Bjerrum and Eide (1957) have shown that the
factor of safety with respect to base heave may be calculated as:
Nb cu Figure 5. Base heave stability (e.g. Bjerrum and Eide, 1956)
Fb ' (1)
γH % q

where Nb is a stability factor dependent upon the geometry of the (2) Cohesionless Soils (c = 0): In cohesionless soils, basal instability
excavation (see Figure 5), and the remaining parameters are those defined takes the form of piping or heave and is associated with groundwater flow.
previously. Groundwater control can be achieved by drainage, by using sheetpiling to
support the face of the excavation and providing adequate penetration of
As the potential for bottom instability increases, the heave in the piling for cut-off purposes, or by a combination of the two methods.
the base of the excavation and the loss of ground adjacent to the
excavation increases. It should be noted that, in the case of soft clays MOVEMENTS ASSOCIATED WITH EXCAVATION
underlying the base of the excavation where Fb is less than 2, substantial Introduction
deformations may result with consequent loss of ground. If soft clay Movements associated with braced excavations are primarily
extends to a considerable depth below the excavation, the beneficial related to construction technique and commonly consist of lateral yield of
effects of even relatively stiff sheeting in reducing deformation have been the soil and support system towards the excavations with corresponding
found to be minimal. However, if the lower portion of the sheeting is vertical movement adjacent to the excavation walls. Both lateral and
driven into a hard stratum, the effectiveness of the sheeting in reducing

Braced and Strutted Excavations -- GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING-1997 -- by G.P. Raymond© 188

vertical movements due to yield are generally of the same order of
magnitude; however, if very flexible soldier piles are used, lateral
movements can be grossly increased. Where construction technique is
poor, erratic movements can also occur due to loss of ground or erosion
behind the wall.
cohesionless deposits. It is difficult to estimate settlements associated
with flow of or migration of sands into a cut because of dependence on
construction techniques, groundwater levels and local soil situations.
Settlements due to densification of loose cohesionless deposits can be of
the order of 1.5 percent of the depth of the cut.

Magnitude of movements: Soft to firm clays (cu = 12 to 50 kPa)

For well-constructed support systems, designed in accordance with the Because significant lateral yield occurs in cuts in soft clays, the
previously presented requirements for Strutted Walls, it has been found surface settlements associated with such cuts are also substantial. The
that the magnitude of deformations are dependent on the wall height and magnitude and extent of these surface settlements may be estimated using
related to the soil type. the relationships shown in Figure 6.

(a) Cohesionless soils (c = 0): If the struts are installed as soon as the
support level is reached and prestressed to 100 per cent of the design load,
the lateral movements in the system can be expected to be of the order of
0.2 percent of the depth of the excavations.

(b) Soft to firm clays (cu = 12 to 50 kPa): Substantial movements often

occur when vertical cuts are made in soft clays. These movements occur
in spite of well-constructed and installed support systems. Measurements
have shown that 60 to 80 percent of the total lateral yield occurs below the
excavation level. Struts should be installed and prestressed as soon as the
excavation reaches the support level. The applied prestress should be 100
percent of the design load. However, lateral movements below the bottom
support will increase significantly if the excavation reaches a depth where
the factor of safety against base heave becomes less than about 2.0. Even
if the system is properly installed, the maximum lateral movement of the
support system is likely to be 1 to 2 percent of the excavation depth.

(c) Stiff clay (cu > kPa): The lateral movements of temporary support
systems decrease sharply as the shear strength of the soil increases.
Limited available data indicated that maximum lateral movements of
excavations on stiff clays with cu > 75 kPa will be less than 0.2 percent of
the excavation depth and often less than 0.1 percent provided struts are
installed as soon as the support level is reached and prestressed to 100
percent of the design load.

Means of reducing movements:

To reduce the magnitude of movements it is necessary to reduce the shear
stresses induced in the ground by excavation. Two possible methods can
be utilized to effect this:
(a) The unsupported depth of wall between supports can be
shortened by using more levels of struts. Generally, a vertical
spacing of 2.5 m between strut levels is considered a minimum
from a construction viewpoint, with 4 m to 5 m being
preferred. The maximum spacing for small lateral deformation
is generally close to 4 m, but where underpinning of small or
light adjacent structures is omitted, and tightly braced
excavation walls are intended to prevent movement of such
adjacent structures, the vertical spacing should be kept to the
Figure 6. Guide to settlements adjacent open cuts
minimum value of 2.5 m.
(Peck, 1969).
(b) The unsupported depth of wall can be shortened by use of the
trenching method as illustrated in Figure 4.
Underpinning
LOSS OF GROUND BEHIND EXCAVATIONS (1) General: Structures adjacent to excavations will frequently need to be
supported. The support required will depend on the soil type, and the
Cohesionless Soils (c = 0) magnitude of the foundation loads and their locations with respect to the
Because lateral yield of strutted excavations in cohesionless excavation. The structural loads may be carried out by direct
soils is usually small, the loss of ground behind such systems is also underpinning of the foundations, or by the provision of additional lateral
usually small. However, placement of lagging and backfill behind the support to the face of the excavation. The following recommendations
lagging must be emphasized. With good workmanship and attention to assume the foundation material to be soil. Rather less underpinning and
detail, settlements can often be kept to less than 0.05 percent of the depth more face support might well be considered for rock foundations.
of the excavation.
(2) General Support Requirements: The geometry of zones within which
Two exceptions to the above general rule are sometimes support for adjacent structures is usually considered necessary is shown
encountered. These are loss of ground due to flow of water into the cut on Figure 7. In general, foundations of adjacent heavy structures which
resulting in soil erosion, and loss of ground due to densification of loose lie within the active earth Zone A surrounding the excavation will need to

Braced and Strutted Excavations -- GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING-1997 -- by G.P. Raymond© 189

be underpinned. For vertical cuts, this is defined as a zone inside of the
line rising at a slope of 2 vertical on 1 horizontal from a point 600 mm
below the edge of the base of the excavation. The limiting slope angle
within which underpinning may be required, Zone B, ranges from 2
vertical on 1 horizontal, to 1 vertical on 1 horizontal, depending on the
character of the soils. Where building foundations lying immediately
between these limits are so heavy that they would expand the active zone,
underpinning should be provided.
Figure 7. Requirements for undercutting.
Where foundations of smaller structures lying on the active 7.
Zone A adjacent to the excavation apply an equivalent line load on the
front wall or on side walls perpendicular to the street totalling less than 30
kN/m, it might be possible to eliminate underpinning and control
movement by careful excavation within tightly braced excavation walls. 8.
In all cases of excavation in soil where foundations of adjacent
structures supported in Zones A and B are not underpinned, the temporary
retaining structure and the permanent subsurface structure must be
designed to resist the horizontal and vertical pressures applied by these 9.
foundations.
(3) Requirements for Underpinning Supports: For excavation in soil, all
portions of the bearing area or tip of the underpinning members should
extend into Zone C of Figure 7, below a line rising at a slope of 1 vertical 10.
on 1 horizontal from a point 600 mm below the edge of the base of the
excavation. The support provided to the underpinning member below this
line should accommodate the total applied load with adequate safety
factor. In this case no pressures from the underpinned structure need be
considered in the design of the excavation support system.
Underpinning walls, piers, or piles which form a portion of the
excavation support system should be extended to a depth not less than 600
mm below the lowest nearby subgrade of the excavation. The bearing
support for such underpinning members should provide an adequate safety
factor during excavation and construction as well as after the completion
of construction. Where underpinning members will be exposed at the sides
of the excavation, they must be capable of resisting any horizontal loads
Braced and Strutted Excavations -- GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING-1997 -- by G.P. Raymond©
applied to them by non-underpinned foundations in Zones A and B.
Design bearing pressures for foundations of underpinning
members should be limited to the allowable values. Note, however, that
lower values than usual might well be desired for underpinning members
in order to restrict possible settlements.
REFERENCES
1. Bjerrum, L., C.J.F. Clausen and J.M. Duncan. 1972. "Earth
Pressures on Flexible Structures - A State of the Art Report".
Proceedings of the Fifth European Conference on Soil
Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Madrid, Volume 2,
pp. 169-196.
2. Bjerrum, L. and O. Eide. 1956. "Stability of Strutted
Excavations in Clay". Geotechnique, Volume 6, No. 1, pp. 32-
47.
3. Broms, B.B. 1964a. "Lateral Resistance of Piles in Cohesive
Soils". Journal of the Soil Mechanics and Foundation
Division, American Society of Civil Engineers, Volume 90,
No. SM2, pp. 27-63.
4. Broms, B.B. 1964b. "Lateral Resistance of Piles in
Cohesionless Soils". Journal of the Soil Mechanics and
Foundation Division, American Society of Civil Engineers,
Volume 90, No. SM3, pp. 123-156.
5. Golder, H.Q., J.P. Gould, T.W. Lambe, G.P. Tschebotarioff
and S.D. Wilson, 1970. "Predicted Performance of Braced
Excavation". Journal of the Soil Mechanics and Foundation
Division, American Society of Civil Engineers, Volume 96,
No. SM3, pp. 801-815.
6. Lambe, T.W., L.A. Wolfskill and I.H. Wong. 1970. Journal
of the Soil Mechanics and Foundation Division, American
Society of Civil Engineers, Volume 96, No. Sm3, pp. 817-836.
"Lateral Stresses in the Ground and Design of Earth Retaining
Structures". 1970. American Society of Civil Engineer
Specialty Session, Proceedings of 328 pages.
Peck, R.B. 1969. "Deep Excavations and Tunnelling in Soft
Ground". Proceedings of the Seventh International
Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering,
State of the Art Volume, pp. 225-290.
Terzaghi, K. 1953. "Anchored Bulkheads". American Society
of Civil Engineers, Volume 79, Separate 262, September 1953,
p. 39. Discussions published in Volume 80, Separate 572,
December 1954, pp. 1-44.
Terazaghi, K. and R.B. Peck. 1967. "Soil Mechanics in
Engineering Practice". John Wiley and Sons, New York, N.Y.
Second Edition, p. 729.
190
EXAMPLE 1 Moments about (2) to find R of beam 1-2 (and similarly for
A deep vertical trench 10 m deep and 4 m wide is to be made other beams:
in a deep deposit of clay. The sides are supported by braced sheet piling.
The piling penetrates below the bottom of the excavation sufficient that 2.5 1.5
0.5 (88.3) 2.5 1.5 % % 88.3 (1.5)
the base may be assumed to act as bracing. Bracing is placed at 3 m 3 2
R1 '
intervals starting from the base of the excavation. The clay has a bulk 3
density of 17 kN/m3 and an undrained shearing strength cu = 35 kPa. ' 119 kN/m run of excavation
Calculate the factor of safety against bottom heave using Nb as 2.5
given below. {R2}1&2 ' 88.3 1.5 % &119 ' 124 kN/m run
2
Using a simple method of analysis also calculate the loads on 3
the bracing, including that taken by the base (i.e. assume simple supports {R2}2&3 ' 88.3 ' 132 kN/m run
2
where possible). R2 ' 124 % 132 ' 256 kN/m run
Calculate the depth of penetration of the sheet piling to give
R3 ' 256 kN/m run
1.5 times the required Rankine depth passive resistance to equalize the
reaction support at the excavation base. R4 ' 132 kN/m run
The recommended pressure distribution according to the
Canadian Foundation Engineering Manual is given in the appropriate
DEPTH OF PENETRATION
Figure of the notes and is to be used in answering the question.
Nb is to be assumed to increase linearly from 5.0 for an
R4 is the load taken by the soil and must be resisted by passive soil
excavation depth of zero to 7.5 when the excavation depth is 3 times the
pressure at the base of the excavation.
excavation width and then remains constant.
2 c u Nφ ' 2 (35) 1 ' 70 kPa
_________________________________________________________
γ H p Nφ ' 17 Hp 1 ' 17 Hp
Equateing passive resistance ' to R4
0.5 γ Hp Nφ Hp % 2 cu Hp ' R4
2
8.5 Hp % 70 Hp ' 132
[Hp % 4.12]2 ' 15.53 % 16.96
Hp ' & 4.12 % 5.70 ' 1.58m
Design depth ' Dp ' 1.5 Hp
' 2.37 m below excavation base

H
5 % 2.5 35
Nb cu 3 B
Fb ' '
γ H 17 (10)

m ' 0.4 Fb ' 0.4 (1.46) ' 0.58

4 m cu ' 4 (0.58) 35 ' 81.7 kPa
γ H ' 17 (10) ' 170 kPa
γ H & 4 m cu ' 88.3 kPa
which is greater than 0.3 γ H

Braced and Strutted Excavations -- GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING-1997 -- by G.P. Raymond© 191

EXAMPLE 2
A braced excavation 10 m deep is to be made in a sand deposit. The sands
angle of friction φ' = 35E and unit weight = 19 kN/m3. Impermeable sheet
piling is to be driven deep enough to allow a water table at 5 m below the
ground surface. Calculate the strut loads for struts at 2.5 m spacing
starting with the first at 0.5 m depth below the surface. Also calculate the
depth of penetration of the sheeting to give 1.5 times the required Rankine
passive resistance.
_________________________________________________________
EXAMPLE 3
Repeat Example 2 assuming soldier piles 0.3 m wide at 2.5 m
centre to centre were used in place of the piled sheeting.
_________________________________________________________
In this case the pressure diagram and forces R1 to R5 are the
same.
The pile width = 0.3 m

Passive spread = 3x0.3 = 0.9 m,

provide spacing is > 5xpile width = 5x0.3 = 1.5 m

Soil force per pile = R5xSpacing = 68x2.5 = 170 kN/pile

Soil resistance from pile embedment = 0.9x[Pp per m run]

= 0.9x0.5xγ/xHp2xNφ = 0.45x(19-9.81)xHp2x3.68
= 15.2xHp2 kN/pile

Hp = (170÷15.2)0.5 = 3.34 m

Length of embedment of piles = 1.5xHp = 5.02 m

φ 35
K a ' tan2 45 & ' tan2 45 & ' 0.272
2 2
)
σo ' γ H & γw H w
10
' 19 (10) & 9.81 (5) ' 141 kPa
)
0.65 σo K a ' 0.65 (141) 0.272 ' 25 kPa
10
γw Hw ' 5 (9.81) ' 49 kPa

3
25 (3)
2
R1 ' ' 45 kN/m run of excavation
2.5
R2 ' 25 (3) & 45 ' 30 kN/m run of excavation
A
0.5
9.81 (0.5) 0.5
25 (2.5) 1.25 3
R2 ' %
B 2.5 2 (2.5)
' 31 kN/m run of excavation
R2 ' 61 kN/m run of excavation
0.5
9.81 (0.5) 0.5 2.5 &
25 (2.5) 1.25 3
R3 ' %
B 2.5 2 (2.5)
' 32 kN/m run
25 (2.5) 1.25 % 9.81 (0.5) 2.5 (1.25) % 9.81 (2.5) 2.5 (0.5) 0.83
R3 '
C 2.5
' 31.25 % 6.13 % 10.2
' 48 kN/m run of excavation
R3 ' 80 kN/m run
R4 ' 31.25 % 25 % 6.13 % 10.2 (2)% 29.43 % 6.5
' 119 kN/m run
R5 ' 25 % 29.43 % 6.5 (2) ' 68 kN/m run

DEPTH OF PENETRATION
R5 is load taken by the soil and must be resisted by soil's passive pressure
inside the excavation (at its base).
If soil is dry (by suitable drainage system, e.g. relief wells):
R5 = 0.5 γ H2p Nφ = 0.5 (10) H2p ÷ 0.272 = 68 kN/m run
Hp = %1.96 = 1.40
Required embedment depth = 1.5 (1.40) = 2.09 m

Braced and Strutted Excavations -- GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING-1997 -- by G.P. Raymond© 192

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Braced and Strutted Excavations -- GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING-1997 -- by G.P. Raymond© 193

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Braced and Strutted Excavations -- GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING-1997 -- by G.P. Raymond© 194