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 Electromyography of Rubber Tapper Tools For Ergonomic
Application -> For Reference Purposes

CHAPTER 1.0

INTRODUCTION

Electromyography is a technique for recording the electro-physiological properties

of muscles during contraction and rest. The result that is obtained is termed as an
electromyogram, which is often either graphical or numerical in nature. The device is
termed as an electromyograph. The electromyograph records the electrical potentials
which are generated in the muscles during both contraction and rest. (Tan , n.d). The

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possibility of the electromyograph to record the electrical activity enables the

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investigator to determine the integrity of muscular contractions. This methodology has

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also ergonomic applications as in the case of this study.

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Movements of the limbs , heart and other parts of the body are made possible by
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muscle cells that act as tiny motors consuming energy and causing the contractions
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necessary to make the muscles move. Nerves responsible for muscular contraction are
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called motor neurons. That muscle which one particular nerve innervates is termed as
a motor unit. When a motor unit is activated via an action potential, it triggers a
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sequence of stages that cause the muscular fibres to contract (Seeley. et al, 2000). The
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electromyograph records this electrical activity.

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Rubber tapping is the process of extracting the rubber from the rubber tree. This is
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a highly manual process that involves the usage of a tool that resembles a sickle. Due
to financial constraints even in this modern era rubber tapping has been confined to
the manual process. The average number of trees that the rubber tapper will tap ranges
from 300 to 400 on a usual working day (Tapping Management of Rubber, 2007).

Due to the manual nature of this process the rubber tapper workers are exposed to
cumulative traumatic disorders also referred to as repetitive stress injuries. Such
complications are only aggravated due to improper handling of the rubber tapper tools
and/or lack of ergonomic design in the tools itself.

1
1.1 ELECTROMYOGRAPHY

1.1.1 Physiology of EMG

Electromyography (EMG), also referred to as myoelectric activity, measures the

electrical impulses of muscles at rest and during contraction. As with other
electrophysiological signals, an EMG signal is small and needs to be amplified with
an amplifier that is specifically designed to measure physiological signals. This signal
can be recorded or measured with an electrode, and is then displayed on an
oscilloscope, which would then provide information about the ability of the muscle to

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respond to nerve stimuli based upon the presence, size and shape of the wave – the

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resulting action potential. While the electrode could be inserted invasively into the

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muscle (needle electrodes), a skin surface electrode is often the preferred instrument,

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because it is placed directly on the skin surface above the muscle without employing
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the method of pinch insertion into the test subject. When EMG is measured from
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electrodes, the electrical signal is composed of all the action potentials occurring in
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the muscles underlying the electrode. This signal could either be of positive or
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negative voltage since it is generated before muscle force is produced and occurs at
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random intervals (Tan , n.d) .

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The EMG signal is first picked up by electrode and amplified. Frequently more
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than one amplification stages are needed, since before the signal could be displayed or
recorded, it must be processed to eliminate low or high frequency noise, or any other
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factors that may affect the outcome of the data. The point of interest of the signal is
the amplitude, which can range between 0 to 10 millivolts (peak-to-peak) or 0 to 1.5
millivolts (rms). The frequency of an EMG signal is between 0 to 500 Hz. However,
the usable energy of EMG signal is dominant between 50-150 Hz (Tan , n.d).

In order to obtain a signal that yields the maximum information, the method
employed and the implementation device has to be considered. There are many
dependent factors that could affect a surface EMG since the signal is susceptible to
noise interference such as hum, signal acquisition such as clipping and baseline drift,
skin artefacts, processing errors, and interpretation problems. For example, the contact

2
of electrode to the skin could distort a recording signal. The inadequate amplification
of the signal could cause a recorder detection problem. A wrong filter could efface
some of desirable information of a signal. Moreover, there are other factors such as
the distance between electrodes as well as the recording times used in the experiment.
The device utilized in the measuring of the signal must also be considered since low-
level input into a recording device could also affect data and yield inaccurate results
(Tan , n.d).

1.1.2 Excitable Tissue and Action Potential

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There are two main types of tissue in the nervous system: excitable tissue and

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nonexcitable tissue. The excitable tissue, which is composed of neurons, responds to

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and transmits nerve stimuli. The non-excitable tissue, composed of glial cells, does

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not response to voltage or any other conventional stimulus, since glial cells are non-
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conducting, and function only as support cells in the nervous system (Seeley. et al,
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2000).
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Excitable tissue can be divided into four components: sensory receptors, neuron
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cell bodies, axons, and muscle fibres. In a situation involving a harmful stimulus such
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as contact with a sharp pebble or a hot surface, the resulting pain and pressure are
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transmitted by sensory receptors. The pain is by a receptor potential, which is the

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transmembrane potential difference of a sensory cell. Produced by sensory

transduction, a receptor potential results from inward current flow, which will bring
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the membrane potential of the sensory receptor toward the threshold to trigger the
neuron into generating a rapid burst of voltage pulses called the action potential (APs)
(Seeley. et al, 2000).

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Figure 1.1: Typical time variations associated with a sudden, steady stimulus.

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(Adapted from Seeley. et al, 2000)

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As shown in Figure 1.1, triggered by a constant high-pressured stimulus, the
sensory receptor generates an initially high receptor potential that rapidly decreases to
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a much lower, steady level. This decrease in the receptor potential is called
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adaptation. The action potential produced by the neuron has a magnitude of 0.1 volts ,
which is a value that is shared by every animal, from a squid to a human (Seeley. et al,
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2000).
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To step off that pebble, the neuron sends a message along a nerve axon to the base
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of the spinal cord. The axon, or nerve fibre, is the slender projection of a neuron that
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conducts electrical impulses away from the soma, or the nerve cell body. There are
two types of axons: the afferent axon and efferent axon. The afferent axon, or sensory
axon, leads to the central nervous system, and carries messages from sensory receptors
at the peripheral endings to the spinal cord or brain. The efferent axon, or motor axon,
originates at the spinal cord and carries information through the body parts, synapse
with muscle fibres to stimulate muscular contraction as well as the muscle spindles to
alter proprioceptive sensitivity, which is a key factor in muscle memory and hand-eye
coordination. Because these two types of axons are designed to relay high-speed
messages, their diameter is between 0.001 and 0.022 millimetres, which is longer than
ordinary axons, which have a diameter between 0.0003 and 0.0013 millimetres. When
compared with the ordinary axons, the efferent and afferent axons also have a thicker

4
layer of myelin, an electrically insulating fatty layer that increases the speed of
impulses by means of saltatory conduction. Therefore, by inhibiting charge leakage,
myelinated axons propagate action potentials that recur at successive nodes rather than
waves, and thus “hop” along the axon, thereby increasing the speed of the impulse.
With a large diameter and thick of myelin sheaths, all signals can thus travel through
the afferent and efferent axons at speeds as high as 120 meters per second, or 270
miles per hour. On the other hand, the ordinary axons, which are solely responsible for
simple activities such as reporting pain and temperature changes, have small diameters
and unmyelinated fibres, which are adequate to carry slow-speed signals (Seeley. et
al, 2000).

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Figure 1.2: Excitable tissue called into play when a person steps on a sharp pebble
(Adapted from Seeley. et al, 2000).

As shown in Figure 1.2, the afferent axon carries the action potential burst from
the neuron to the interneuron, a neuron that communicates only to other neurons, or to
the motor neuron. This causes a chemical transmitter to be released across a narrow
fluid gap called synapses. The latter are specialized junctions that allow neurons to

5
signal to their target cell, which could be another neuron or a non-neuronal cell such
as a muscle or gland. The action potential crosses this junction to either another
interneuron or a motorneuron, triggering another action potential burst as the process
repeats until the message reaches the efferent axon, which then carries the action
signal back down to the leg muscle. Once the signal reaches the muscle tissue, the
message instructs the muscle to contract, resulting in lifting the foot off the pebble
(Seeley. et al, 2000).

1.1.3 Generation of Action Potentials

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As stated earlier, after a sensory receptor generates information, this electric signal

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is transmitted to its intended target by travelling through an axon. However, an axon is

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a relatively poor conductor because it rapidly attenuates the electrical signal. The

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potential can decrease to 37 % of its original value after travelling a distance of only
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0.15 millimetres along an axon, resulting in an unusable potential value. This distance
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in which the potential becomes unusable is called the length constant. The length
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constant is dependent upon the size of the axon, as it is proportional to the square root
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of an axon diameter (Seeley. et al, 2000).

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To overcome this tendency of signal attenuation, the nervous system uses a

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method to increase the strength of the electric signal. When the potential decreases to
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a threshold level, such as eight millivolts, the neuron will fire another 100 millivolts
action potential. However, the action potential will keep decreasing after travel
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through the axon, which in effect will stimulate the neuron to fire one burst of action
potential after action potential, a process that is referred to as frequency modulation.
For example, in order to make a potential increase to 10 millivolts, the neuron might
fire ten times per second, although the neuron is also able to extinguish voltage in
order to end action potential (Seeley. et al, 2000).

To get more insight in this process, one must understand the structure of the axon.
There are ions arranged in constant random thermal motion inside an axon, with
protein molecules being one of the main components of the axon membrane. Under
normal conditions, sodium (Na+) and calcium (Ca2+) are more concentrated in the

6
extracellular fluid, while potassium (K+) is more concentrated within the cell. In
effect, K+ is the key determinant of the resting membrane potential, since the resting
cell membrane is more permeable to K+ than to the Ca2+ and Na+ molecules.
However, while it plays a small part in the resting membrane potential, Na+ is a key
player in the generation of electric signals. When a cell goes from a resting to an
excited state, or firing level, the cell increases its Na+ permeability. This causes Na+
molecules to enter the cell through voltage-gated channels, thus moving down its
chemical gradient. This addition of the positive charge of Na+ to the intracellular fluid
causes the cell to become depolarized and initiates an action potential. The
extinguishing level that marks the falling phase of the action potential is the result of

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an increase in K+ permeability in the cell. However, the closing and opening of the

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voltage-gated channels is regulated by the jostling of the atoms within the cell, which

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results in randomness in the train of the generated action potentials. Consequently, any

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undesired departure from a perfectly ordered system may give rise to so called noise.
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Higher receptor potential will initiate less noisy action potentials. However, a noisy
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system is not always bad, as it enables living things to be able to adjust themselves to
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changing environment (Seeley. et al, 2000).

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Figure 1.3 : Model of action potential (Adapted from Seeley. et al, 2000)

7
 From Figure 1.3, the ‘sodium in’ curve is negative because the current that flows
into the axonplasm is defined as negative. On the other hand, the current that flows
out of the axonplasm is defined as positive. The sodium carrier proteins convey Na+
ions into the axon in accordance with the ‘sodium in’ curve. When crossing the
membrane, there is only low voltage left to drive the sodium ions into the bridges of
the transport proteins. Consequently, the dip of the sodium curve exists at the peak of
action potential curve. On the opposite side of the sodium curve, the potassium carrier
proteins convey K+ ions out of the axon in accordance with the “potassium out”
curve. To the left of the sodium dip, the Na+ current in is much greater than the K+
current. As a result, the voltage rapidly rises to 100 millivolts above the resting

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potential. To the right of the dip, the potassium ions are small excess to the sodium

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ions, which marks the slow drop in voltage (Seeley. et al, 2000).

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1.1.4 Propagation of Action Potentials
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In this section, the focus will be on how unmyelinated and myelinated axons
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generate their action potentials. Regenerating nerve fibres could either be

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unmyelinated or myelinated. As stated earlier, unmyelinated fibres have thin

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membranes to carry slow-speed signals. On the other hand, myelinated axons have
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thick membrane allowing them to carry highspeed signals (Seeley. et al, 2000).
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In unmyelinated fibres, the AP propagates in the form of an ocean wave. When the
voltage across the membrane rises above the threshold level of eight millivolts, a
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regenerating axon starts to generate an action potential. The thin membrane of the
unmyelinated axon allows ions to easily move across the membrane. Figure 1.4 shows
the AP waveform initiated by an unmyelinated axon (Seeley. et al, 2000).

8
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Figure 1.4: Net ion current curve and action potential of an unmyelinated axon
(Adapted from Seeley. et al, 2000)
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Figure 1.4 (a) depicts the net ion current that generates the action potential. The
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voltage rises to its peak at 100 millivolts before decreasing in value. Figure 1.4 (b)
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shows the curve of voltage and current versus distance. It is interesting to see the
distance and time curve are mirror image of each other. While generally the distance
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curve can differ from the time curve, the myelinated axon can generate the distance
curve and time curve of the action potential that has the same shape and amplitude
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(Seeley. et al, 2000).

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In comparison to unmyelinated axons, myelinated axons have a thicker wall. This

makes it impossible for sodium and potassium ions to move across the axon
membrane. As a result, regeneration of the action potential cannot occur. However,
the thick membrane also enables the axon to carry high voltage messages without
breaking down (Seeley. et al, 2000).

The thick, non-regenerating myelin membrane is offset by periodic nodes, which

are also known as nodes of Ranvier. The nodes are 100 outside diameter apart, as
illustrated at the top of Figure 1.5 (Seeley. et al, 2000).

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Figure 1.5: Nodes in the myelinated axon and action potential that is generated

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(Adapted from Seeley. et al, 2000)
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1.1.5 Electrodes that are used in electromyography

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The EMG electrode could be explained by a receiving antenna concept. A

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receiving antenna is an electrical device that detects oscillating magnetic fields, which
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are generated from various sources. Then the signal is transmitted through the air from
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source to the receiving antenna, a concept that is used to engineer the design of
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electrode. In terms of recording the EMG signal, the muscle fibre is a biological signal
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generator, spreading out over voltage fields to the volume-conductivity surrounded by

fluid. This fluid serves to convey an EMG signal to an electrode, like air carry signals
to an antenna (Tan , n.d)

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Figure 1.6 : The Series of Bio Electric Events (Adapted from Tan , n.d)
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The EMG recording starts from the beginning of the bioelectrical events as shown
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in Figure 1.6. The changing conductivities in the membranes will make action currents
flow across the membranes as well as into the extracellular fluids around active cells.
The extracellular currents will then generate potential gradients as they flow through
the resistive extracellular fluids. The changing potential gradients, subsequently, will
produce electrical currents in the electrode leads by capacitive conductance across the
metal/electrolyte interface of the electrode contacts. These weak currents will then
flow through the high impedance circuits of the amplifier input stages, which will then
convert these currents into large output voltages (Tan , n.d).

11
 The EMG electrodes can be classified by using its geometry. There are six classes
of EMG electrodes: monopolar electrode, bipolar electrode, tripolar electrode,
multipolar electrode, barrier or patch electrode, and belly tendon electrode (Tan , n.d).

A monopolar electrode takes potential from electrode and ground as the inputs to
the differential amplifier. When measuring, only a bare electrode is placed, without
utilizing other electrical connection. Because the ground yields a negative input to
differential amplifier, the potential from electrode is always based on ground (Tan ,
n.d).

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A bipolar electrode is used to measure the voltage different between two specific

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points. It generally must be used with a differential amplifier. A bipolar electrode has

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two contacts that are not connected to each other. Therefore, one node will be used for

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positive input, and the other will be used for a negative input for the differential
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amplifier. Because the differential amplifier treats both inputs equally, it will yield an
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accurate output. However the distance between the electrodes could affect the
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measurement result. Placing the electrodes too far from one another could yield a
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weak signal. On the other hand, placing them too close may also result in unusable
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data, since the amplifier pre-processes each inputs signal separately before subtracting
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those signals for output. In addition, there must be another contact used as a reference
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point for these two inputs (Tan , n.d).

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A tripolar electrode has three electrodes that are placed at equal intervals along a
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straight line. The central electrode is usually connected to the positive input of a
differential amplifier, while the electrodes on the sides are usually connected to the
negative input of a differential amplifier. This configuration also requires another
electrode to serve as a reference. The tripolar electrode is often used to record nerve
potentials, as its configuration holds the advantage of being able to reject some forms
of biological noise (Tan , n.d).

A multipolar electrode consists of rows of bipolar electrodes where an equal lead

is connected each side of bipolar electrodes to serve as a positive and negative input
for a differential amplifier. Besides, another electrode must be applied as a reference

12
point. The multipolar electrode is often used to record the activity of certain motor
units based on idiosyncrasies in their fibre locations (Tan , n.d).

The barrier or patch electrodes are typical bipolar electrodes that are closely
connected to a dielectrical barrier. The dielectrical is a non conductive substance that
is placed between the electrodes. This configuration redirects currents in extracellular
flowing around the tissue nearby. The patch also keeps the currents that are generated
from tissues on each side to prevent them from spreading into each other.
Consequently, the potential gradient of a desired action is larger, and the potential
gradient of an undesired action is smaller (Tan , n.d).

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A belly tendon electrode is one of the fields of interest in the clinical EMG. Its

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geometry is an interesting hybrid of the monopolar and bipolar approaches. In this

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technique, the first electrode is placed in or over the middle point of the muscle of the
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belly, which serves as the positive input to the amplifier. The second electrode is
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placed over the tendon of the same muscle, which is usually about the end of
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contractile elements, and serves as the negative input to the amplifier. This
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arrangement gives a clean leading negative waveform, since there is no virtual active
n

contribution from tendon electrode. A belly tendon electrode is employed specifically

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for tendon applications although it is not used for measuring a selective muscle EMG
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recording during physiological activity (Tan , n.d).

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All of electrode geometries discussed above could be considered as a dipole

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antenna in term of electrical behaviour. Monopolar electrodes are used to measure the
EMG signal of very small muscle. This is a good approach for sampling a signal that
occurs near the surface of an active single fibre. On the other hand, tripolar electrodes
and multipolar electrodes are used for sampling some large muscles (Tan , n.d).

13
1.1.6 Amplifier of EMG Signals

The amplifier is an electronic device that serves to boost low power signal to
higher power signal that is usable to perform work. There are two reasons to amplify
the signal. First, amplification increases the level of signal enough to protect an
electrical interference during transmission. Second, the signal is amplified so that it
could be stored in a storage device, or displayed by a measurement device like
oscilloscope. In case of an EMG signal, an amplifier is necessary. There are no such
devices that can measure EMG signal without amplification (Tan , n.d).

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A differential amplifier is used to amplify an EMG signal, as it has the ability to

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eliminate the noise from the signal. As shown in Figure 1.7 the differential amplifier

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takes two inputs, subtracts them and amplifies the different. In this case, if there is

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noise interference through the input wires, the noise could be circuitry cancelled out
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so long the transmission of the two inputs is completely symmetrical manner (Tan,
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n.d).
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Figure 1.7 : A Schematic representation of the differential amplifier configuration.

The EMG Signal is represented by ‘m’ and the noise signal by ‘n’ (Tan , n.d.)

It is difficult to make an amplifier with perfect subtraction. The Common Mode

Rejection Ratio (CMRR) could measure the accuracy of subtraction in each amplifier.
It is suggested to have a CMRR value at 90dB in order to sufficiently discard a

14
contaminated noise. Yet with modern technology, the differential amplifier could
make a CMRR value of 120dB. However, even though a differential amplifier has the
ability to reduce unwanted noise signals that occur from both sides of the input wires,
contaminated noises could still exist. This noise could have been injected into the
signal by a stray capacitance that has been amplified, and thus, degrading the signal
(Tan , n.d).

Every electronic component or even an amplifier itself behaves as an effective

filter, since there are no such electronic devices that can transfer all frequency range.
The electrode itself tends to have lower impedance for a higher frequency and have

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higher impedance for a lower frequency. The connection of electrode, cable and

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amplifier creates an implicit filter effect. The electrode contacts are connected in

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series to an amplifier; they function similar to that of a capacitor, while an impedance

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of amplifier is similar to that of a resistor. This connection visualizes a High-Pass
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filter circuit. The low frequency voltage tends to be attenuated and drop the highest
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voltage across the electrode contacts rather than the amplifier. On the other hand, the
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cables that connect electrodes to an amplifier have a stray capacitor behaviour. It is

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considered that this capacitor is connected to ground, which simulates a Low-Pass

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filter circuit. The stray capacitor will provide low impedance, at which the high
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frequency picked up by electrodes tend to drop their voltage here. Therefore an

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amplifier will see an attenuation of high frequency (Tan, n.d).

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The implicit filter could cause signal problems if it is not considered carefully in
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the design of an amplifier. The explicit filter with real components (resistor and
capacitor) functions by using the same concept of an implicit filter, and could help in
increasing the signal-to-noise ratio. Since a signal is desired to be within in some
frequency range, it is good idea to have an explicit filter for that particular band.
Therefore, noise with the frequency outside a desired frequency band will be distorted
as shown in Figure 1.8 (Tan, n.d).

15
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Figure 1.8 : Implicit Signal Filter Circuit Diagram (Adapted from Tan, n.d)
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The implicit filter is important in designing a differential amplifier. To reduce an

implicit capacitance effect, the electrode contact should be placed close to an
n
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amplifier. In other words, an amplifier should be located as close to the signal source
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as possible (Tan , n.d).

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A raw EMG signal is an AC signal. Its bandwidth could occur anywhere from a
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few tens of cycles per second to 3000 cycles per second. Therefore, sometime a large
amount of DC voltage appeared at the output of preamplifier. A DC offset can be
removed by adding a series capacitor to the output, which also allows the AC signal to
pass through. The DC offset can also happen between the recording electrodes
themselves, especially if they are made from different materials. A battery-powered
source sometime could overpower a sensitive preamplifier, which could also disgrace
the contact of electrodes or damage surrounding tissue. Placing a capacitor between
inputs of AC coupling could prevent this problem (Tan , n.d).

16
 A DC-offset-adjust potentiometer is often added to sensitive equipment, since it is
easy to adjust the DC-offset. However, the DC offset also dependents on temperature
Therefore, it is better to power up the equipment for sometime before adjusting the
DC offset (Tan , n.d).

1.1.7 Problems caused by noise and artefacts

In the process of recording an EMG signal, the source of the generated signal is
not only from bioelectrical generator or active cell, but also from any electrical fields
that occur around an electrode and lead cables. These electrical fields produce some

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signals that could also be added to an EMG signal, causing a form of interference that

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is called noise. Interference noise can be produced from anything that has an electrical

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field such as power lines, computer monitors, transformers, or EMG amplifier itself.

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Once noise has occurred, it could cause problem in recording an EMG signal.
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Therefore while planning out the design of the amplifier device and recording the
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EMG signal, noise factors should be taken into consideration, since noise could come
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from a variety of sources such as electronic components, recording devices, ambient

tR

noise, motion artefacts, or inherent instability of the signal (Tan , n.d).

n
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Any electronic devices can produce noise. The noise frequency is range between 0
tu

Hz to a 1000 Hz. This kind of noise cannot be eliminated. Using an intelligent circuit
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design and a good quality of electronic components to construct the device can only
reduce the noise (Tan , n.d).
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Ambient noise could be generated from any electronic device that created an
electromagnetic field such as televisions, computer monitors, motors, electrical power
lines, fluorescent lamps or light bulbs. In fact there are radio waves and magnetic
fields floating all over our body. It is virtually impossible to drain these radiators to
ground (earth surface). The ambient noise also cannot be avoided. The ambient noise
frequency occurs primarily within the range 50 Hz or 60 Hz, while the amplitude of an
ambient noise is about one to three times greater than that of an EMG signal (Tan,
n.d).

17
 Motor artefacts come from two sources ; first, from the contact of an electrode to
skin; second, from the connection of cable from electrode to the amplifier. When
performing a grasping experiment, a movement of the wire alone could cause a noise
problem. This electrical noise from both sources has the frequency range between zero
to twenty hertz. However, a proper design of circuitry with a good connector and
stable electrode contact could reduce this motion artefact problem (Tan, n.d).

Inherent instability of the signal is caused by a nature of EMG signal. The

amplitude of the EMG signal frequency range between zero hertz to twenty hertz is
particularly unstable due to the quasi-random nature of the firing rate of motor units. It

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is suggested to consider an EMG signal frequency in this range as an unwanted noise

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signal (Tan, n.d).

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There is no boundary in what amplitude of an EMG signal is good for yielding
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accurate recordings. While a certain amount of noise could be tolerated, the question
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is exactly how much noise could be allowed. In other words, there is a question about
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the tolerable levels of the signal-to-noise ratio. The signal-to-noise ratio is determined
tR

by taking the ratio of the amplitude of desire signal over the amplitude of added noise
n

signal. The main concern now is in the lever of the signal-to-noise ratio that could
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degrade an analysis result. If the noise is produced from thermal motion, then twice of
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desired signal amplitude over the noise amplitude is good enough. However, if the
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noise occurred periodically (pause like) and forms a pattern similar to the desired
signal, it is suggested that ten times grater of the desire signal amplitude than the noise
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amplitude would be clarified a confusing event. In order to determine signal-to-noise

ratio, the study of noise behaviour alone may be required to see how noise could affect
the real signal (Tan, n.d).

18
1.1.8 Interpretation of an Electromyogram

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Figure 1.9 :- Interpretation of an Electromyograph ( Image generated using Adobe

Illustrator CS3)
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As shown in Figure 1.9 the various waves that are generated are also indicative of
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the recruitment patterns of the muscle i.e., The number of motor units that have been
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activated as a result of the stimulus.

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Figure 1.10:- Actual EMG recordings (Adapted from Mills 2007)

19
As shown in Figure 1.10 , This is an actual EMG recording with 3 subjects with
different pathological conditions :-

1. A – Recruitment patterns during maximum voluntary contractions of the

deltoid muscle in a healthy subject.
2. B – Recruitment patterns of the muscle fibres during maximum voluntary
contractions of the deltoid muscle with spinal muscular atrophy.
3. C – Recruitment patterns of the muscle fibres during maximum voluntary
contractions of the deltoid muscle with polyositis
4. Note the difference in the different amplitude calibrations.

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Maximal Voluntary Contraction or MVC refers to a condition in which a person

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attempts to recruit as many fibres in a muscle as possible for the purpose of
developing force (Seeley. et al, 2000).
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1.1.9 Uses of Electromyography :

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In essence an EMG gives us a visual depiction of electrical activity of muscles. An

n

EMG is usually an extension of clinical examination when trying to diagnose and

de

differentiate between various nervous disorders. The electromyographer will analyze

tu

the electrical activity of the muscles which is either a graphical depiction and/or is
rS

heard as popping noises through a loud speaker. Any discrepancy in the firing
behaviour of the action potentials is a significant indicator of a pathological condition.
Fo

(Mills 2007).

The EMG study is also essential in trying to distinguish between the neurogenic
disorders ( pathological dysfunction involving the nervous system) or myogenic
disorders supplementing and appropriate diagnosis. This process involves needle
electrodes which are directly inserted into the muscle when a much focused
measurement is required or with the use of surface electrodes that determine the
activity of groups of muscles instead of individual muscle fibres. These electrodes are
attached to an EMG which will display the recordings as a graph using chart software
on a computer monitor (Mills 2007).

20
 Since the EMG is able to give us a graphical depiction of muscular activity this
technique can be employed in this experiment in order to determine which muscles are
most active when performing the rubber tapping process. This information will assist
us in determining which tool is more ergonomically designed hence being safe for the
usage by the rubber tapper workers.

1.2 Rubber Tapping :

1.2.1 Process of Rubber Tapping :

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Tapping begins once trees reach maturity; that is at about seven years, although

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this may be latter in unfavourable areas. Tapping involves periodically cutting the

ce
bark on the trunk, and hence severing latex vessels. It is best done at a 25-30° angle
en
from the horizontal, from high on the left of the tree to low on its right, in an action
er

exposing the maximum number of latex vessels per length of incision. Tapping
ef

productivity is a critical issue in maintaining sustainable supplies of natural rubber

tR

(Rubber Tapping , n.d).

n
de

One of the main reasons for the successful establishment of Hevea brasiliensis on
tu

a plantation scale was the discovery of the excision method of tapping for harvesting
rS

rubber: the same cut is regularly reopened by the removal at each tapping of a thin
shaving of bark from the sloping cut. This principle is in general use today: Ridley
Fo

was the pioneer of this method. Each time a tree is tapped (with a suitable knife) a
channel is prepared along which the latex flows. This method avoids wounding trees
(Rubber Tapping , n.d).

21
Figure 1.11 : The most common rubber tapping technique used today ( Adapted from
Google Image search keyword “Rubber Tapping”

y
nl
As illustrated in Figure 1.10 , The cut penetrates to within 1 mm of the cambium;

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the precise depth varying with the skill of the tapper. The same cut is regularly

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reopened by the removal at each tapping of a thin shaving of bark. The object of
en
tapping should be to get as much latex as possible from the trees with the smallest
er

excision of bark convenient, and minimize damage to the health of the trees and their
ef

capacity for continuing to yield latex (Rubber Tapping , n.d).

tR

The cut is made either with a notched knife which is drawn down the incision, or
n
de

with a chisel which is pushed along it. In both cases thin slivers of bark are excised,
and latex flows immediately along the cut and into a cup attached to the trunk. The
tu

flow progressively diminishes, and stops in 1 to 3 hours as severed vessel ends

rS

become plugged by caps of coagulum. Once begun, tapping is normally continued for
Fo

10-20 years, depending on how quickly the accessible bark is consumed.

Consumption is determined by the degree to which new or 'virgin' bark is cut away,
and to which cut bark is renewed after tapping. In conventional approaches tapping
moves along successive panels, first traversing easily accessible virgin bark and then
returning to cover renewed bark 6-7 years later. It may also utilize virgin bark at
higher levels of the tree, and even extend to bark of third renewal (Rubber Tapping ,
n.d).

Much depends on the standard of tapping, however. Bark consumption is higher,

yield per cm of cut is less, and renewal is poor if there is a lack of skill, but under

22
skilled operations tapping may continue for 25 or more years. Some unskilled
smallholders use 2-3 times as much bark per cm as skilled tappers, and the damage
may reduce the total period to 15 years or less (Rubber Tapping , n.d).

The commonest tapping system with budgrafts involves a 'half spiral' cut half way
around the tree. This is executed on alternate days, provided there is no substantial
rain which prevents tapping by diluting latex flows and washing them down the trunk.
Rainguards greatly reduce the effects of rainfall. Tapping with selected seedlings is
only done every third day, since more intensive systems usually lead to a permanent
drying up of latex or tapping panel dryness (Rubber Tapping , n.d).

y
nl
It is advantageous to begin tapping early in the day, when the turgor pressure of

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the latex and its consequent rate of flow is higher. Thus it is usual for the tapper to

ce
carry a light source (often a torch like a miner's lamp) to help in seeing before dawn-
en
breaks (Rubber Tapping , n.d).
er
ef

The usual procedure in tapping is for one person to first tap as much as can be
tR

managed; depending on conditions, this is normally a 'task' of 500-600 trees which

n

takes 3-4 hours. Younger trees are simpler to tap. The same person then returns to
de

collect the still-liquid latex from the cups, emptying it into a bigger container. There is
tu

then a residual flow of latex which coagulates on the cut and in the cup; this is secured
rS

at the next tapping as 'scrap' and 'cup lump' (Rubber Tapping , n.d).
Fo

A major tapping advance was the introduction, in Malaysia, in the early 1970s, of
the 'stimulant' ethephon or 2-chloroethyl phosphonic acid. This is applied at intervals
to bark of first, or later renewal, either close to or in the tapping cut. It dissolves
slowly in the presence of water, releasing the gas ethylene in the bark and delaying
plugging with consequently greater latex flow. While ethephon increases yield in the
short term, however, that effect is not maintained, and the stimulant is most usefully
employed in 'substituting' for labour and getting similar yields with less frequent
tapping. Subsequently, the Rubber Research Institute of Malaysia has applied ethylene
directly to rubber trees to stimulate latex flow using systems known as RRIMFLOW
and REACTORRIM (Rubber Tapping , n.d).

23
 Stimulation introduces flexibility into tapping as labour use in this labour-
intensive activity may thereby be reduced. Thus, although most tapping is still done
on alternate or third- daily systems, it is possible through skilful stimulant application
combined with once-a-week excision to secure perhaps 80 per cent of the yield on
alternate daily; this produces crops at lower cost. It is hoped that weekly tapping may
eventually be achieved (Rubber Tapping , n.d).

A further significant advance has been the introduction, again in Malaysia, and
following three decades of research including that on stimulation, of the puncture

y
system of tapping. This as currently applied involves making one puncture each week

nl
on a scraped area of bark treated with stimulant. Latex flows directly into a closed

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receptacle, which protects it from natural coagulants. It is then collected 2-3 days later

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while still in liquid form, after a prolonged period of flow. Puncture tapping again
en
saves much labour compared to conventional methods, but is capital-intensive in
er

equipment and chemicals and requires good management. It seems more promising
ef

than the previous avenue in this research of battery-driven mechanical tapping

tR

machines; these worked well, but were far too expensive for normal use (Rubber
n

Tapping , n.d).
de
tu

Better conventional tapping systems have also been initiated, and include the
rS

'upward' tapping of virgin bark high up on the tree, using a knife attached to a long
stick. This system, which may be accompanied by stimulation, is based on earlier
Fo

Indonesian methods and enables yields to be maintained once lower virgin bark has
been tapped away and poor renewal threatens a drop in output. It is thus especially
pertinent to smallholding conditions (Rubber Tapping , n.d).

Rainguards assist in increasing both tapper and tree productivity during periods of
heavy rainfall. Tapping cups are essential implements of the industry. Earthenware
cups are widely used. They are cheap, but heavy. Glass cups are used in a few
plantations. Plastic cups have been introduced to the industry. Glass cups are lighter
and easy to clean but are more expensive and easily broken. Further, they are easily
stolen from the field. Plastic cups are lighter and easy to transport. However, rubber

24
tends to stick to the cups permanently making cleaning difficult. The cup is placed in a
wire hanger attached to two pieces of wire and an extensible spring attached to the
rubber trees. A spout is fixed to the rubber trees to enable the latex to flow from the
tapping cut into the cup (Rubber Tapping , n.d).

In areas where cuts are opened higher than the tapper can reach, one-step or two-
step ladders are used to enable the tappers to tap comfort ably. Such ladders are
specially made with a platform so that when it is placed against the rubber trees, the
tapper can stand on the platform to tap the tree with a good degree of stability. The
ladder should be light to make carrying it from tree to tree feasible (Rubber Tapping ,

y
n.d).

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1.2.2 Common Rubber Tapping techniques :

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en
The rubber tapping process is a very labour intensive process which involves both
er

and skill and endurance. The rubber tappers make their rounds during the early
ef

morning hours of the day, since the latex production is maximal before the sun comes
tR

out. There are various methods which are employed to extract the latex namely :-
n
de

1. Half Spiral Method (Also Called Excision method) – As shown in Figure 1.12
tu

& Figure 1.13 , In this method a half spiral is cut on one side of the bark. This
rS

angle of slope is roughly 30°. The cut is usually made about 150cms from the
ground of young rubber trees. The cut is usually 1mm which is deep enough to
Fo

just reach the cambium ( that part of the rubber tree responsible for the
growth). Once the cut is made a small collecting cup which is usually an
earthen pot is attached to the tree. It takes roughly 3 hours for the latex to run
down. Once the latex ducts are plugged by drying the tapper comes and
removes the dried latex wire and collects the latex in a cup. In modern
methods a stimulant is applied to the tree which was developed in Malaysia
during the 1970’s , this stimulant which is ‘ethephon’ or 2-chlorothyl
phosphoric acid is applied to the tree in order to prolong the latex oozing. This
is the most common method which is used till this day. (FAO Document
Repository,n.d).

25
 Figure 1.12: Latex oozing as a result of Figure 1.13: Half Spiral Method

y
the cut source (Adapted from Google Image source (Adapted from Google Image

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search Keyword “Rubber Tapping”) Search Keyword “Rubber Tapping”

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2. Upward Sloping Cut – This method is employed for those rubber trees which
are older and have been tapped several times , the cut is made in an upward
en
fashion at an angle of 45°. The cut is made just above the previous cut on the
er

bark so that both the channels meet. This excision is also made much higher on
ef

the tree , for this purpose the rubber tapping tool is attached to an extension
tR

handle to that the higher part of the tree can be reached (Tapping Management
n

of Rubber 2007) .
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tu

3. Triangular Tapping Method – As illustrated in Figure 1.14 This alternative

rS

method involves making a triangular incision on the bark of the tree , the
Fo

triangle is pointed downwards towards the end of the triangle a container is set
to collect the rubber. However the yield gained by this method is not as high as
compared to other most common methods (Tapping Management of Rubber
2007).

26
 Figure 1.14 : Triangular Cut Method of collection ( Adapted from Google Image
search Keyword “Rubber Tapping”
4. Malaysian Puncture System – This method was developed in the Rubber
Research Institute in Malaysia which is a more modern way of tapping the
rubber trees , which involves making a punch directly on the tree using a tool
to make a small hole on the bark of the tree. However this method is capital
intensive and requires good management of equipment and chemicals (Rubber
Tapping , n.d) .

5. Mechanized Rubber Tapping System – this method was also developed by

Rubber Research Institute in Malaysia which involves the usage of small

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nl
battery operated devices that make the excisions on the trees. However this

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method is not used because of it extremely high cost of application (Rubber

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Tapping , n.d). en
1.2.3 Common Rubber Tapping Tools :
er
ef
tR

The process of rubber tapping has been around for quite some time and the tools have
subsequently also evolved according to their usage.
n
de

1. Traditional Knife – One of the most common tools which are used to make the
tu

excisions is a sharp knife. An extension is also added to the knife so that it will
rS

be able to reach higher part of the older rubber trees (Tapping Management of
Fo

Rubber 2007).
2. Curved Knife (Sickle Knife) – As illustrated in Figure 1.15 This involves the
usage of a curved knife which almost resembles a sickle being very sharp
(Armstrong,n.d).

Figure 1.15 : Curved Sickle Shaped Knife (Adapted from Google Image Search
Keywords “Rubber Tapping Tool Sickle Knife”)

27
 3. Modern Tools – The more modern tools as illustrated in Figure 1.16 and
Figure 1.17 ,which are used for the rubber tapping are more ergonomically
designed with a more comfortable grip .

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Figure 1.16 – Type 1 - Rubber tapping Figure 1.17 – Type 2 Rubber tapping tool

nl
tool for the upward motion cuts (Adapted for the downward motion cuts (Adapted
from

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from
http://www.alibaba.com/catalog/1168062 http://www.alibaba.com/catalog/1168062

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3/Rubber_Tapping_Knife/showimg.html) en 3/Rubber_Tapping_Knife/showimg.html)

The muscles which are involved in the process of rubber tapping are usually the
er

muscles of the hands arm, fore arm and shoulders and the back. Since the process
ef

involves the bending of the tappers while performing the excisions upper and lower
tR

back involvement should be present. Muscular aches are to be expected in the rubber
n

tapper tools especially when the tools which are used are either not effective or the
de

process which is being performed is not according to the procedures of the process
tu

(Strength & Conditioning Terminology, n.d).

rS

During this process the muscles involved undergo maximum voluntary contraction
Fo

and the contractions are both isokinetic (contraction in which muscles are of constant
velocity) & isotonic (contraction in which constant force is being generated). This
rhythm is to be maintained by the rubber tappers in order to ensure that the excisions
made are the same in every tree during the rounds (Strength & Conditioning
Terminology, n.d).

28
1.2.4 Malaysian Rubber Industry:

In 1876, Sir Henry Wickham, at the request of the India Office, collected and
shipped from Brazil 70,000 seeds from the wild rubber tree. These were rushed to
Kew Gardens in London and planted in specially prepared hot-houses. The small
number, which survived, were taken in 1877 to Ceylon and later to Malaysia and other
countries of South-east Asia (The Story of Malaysian Natural Rubber 2002).
The rubber tree quickly flourished in Malaysia; large areas of jungle were cut
down and planted with rubber trees. Henry Nicholas Ridley, who was appointed
Director of the Singapore botanic gardens in 1888, was one of the pioneers of those

y
times and did perhaps more than anybody to encourage planting of this new crop (The

nl
Story of Malaysian Natural Rubber 2002).

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By the end of the nineteenth century there were 2500 hectares of rubber in Asia.

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Shortly afterwards Henry Ford started making his famous motorcar and the demand
en
for rubber – to make tyres – rocketed. The trees in the South American jungle could
er

not possibly produce enough rubber and so the new plantations of Asia found that the
ef

world wanted all the rubber they could produce, and more. By 1910 there were ½
tR

million hectares of rubber planted and the countries of Asia had now become the main
n

suppliers of rubber (The Story of Malaysian Natural Rubber 2002).

de

With the spread of motoring to every country in the world, even today’s enormous
tu

acreage of rubber (about 6 million hectares in all) cannot supply enough. There is not
rS

enough natural rubber to go around. Scientists have developed man-made rubbers

from petroleum. These are often mixed with natural rubber. For some products,
Fo

however, only natural rubber can be used (The Story of Malaysian Natural Rubber
2002).
Peninsular Malaysia – comprising 12 of the 14 states in the Malaysian federation –
is among the world’s most important rubber growing areas. Rubber is also grown in
Sabah (formerly North Borneo) and Sarawak, which, known together as East Malaysia
make up Malaysia (The Story of Malaysian Natural Rubber 2002).
Altogether Malaysia produces almost 20% of the world’s natural rubber. A good
deal of Malaysia’s rubber (over half) comes from thousands of privately owned plots
of land called smallholdings, which are usually about 2 hectares. The rest is grown on
big estates owned by various companies; each can cover over a thousand hectares.

29
Altogether, Malaysia has 1.7 million hectares of rubber (The Story of Malaysian
Natural Rubber 2002).
In recent years most of the older trees have been replaced by newer varieties
which yield up to ten times as much rubber, thanks to scientific cross-breeding and
careful cultivation (The Story of Malaysian Natural Rubber 2002).

The plantation industry in Malaysia is on the way out. Once the largest exporter of
natural rubber in the world, today Malaysia has become an importer of rubber. It is
said that by the year 2005, there will be less than 10,000 acres planted with rubber
trees for research purposes only while the rest will be devoted to palm. The current

y
work force in the rubber plantations is also expected to drop to 5,000 workers from

nl
more than 100,000 workers. Palm plantations will continue to employ workers but

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they will mostly be contract or migrant workers (Arutchelvan 2002).

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en
1.3 Ergonomics
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1.3.1 What is Ergonomics

n tR

Ergonomics is the process of fitting the job to the worker — instead of the worker
de

to the job. Ergonomics matches the design of tools, controls, & equipment to fit the
tu

safety needs of the operator. Since each of us has different needs, ergonomic design of
rS

tools, equipment and workspaces must be adjustable enough to accommodate a varied

range of body types. For example, tools such as scissors must be designed in order to
Fo

accommodate individuals who are right-handed or left-handed. Organizations that

overlook the safety of workers in their workplace often specifically addresses the field
of workplace ergonomics, which examines the impact that tools, positions, repetitive
movements, and the tasks of workers have on workers’ health and safety (Ergonomics,
n.d)
The mission of ergonomics is to provide solutions to work related pain and
discomfort. Ergonomics training and awareness may save money. Yearly, workers
across America file worker's compensation claims due to workplace injuries. Second,
ergonomics prevents injuries, including back injuries, carpal tunnel syndrome, work
related musculoskeletal disorders (WRMSD) and other injuries that can occur as a

30
result of highly repetitive and physically demanding job tasks. Third, when workers
and employers prioritize health and safety and are aware of ergonomic principles,
productivity is enhanced. Workers learn to analyze their work as well as listen to red
flags such as slouching in chair, dry eyes, loss of concentration, or tingling sensations.
In a win-win situation for the employer and employee where money is saved, injuries
are prevented, and productivity is increased, the altruistic objective is that workers
will experience job satisfaction (Ergonomics, n.d).
Depending on what is entailed in your job, ergonomics may be for you.
Ergonomics trainings, awareness, and programs should especially be considered if
workers are engaged in (Ergonomics, n.d):

y
•

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Repetitive work; such as sweeping in Custodial work; typing in clerical work,

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lifting in childcare & adult care for those that work as nurse’s aides for
example.
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Reaching; such as stretching arms above head to pick fruit in farm work.
en
• Bending, twisting; such as stocking shelves in grocery and retail stores.
er

Common risk factors or work place elements that could cause pain and injury to an
ef

employee and which are considered by organizations that are in charge of workers
tR

safety are (Ergonomics, n.d) :-

n

• Vibrations; as may be experienced by bus drivers.

de

• Chemical hazards; such as refinery workers who may be exposed to hazardous

tu

fumes, spills.
rS

• Biological hazards; such as home health care aides who are exposed to human
Fo

blood or other body fluids.

• Heat / Cold Stress; such as for construction workers.
• Noise and Hearing Conservation; such as for construction workers.

1.3.2 Ergonomics in Hand tools:

The process of selecting and or modifying tools, especially hand tools, to provide
a better fit for the user is something everyone at one time or another has attempted to
do in daily life. Whether that tool is a computer keyboard used at work or a small
Phillips screwdriver used for a woodworking hobby in the garage, no one tool works
for all jobs and no one tool fits all users in the most efficient or comfortable fashion.

31
Fit, in terms of comfort and efficiency of use, is particularly important for tools used
for long-term projects or for occupational activities (Cacha , 1999).
It is easy to find research that documents the association of hand tools and the
problems that result if the wrong tool is used for a task, or if the correct tool is used
improperly. Much of the desire to create a better hand tool has always been driven by
the parallel desire to create a more efficient work process and an improved product at
a lower cost. In the mid-1800s, Wojciech Jastrzebowski coined the word ergonomics,
which means the study or science of work. Many pioneers in the ergonomics field
have since refined this study of the science of work, especially after World War II.Â
Today, the science of ergonomics is now more often referred to as "fitting the task to

y
the person". The ergonomics task is not limited to work only, but may refer to work,

nl
recreational, sports, etc. Ergonomics, also known as human factors, also attempts to

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look at the cognitive or decision making performance of humans (Cacha , 1999).

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In the last decade, tremendous strides have been made in design and development
en
of hand tools in an attempt to reduce the problems, including potential injuries to the
er

worker, while also increasing tool efficiency. These improved hand tools are often
ef

sold or labelled as "ergonomic" hand tools. It is important to remember that no one

tR

hand tool is perfect for every job, and no one hand tool is perfect for every user
n

(Cacha , 1999).
de

Developing a "single standard" for ergonomic hand tool design is difficult because
tu

of the variation in human anthropometry (i.e., branch of human science that deals with
rS

body measurements, human performance, work environments, and tasks). Therefore,

investigation of appropriate tool design and of using hand tools while utilizing proper
Fo

ergonomic principles continues to evolve. There are guidelines and methods,

however, by which tools can be tested to effectively evaluate specific ergonomic
features. In general, ergonomic hand tool features can be classified by the following
design goals (Ergonomics Hand Tools , 2003) :
• Decrease the force or grip strength required to use the tool.
• Decrease repetitive motion associated with using the tool.
• Decrease awkward body postures or wrist positions when using the tool.
• Decrease vibration transmitted to the hand and wrist.

1.3.3 Cumulative Traumatic Disorders and Carpal Tunnel Syndrome

32
 Due to the highly manual nature of the rubber tapping process, the rubber tapper
workers are exposed to what is termed as RSI’s or repetitive strain injuries. These are
a group of disorders that originate in those muscles which are repetitively used for
action. They are also known as Cumulative Traumatic Disorders or CTD’s. Since the
trauma or injury sustained over a period of time develops into a more severe form of
the injury.
One of the most notorious CTD’s that afflict the modern age is Carpel Tunnel
Syndrome or CTS for short. This disorder affects those individuals who have to use
their forearms and wrists specifically. However the risk of developing is low in people
who take appropriate measures while performing a task. These disorders are also

y
developed in those individuals whose professions involve the extensive use of hand

nl
tools. The lack of knowledge of the proper use of these tools coupled with the bad

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design of the tool itself contributes to the development of the CTS (CTS , n.d).

ce
Carpal tunnel syndrome is a painful condition caused by pressure on the nerve that
en
serves the fingers and palm. The carpal tunnel is a passage in each wrist that is formed
er

by the carpal bones and the volar carpal ligament (Figure 1.18). Carpal tunnel
ef

syndrome occurs when the median nerve, which travels from the arm to the fingers,
tR

becomes compressed within the carpal tunnel. Although the tunnel usually protects the
n

median nerve, tissues within the tunnel can become inflamed or swollen. This
de

inflammation results in pressure on the nerve. Carpal tunnel syndrome occurs when
tu

the median nerve becomes compressed, causing numbness, tingling, and pain in the
rS

hands. The pain can also extend to the arm and shoulder (Kao 2003).
Fo

Figure 1.18: Illustration of Carpal Tunnel

Syndrome (Adapted from Google Image Search
key words “Carpal Tunnel Syndrome”)

33
 Carpal tunnel syndrome is usually characterized by pain or tingling. Other
symptoms may include numbness or weakness in the hands that may cause the person
to drop objects. If this weakness continues for long periods of time, it may result in
permanently atrophied muscles. Some people with carpal tunnel syndrome experience
intense pain that shoots up the arm to the shoulder (Kao 2003).

Although some medical conditions such as diabetes can increase a person's risk for
carpal tunnel syndrome, most cases are caused by repetitive motions of the hands or
wrists. Carpal tunnel syndrome is most common in middle-aged people, but is rare in
young people who have not yet had long-term exposure to the repetitive motions that

y
most often cause the condition (Kao 2003).

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Treatment varies from wearing a brace to drug therapy or surgery. Mild carpal

ce
tunnel syndrome may be effectively treated with a brace, which is usually worn
en
overnight. This gives the wrist a chance to rest so that the swollen tissues inside the
er

carpal tunnel can shrink, reducing pressure on the median nerve. As symptoms
ef

become more severe, drugs or surgery may be recommended (Kao 2003).

n tR

Although carpal tunnel syndrome can be caused by several medical conditions, the
de

most common cause is overuse of the wrists due to repetitive tasks. Any condition that
tu

causes the tissues within the carpal tunnel to swell can lead to carpal tunnel syndrome.
rS

Some examples are broken or dislocated wrist bones, arthritis, thyroid imbalance,
diabetes, menopausal hormone changes, and pregnancy. However, the most frequent
Fo

cause is repetitive tasks that require bending of the wrists or grasping with the hands.
Tasks that carry a recognized risk for carpal tunnel syndrome include typing, cutting,
sewing, or playing a musical instrument. Overuse of small hand tools is often
associated with this condition. Use of vibrating tools, such as a jackhammer, is also
considered to be a contributor (CTS, n.d).

Tingling in the hands is an early sign of carpal tunnel syndrome. The tingling may
be followed by a feeling of weakness or numbness in the hands and intense shooting
pain that travels up the arm. The symptoms of carpal tunnel syndrome often first
appear at night and may be pronounced enough to cause sleeplessness. One or both

34
hands may tingle painfully. This tingling may become more frequent and often
involves the thumb, index, and ring fingers (CTS, n.d).

CTS can be diagnosed confidently with patient history alone, however one of the
techniques which are employed to detect the presence of CTS is the use of the EMG
technique (Bernardo 2004). The EMG tests reveal the following important diagnostic
information :
• Shows delay in the latency of the motor unit action potential for the abductor
pollicis brevis.
• False negative rates for neurophysiological examination of the median nerve

y
nl
have been estimated in several trials to be between 7 and 13%.3
•

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EMG testing is the standard diagnostic test of choice, but if a questionnaire is
employed (see below) EMG testing can be reserved for atypical cases or to

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rule out more diffuse neuropathy, as in diabetics, when the response to
en
treatment may be reduced.
er
ef

Once the diagnosis is made we will determine the best possible treatment for the
tR

patient trying to prevent further nerve damage and trying to reverse the process. The
n

different treatment options include bracing, physical therapy, and surgical correction.
de

One of the common physiotherapy methods of treating CTS is the use of a splint
tu

which would keep the wrist straight and reduce pressure from the carpal tunnel, which
rS

is useful in the early stages of the condition (1.19) The treatment option that is chosen
depends on the severity of nerve damage shown on the EMG/nerve conduction study,
Fo

making this test very crucial. The earlier in the disease process that we see the patient
the better chances of recovery. The later in the course the patient comes to our
attention the chances of recovery are less, the patient could develop permanent
paralysis, and surgical procedures might be required even though they could have
been avoided early in the disease course. Patients could have full recovery with
minimal intervention if they seek medical attention early (CTS , n.d).

35
 Figure 1.19 : A splint used to keep the wrist straight ( Adapted from Google image
search keyword – “CTS”)

1.4 Research Objectives:

y
Since it is clear that the Malaysian rubber industry is still a dominant player in this

nl
sector, its workforce is in excess of 100,000 workers (Arutchelvan 2002). Most of

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them still employ the manual rubber tapping technique. Determining which tool used

ce
by the rubber tapper is the most efficient will assist those authorities who are involved
en
in the purchase of tools for the rubber tappers. This would ultimately increase the
er

productivity of the rubber tappers by reducing the amount of physical damage and
ef

strain resulting from prolonged tapping.

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36
 CHAPTER 2.0

MATERIALS AND METHODS

2.1 PARTICIPANTS :

22 volunteers (12 male and 10 female) without any history of musculo-skeletal

disorders participated in the research to simulate the process of rubber tapping and to
represent the workers. Each one of them had voluntarily filled out standard consent
forms and were fully informed of the experiment. In a case where there would lack of

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participation from any one particular sex among the participants the distribution

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would be altered so as to maintain the necessity of having 22 volunteers.

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2.2 MATERIALS :
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1. Standard 15L Distilled water container which would represent the bark of the tree.
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2. 100% PVC Carpet 3ft X 4ft procured from a local supermarket – this would
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represent the texture of the tree.

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3. 3 rolls of Cloth tape procured from local supermarket - used for securing the carpet
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around the tree.

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4. Plastic rope – For measurement of the MVC ( Maximum Voluntary Contraction)

5. Carpet Shears procured from local supermarket for adjusting length of the rope and
the carpet if.

37
2.3 Instruments and Apparatus :

1. Standard rubber tapping tools procured from a local hardware store

Figure 2.1- Upward Cutting Tool being Figure 2.2 – Downward Cutting tool
used for the experiment

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being used for the experiment

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Figure 2.1b - Downward cutting tool

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Figure 2.1a - Upward cutting tool details, details, Image generated using
Image generated using Illustrator v10.0. Illustrator v10.0.
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2. Powerlab ® from ADinstruments ™ - 4 channel EMG device.

Figure 2.3 : Front Panel of Powerlab/4st Device (Adapted from Powerlab/4st n.d)

38
 Figure 2.3a – Actual Image of the Powerlab Device

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Figure 2.4 : Back Panel of Powerlab/4st Device (Adapted from Powerlab/4st n.d)
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Figure 2.5 Dual Bio Amp Cable Yolk (Adapted from Powerlab/4st n.d)

Figure 2.5a – Actual Image of Dual amp Cable Yolk

39
 Figure 2.6 Standard surface Electrodes ( Adapted from Powerlab/4st n.d)

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Figure 2.6a – Actual Image of the standard surface electrodes.

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a) Supplied USB connectors , for connecting the Powerlab device with a personal
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computer.
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b) Chart v5.5 Software for visualizing the signals , comes standard with the
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Powerlab device
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c) Standard surface electrodes which has a highly conductive gel at its end for
sticking to the surface and to facilitate the movement of current into the
Fo

electrode. These electrodes will be placed on the muscles of the forearm of the
dominant hand in the individual.
d) Special Leeds which came standard with the Powerlab device, which were
colour coded for proper attachment to the double yolk bioamp cable.
e) Abrasion pad , which is used to improve the conductance of the electrical
impulses in the case where the signal detection is hampered.

40
2.4 MEHTODS :

2.4.1 OVERVIEW

The MVC’s of the volunteers were recorded in the beginning of the experiment to
serve as the reference for the other tasks. Once the MVC’s were recorded each one of
the participants were asked to perform the rubber tapping process using each one of
the tools on two surfaces. The first surface was the representation of the tree and the
other was the material used for representing the texture of the tree on a flat surface.
The Powerlab instrumentation has a routine that can convert the graphical EMG

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recordings into numerical outputs specifically into RMS values. Once the RMS values

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of all the participants are taken they will be average out and compared to the MVC

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recordings to determine which rubber tapping tool is more efficient.

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2.4.2 SETUP OF THE EXPERIMENT
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FIGURE 2.7 : Illustration of the Setup of the experiment ( Image generated using
Illustrator 10.0)

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 y
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Figure 2.7a – Actual Setup of the experiment

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2.4.3 MUSCLES THAT WILL BE USED FOR EMG RECORDINGS

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The muscles that have been identified to be responsible for the development of
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carpel tunnel syndrome has been the focus of the EMG study. Since the objective of
rS

the experiment is to determine the risk factors of the rubber tapping process. Four
muscles have been identified based on previous experiments that test for the
Fo

development of carpal tunnel syndrome. Based on a study conducted by Fagarasanu.

Et al 2004 in the measurement of angular wrist neutral zone and forearm muscular
activity the muscles which have been chosen for this experiment are :-

1. Flexor Carpi Radialis

2. Flexor Carpi ulnaris
3. Extensor Carpi radialis
4. Extensor Carpi ulnaris.

42
 y
Figure 2.7b – Position of Flexor Carpi

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Radialis & Flexor Carpi Ulnaris Adapted Figure 2.7c – Position of Extensor Carpi
Radialis Brevis Adapted from Google

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from Google Image Search Keywords
“Flexor Carpi Radialis & Ulnaris Image Search Keywords “Extensor Carpi

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en Radialis”
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Figure 2.7d – Position of Extensor Carpi Figure 2.7e – Position of Extensor Carpi
Radialis Longus Adapted from Google Ulnaris Adapted from Google Image
Image Search keywords “Extensor Carpi Search keywords “Extensor Carpi
Radialis” Ulnaris”

Subsequently , the surface electrodes will be placed on the muscles of the dominant
hand as described in Figure 2.7f

43
 y
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Figure 2.7f: Position of the surface electrodes , Image generated using Illustrator
v10.0
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2.4.4 CALCULATION OF THE MVC

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Figure 2.8 : How the MVC will be recorded (Image generated using Illustrator 10.0)

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 y
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Figure 2.8a – Actual recording of the MVC
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As described in Figure 2.8 , A piece of rope will be fixed at one end and the other
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end will be attached to the rubber tapping tool. The participant will be asked to pull
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the rubber tapping tool with both hands with full force for a period of 10 seconds. The
subsequent generated recordings will serve to represent the MVC values.
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2.4.5 DETERMINATION OF THE WRIST ANGLE OF DEVIATION:

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Before starting the experiment the wrist neutral positions shall be determined in as
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described in Figure 2.9. Subsequent angle of deviations caused when the tool is held
will be recorded as described in Figure 2.10. The difference between the wrist neutral
positions and angle of deviation when holding the tool will give us the degree of
deviation which will be essential in ascertaining the presence of any strain on the wrist
during the rubber tapping process using the specific tool.

When the subject holds the tool in the normal way, the angle of deviation shall be
recorded using a protractor on a flat surface this information will be essential in
determining whether the wrist deviation is a contributing risk factor in the
development of Carpal Tunnel Syndrome.

45
Figure 2.9 - Measuring the Wrist Neutral Figure 2.9a – Actual recording of the

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Zone (WNP) , Image generated using WNP & AOD’s while holding the tools

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Illustrator V10.0

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Figure 2.10 : Measuring the Angle of deviations using each tool, Image generated
using Illustrator v10.0

46
2.4.6 SURFACE DESIGN REPRESENTING THE TREE:

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Figure 2.11: Construction of the surface that will represent the tree ( Image generated
using illustrator 10.0

The PVC carpet is wrapped around a 10L distilled water container which has been
filled with water to increase its weight and provide stability when the carpet around it
is excised using the rubber tapping tools. The carpet on the flat surface will also be
secured at both ends in order to keep it stable when it is excised using the rubber
tapping tools

47
2.4.7 RECORDING THE RMS VALUES USING THE TOOLS :

Figure 2.12 – Using the Downward Figure 2.13 – Using the Downward

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Cutting Tool on the flat surface Cutting Tool on the Round Surface

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representing the rubber tree

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Figure 2.14 – Using the Upward Cutting Figure 2.15 – Using the Upward Cutting
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Tool on the flat surface Tool on the Round Surface representing

the rubber tree
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As illustrated in the above the surface electrodes were attached to the FCR , FCU
, ECU & ECR of the dominant hand while the actual rubber tapping process was being
simulated. The resulting graphical readings obtained from the EMG device were then
converted with an inbuilt routine to the RMS values that would be used for
subsequent data analysis. `

48
 Sarfraz - Recordings done for MVC using downward tool
11/14/2007 1:44:04.187 PM

500

Ulnaris (µV)

-500

8.5 9 9.5 10 10.5 11 11.5 12 12.5 13 13.5 14 14.5 15

Figure 2.15 – Actual EMG recordings obtained using the Downward Cutting Tool on
the round surface representing the tree

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49
 CHAPTER 3.0

RESULTS

3.1 WNP AND DOD :

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Figure 3.1 – Wrist Neutral Postions (WNP) , Degree of deviations (DOD) & Average
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DOD’s
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3.2 PERCENTAGE OF DEVIATION

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Figure 3.2 – Percentage of deviation of the left and right wrists when using each tool
on each specific surface

50
3.3 AVERAGE RMS , MVC & STANDARD DEVIATION

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Figure 3.3 – Average RMS values recorded by the EMG for each tool on each surface
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and their standard deviations
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3.4 PERCENTAGE OF FORCE BEING USED

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Figure 3.4 – Percentage of the force being used by each tool on each surface

51
3.5 SUBJECTIVE ANALYSIS OF THE RUBBER TAPPING PROCESS AND
THE TOOLS :

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Figure 3.5a – Upward Tool Opinions
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Figure 3.5b – Downward Tool Opinions

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Figure 3.5c – Comfortability Score Distribution across ages , sex , DT Score , UT

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Score and Hand Dominance for all participants

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Figure 3.5d – Average and Standard Deviations of Ages of particpants , DT Score

and UT Score

53
3.6 PARTICIPANT CHARACTERISTICS :

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Figure 3.6 – Hand Dominance of the particpants
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Figure 3.6a – Gender Distribution of Participants

54
 CHAPTER 4.0

DISCUSSION

4.1 CUMULATIVE TRAUMATIC DISORDERS (CTD’S) :

Rubber tapping is a highly manual process. On any typical working day the rubber
tapper will excise more than 500 – 600 trees in a span of 4 hours (Rubber Tapping,
n.d). Moreover this process is carried out on a daily basis. This exposes the rubber
tappers to various muscular skeletal injuries or MSI’s. The category of injuries that

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originate from repetetive tasks are termed as repetitive strain injuries or RSI’s. The

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rubber tappers are exposed to these various cumulative traumatic disorders or CTD’s.

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Each year thousands of workers in the U.S. report work related musculoskeletal
problems such as tendonitis, carpal tunnel syndrome, and epicondylitis associated with
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work related activities such lifting, pushing or pulling. These musculoskeletal

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disorders develop over a period of weeks and are the leading cause of disability
among persons during their working years. The most common risk factors implicated
n

in these disorders are repetitive movements, vibration, low temperatures, mechanical

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stress, posture, and inappropriate force. Although these disorders can occur anywhere
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in the body, the upper extremities are most commonly affected (Kao 2003).
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1. Repetitive Movements- The number of exertions per hour or shift can be

Fo

calculated from work standard and methods analysis. Some researchers have
determined that an action, which lasts greater than 50% of a cycle time or a cycle
time greater than 30 seconds, is “high repetitiveness”. This definition has proved
to be a good predictor for the development of upper extremity symptoms.
Repetitiveness also increases the forcefulness of the exertions required to
complete the task (Kao 2003).

2. Vibration- Upper extremity disorders have been associated with the use of the
hand to operate vibrating tools. Vibration may increase the force required to
complete a task by impairing sensory feedback or by the tonic vibration reflex.
Vibration exposure results from gripping power tools, holding the controls of a

55
 power machine, using percussion tools or using grinding machines.
Unfortunately, vibration alone cannot be isolated in order to determine its effects
from those induce by force or repetitive movement (Kao 2003).

3. Low Temperature - Cold temperatures affect manual dexterity and tactile

sensitivity. Exposing fingers to cold exhaust from pneumatic instruments or
working in a cold environment with cooling of the skin to 0-20 degrees
Centigrade has a profound effect on strength and sensitivity. Cold temperatures or
the use of poor fitting gloves affect the force required to complete a task by
impairing sensory feedback, potentially leading to muscle strains and sprains.

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Well fitting gloves, on the other hand, may improve the coefficient of friction and

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reduce the force of the action. The hand should be kept above 25 degrees

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Centigrade to minimize these effects (Kao 2003).

4.
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Mechanical Stress - Localized mechanical stresses are caused by physical contact
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between a part of the body and a tool or instrument. Typically this involves
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contact with a hard or sharp instrument. Forceful gripping of tools with small
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diameter handles has been associated with compression of the thenar branch of
tR

the median nerve leading to atrophy and paresthesias. Use of hammers, chisels
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and similar instruments has been associated with this condition. Localized
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compression has also been associated with trigger fingers by the effect on tendons
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or tendon sheaths (Kao 2003).

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5. Inappropriate Force - The higher the force of the exertion the greater the risk for
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upper extremity symptoms. The forcefulness of the task is the most significant
risk factor in upper extremity disorders. The amount of force exerted by the
fingers to hold an object is proportional to the force causing it to slip out of the
hand and inversely proportional to the slipperiness of the object. More strength is
required to exert a certain amount of force with gloves than without gloves.

6. Posture - Awkward postures affect the maximal force required/applied to a given

task. Grip force decreases to approximately 60 lbs if the wrist is flexed at 45
degrees and decreases to 75 lbs if the wrist is extended to 45 degrees. The type of
grasp is also important as it affects the magnitude of the force required to perform
a task. A pinch grasp increases the tensile loads on flexor tendons to the fingers to

56
 a greater extent than a power grasp. However, posture alone is not considered to
be a significant risk factor in the development of upper extremity disorders but
does affect the forcefulness required for the task. Awkward postures of the
shoulder, elbow, wrist, or hand may result in a CTD. These would include
excessive shoulder elevation, deviated wrist postures, extreme elbow postures,
and pinch type grip of working tools. One should be aware that awkward postures
might result from a poor layout of the workstation or an equipment design as well
as operator function.

The most commonly recognized work-related musculoskeletal disroders are as follows

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(Ergosense, n.d):-

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1. Tendinitis (tendonitis) - Irritation/inflammation of a tendon as a result of

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repetitive forces or stress on a particular muscle-tendon unit (Ergosense, n.d).

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2. Lateral Epicondylitis (tennis elbow) - Irritation/inflammation of tendon units over
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lateral aspect of elbow resulting from impact or jerky, throwing motions
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(Ergosense, n.d).
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3. Medial Epicondylitis (golfer’s elbow) - Irritation/ inflammation of tendon units

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over medial aspect of shoulder resulting from repeated forceful rotations of the
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forearm together with bending of the wrist (Ergosense, n.d).

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4. Tenosynovitis – Irritation/inflammation of a tendon or its tendon sheath resulting

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from repetitive movements causing the tendon to slide along its sheath in a rapid
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or frequent manner (Ergosense, n.d).

5. Synovitis - Irritation/inflammation of the inner lining of the membrane

surrounding a joint or tendon (Ergosense, n.d).

6. Stenosing Tenosynovitis of the finger (trigger finger) - Progressive constriction of

a tendon resulting from an irritation on the surface of the tendon or inflammation
of its tendon sheath leading to restriction of free movement (Ergosense, n.d).

7. De Quervain’s disease - Stenosing synovitis of the tendons of the radial side of

the wrist, leading to constriction with resultant withdrawal of the thumb away
from the hand and limited thumb movement (Ergosense, n.d).

57
8. Raynaud’s Phenomenon (white finger/vibration syndrome) – Reflexive
constriction of the small arteries causing fingers to turn pale/white (intermittent
blanching), cold, numb and tingly. Condition may result from the extensive use of
vibrating tools (Ergosense, n.d).

9. Thoracic outlet syndrome - Compression of the nerves and blood vesselsbetween

the neck and shoulders causing numbness of the fingers and hands. Condition is
caused/aggravated by positional activities such as raising arms high above
shoulders or pulling shoulders back and down (Ergosense, n.d).

10. Pronator Syndrome - brought on by the compression of the median nerve in the

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area between the pronator teres muscle that extends from the elbow forward

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(Gehrig, 2004).

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11. Ulnar or Radial Nerve Entrapment - produced by the compression of the ulnar or
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radial nerves that pass through the wrist (Gehrig, 2004).
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12. Extensor Wad Strain - a result of injury caused to the extensor muscles of the
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thumb and fingers (Gehrig, 2004).

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13. Carpal Tunnel Syndrome - Compression of the median nerve as it traverses under
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a broad dorsal ligament (carpal tunnel) on the wrist causing pain tingling and
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numbness of the wrist and hands. This condition is precipitated by chronic

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unnatural positions of the wrists (typing), direct pressure on the median nerve by
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sharp objects or hard work surface edges or tools (Ergosense, n.d).

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The most common symptoms experienced by people having CTD’s are explained in
Table 4.1

Table 4.1 – Symptoms of Cumulative Traumatic disorders Adapted from (Gehrig,

2004)
Disorder Symptoms
Carpal Tunnel Syndrome Pain, tingling, loss of feeling, or
weakness in the thumb, index, and middle
finger.

Ulnar or Radial Nerve Entrapment Weakness, loss of feeling, and/or tingling

in the lower arm or wrist.

58
 Pronator Syndrome Closely related to those noted for carpal
tunnel syndrome.

Tendinitis Pain in the wrist, mainly on the periphery

or the sides of the hand and thumb. These
symptoms may also be expressed in the
elbow, hand, and shoulder and may lead
to severe pain and weakened function of
the joints.

Extensor Wad Strain Numbness, pain, and weakness in the

fingers of the hand.

Thoracic Outlet Syndrome Loss of feeling, discomfort, and/or

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tingling in the fingers, hand, or wrist.

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Prevention of work-related CTDs has become a high priority of various regulatory

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bodies and government agencies concerned with workplace safety. Certain steps that
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can be taken by the workers who are exposed to avoid the development of CTD’s are
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(Ergosense, n.d) :
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1. Reducing or elminating if possible the repetitive motions when feasible and

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taking adequate rest breaks.

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2. Avoiding akward postures when applying forces.

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3. Using no more force than necessary to complte any given task.

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4. Seeking treatment for any medical conditions that may increase personal risk such
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as thyroid disorders , hypertension , diabetes and rheumatoid arthiritis.

5. Exercising and getting adequate rest.

6. Limiting the consumption of alcohol.

7. Seeking prompt medical treatment for any recurring discomfort or pain associated
with the fingers , hand , wrist , upper arm, lower arm , elbow , or shoulder that
persists for more than a few days. CTS’s can be more successfully treated and at
less cost if detected early.

59
4.2 CONCERNING THE WNP , AOD , DOD, MVC & SUBJECTIVE TOOL
ANALSYSIS:

Table 4.2 – DOD , WNP , Av.DOD & Std Dev

% of
DOD WNP Av.DOD StdDev
Deviation
DT Rt 79º 75º 6º 2.86 9%
DT Lt 74º 77º 5º 2.21 7%
UT Rt 77º 75º 6º 1.41 8%
Ut Lt 74º 77º 6º 2.46 7%

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Table 4.3 – Percentage of MVC

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Tool & Surface Percentage of MVC
DTRS
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DTFS 70 %
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UTRS 71 %
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UTFS 73 %
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Table 4.4 – Averages of participant

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details , Standard Deviation and

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both tool score

Averages Std Dev
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Age 23.6 1.5

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Ht cm 166.5 9.1
Wt kg 67.1 22.3
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Ut Score 4.54 1.53

Dt Score 5.25 1.45

The average AOD’s for both the tools in either wrists were found to be in the
range of ±6º as described in Table 4.2. The average amount of force being used as
compared to the subjects MVC’s fall in the range of ±70% as described in Table 4.3.
This indicates that the amount of force the rubber tapping process required is
signifcant enought to cause overexertion in the tappers. Moreover the AOD’s that
occur as a result of the tool design can become greater if the tappers are not familiar
with the process.

60
 Even though the AOD’s seem insignificant. The repetitive nature of this type of
work will definitely lead to the onset of various CTD’s more notably CTS. Even the
subjective analaysis of the design of the tools and their comfortability of use has
revealed that the tools definitely have a faulty design, the lower scores reflecting the
same are summarized in Table 4.4. The uncomfortable design of them can also be a
contributing factor to the development of CTD’s. The most common opinions about
each tool is summarized in table 4.5

Upward Tool Opinions Downward Tool Opinions

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× Needs a softer more firmer grip. × Needs a softer more firmer grip.
× × The tool is too heavy.

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The tool itself is too short.
× The design is uncomfortable. × The tool is not designed for left handed
× The tool is not designed for left
handed people. ce
people.
× The tool is too long
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× The tool is not sharp enough. × The cuting head is not sharp enough.
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× The tool is not really that useful. × The tool is uncomfortable.

× The neck of the tool needs to be bent.
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Table 4.5 – Tool Opinions

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It was quite clear from the faulty design of the tool that the AOD’s coupled with
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the constant use of roughly 70% use of the MVC will definitely lead to the onset of
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CTD’s. Which will ultimately reduce the quality and efficiency of the worker and
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affect the output of the industry.

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4.3 COMPLICATIONS ENCOUNTERED :

One of the major complications encountered during the sampling of this research
was the instrumentation. Firstly the wrist angles have been recorded by the subject
placing the wrist on a blank piece of paper after maintaining the angle when the tools
were held. However these measurements can be measured more effectively using an
electrogoniometer.

61
 The muscles which have been chosen for the EMG readings are based on a
research done by Fagarasanu et al., on Measurement of angular wrist neutral zone and
forearm muscle activity. Those muscles being FCR , FCU , ECR & ECU respectively.
Since there is no existing research on the employment of the EMG methodolody in
determining the muscular activity when using rubber tapper tools the muscles that are
specifically involved in this process have not been yet identified.

During the course of this reserach the EMG device which was used was
PowerLab© from ADinstruments© with only two channels for taking human
readings. Hence muscles of only the dominant hand have been taken for the EMG

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analysis. The process of rubber tapping usually involves both hands, hence a more

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comprehensive reserach would involve the identification of the exact extensors and

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flexors that are involved when holding and using the rubber tapping tools.

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Subsequently the EMG recordings would have to be taken from the identified
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muscles on both hands. The presence of more channels on the EMG device would
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definitely facilitate the gathering of more data that would be more conclusive in
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nature. Surface electrodes have been used to detect the action potentials originating in
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the muscles , however the usage of intra muscular electrodes would assist in accurate
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identification of the muscles that are involved in the rubber tapping process.
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The sample size of this research stands at 24 (12 men and 12 women) who had
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volunteered for this research. The participants however were not people who were
involved in the rubber tapping profession. Actual rubber tappers were not used for this
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experiment since the hypertrophy of specific muscles of the wrists would produce
results that would not allow to determine wheteher the tools in itself posses any design
flaws which effect the output of the work. A larger sample size would also reveal data
that would be more conclusive in nature.

The rubber tapping process was simulated on a surface that was designed to
represent the tree addressing the portability issues of the EMG device. Sampling of
this experiment using a real rubber tree would also enhance the integrity of the results.

62
 CHAPTER 5.0

CONCLUSION

The data and research gathered from this experiment reveal that the current tools
used by the rubber tappers are definitely a significant contributing factor towards the
rise of any CTD’s that they may acquire. The major causative elements being the
DOD’s of the wrists while using the tool and the amount of force that is being used in
the rubber tapping process itself. Subjective analysis definitely confirms that the

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rubber tapping tools themselves have been designed poorly which most probably

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would be a major contributing factor affecting the output of work of the rubber

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tappers.

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The rubber industry is one of the most significant contributing sectors towards the
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the economy of MALAYSIA. Hence any research conducted in this area to enhance
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the productivity of the rubber industries would be very significant. Since the rubber
tR

tapping industry relies heavily on the manual process of rubber tapping. Identification
of its flaws and strenghts would be an important avenue for consideration by the
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associated regulatory bodies. Discovering the complications which the individual

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rubber tapper workers face would also reveal an important insight which would
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faciliate the maximization of their outputs.

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Finally the employment of the EMG technique in identifying the muscular activity
of various types of manual processes that exist in today’s industries would be
significant in improving not in the quality of the work of the employees in general but
would contribute towards the overall improvement of the productivity of those
industries.

63
 CHAPTER 6.0

FUTURE DIRECTION

The following figures are the proposed concept designs which addresses the
major issues that the participants were facing when using the tools. This design
however is just a concept and its details can be altered such that it is able to be more
efficeint and comfortable for the rubber tapper workers at the same time protecting
them from the development of any RSI’s.

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64
 y
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Figure 6.1 – Rubber Buddy (Image generated using Illustrator v10.0)
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Figure 6.2 – Rubber Buddy Brief Details
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Figure 6.3 – 3d View of the Rubber Buddy

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 y
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Figure 6.4 – 3d View of the Extender

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68
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