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The History of Aceh

Aceh has long played a special and vital role in Indonesia. The area now enjoys special status under Indonesian rule, yet it remains one of the most rebellious provinces in the country. From time to time throughout the history of the county, the Acehnese have challenged Jakarta's rule, trying to establish an independent Aceh, separate from Indonesia. At a glance, the reasons behind the Acehnese struggle for independence are not evident. Unlike Irian Jaya or East Timor, Aceh is, after all, overwhelmingly Muslim, like the rest of Indonesia. And the Acehnese make no claim to a distinct ethnicity or, necessarily, political ideology. However, a brief exploration of Aceh's history explains the mix of factors that have led the Acehnese to challenge Jakarta's rule. Peureulak, Pasai and Aceh Darussalam According to some historians, Aceh played an important role in Islamizing many parts of Indonesia, including Java, the most populous island. Islam came to Indonesia, and possibly all of Southeast Asia, through Aceh sometime around the eighth century. The first Islamic kingdom in Aceh, Peureulak, was established in the early years of the ninth century, with Bandar Kalifah as its capital. Bandar Kalifah was described by some historians as a prosperous trading port in what is now Aceh. Peureulak's prominent role in the Malaka Straits was carried on by the Samudra Pasai kingdom in the 13th century. According to historians, Pasai was formed through the merger of the Peureulak and Pase kingdoms. The influence of Samudera Pasai, sometimes called Samudera Darussalam, was also felt on the Malaka Peninsula. Some historians say it was Pasai that Islamized the kingdom of Patani in southern Thailand. Beside being the center of trade and Islamic studies in Southeast Asia, Pasai also exported its culture, and most importantly its language -- Jawi Pasai, more commonly known as Classic Malay -- to ports on a number of islands. Later, this language became the lingua franca among traders in what is now Indonesia and Malaysia. But in its development the language in Aceh grew differently, becoming more and more distinct from the common Malay. In the middle of the 14th century, Pasai was invaded by Majapahit soldiers from Java. Pasai was defeated after three days of battle. Sultan Ahmad of Pasai left the palace, and many Acehnese were transported to Java as prisoners of war. These people later played an important role in the Islamization of Java. Historian Teuku Haji Ibrahim Alfian from Gadjah Mada University said a special relation between Majapahit and Pasai was formed after the Majapahit king married a daughter of the Pasai sultan. When his wife's brother paid a visit to Majapahit's capital in East Java, the king of

Majapahit awarded his brother-in-law land in Ampel -- what is now Surabaya in East Java. Ampel became the center for the spread of Islam in Java. From Ampel, Islam spread to Gresik, also in East Java, Kudus and Demak in Central Java, and many other parts of the island, particularly along the northern coast. In the early 15th century, the Malaka kingdom on the Malaka Peninsula became prominent among traders in the Malaka Straits. Malaka wanted traders from Java and other areas under Majapahit's rule to use Malaka ports in their trade, instead of exclusively using the Pasai ports. According to historian Ibrahim Alfian, Malaka sent representatives to Majapahit, asking Javanese traders to dock in Malaka ports. But the Majapahit authorities told the representatives Majapahit had forged close relations with Pasai and would use Pasai ports for its trade. Malaka then sent representatives to Pasai to ask the Pasai sultan's permission to allow Javanese traders to use Malaka ports. Pasai honored the request, thus beginning the Islamization of Malaka. Together, Malaka and Pasai grew strong and controlled trade in the straits. As time passed, Malaka's trading ports became more prominent and overshadowed Pasai. But Malaka fell to Portugal in 1511. This shifted the center of trade in the straits from Malaka to Pasai. As a result, Portugal invaded Pasai and conquered it in 1521. Portugal eventually built a fortress in Pasai, bringing to an end this kingdom. Alexander the Great of the East In another part of Aceh, namely in Aceh Besar, a small kingdom named Lamurai grew bigger and bigger. Under the leadership of Sultan Ali Mugayat Syah (1511-1530), this kingdom grew strong and was renamed Aceh Darussalam. In 1523, Sultan Ali attacked the Portuguese in Pasai, killing Portugal military commander Horge de Brito. Sultan Ali managed to drive the Portuguese troops out of Pasai. After this defeat, Portugal attempted to conquer Aceh several times, but to no avail. Aceh Darussalam continued the role of Samudra Pasai in spreading Islam throughout Indonesia, and also promoted the use of Jawi Pasai, or Classical Malay, as the lingua franca of traders. Aceh continued to develop, growing strong and prosperous. Under the leadership of Sultan Iskandar Muda, Aceh reached its golden era, conquering numerous areas in Sumatra, including Natal Tiku, Pariaman, Nias island and Johor on the Malaka Peninsula. Aceh also launched several offensives against Portugal in Malaka. Although it never truly defeated Portugal, Aceh controlled trade in the straits. Because of his success in expanding Aceh, Sultan Iskandar Muda was often referred to as the Alexander the Great of the East. Sultan Iskandar Muda passed away in 1636, and was succeeded by his son-in-law, Sultan Iskandar Thani. Five years later, Sultan Iskandar Thani passed away, marking the beginning of Aceh's decline and sparking Dutch and British efforts to dominate the region. After the nationalization of the Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie (VOC), or the United East Indies Company in 1799, the Dutch controlled almost all of the territory that would one day become Indonesia, with Aceh being among the areas resisting Dutch rule.

The Aceh War In 1824, the Netherlands and Britain signed the London Treaty, also known as the Anglo-Dutch treaty, in which Britain surrendered the island of Sumatra to the Dutch. In exchange, the Dutch surrendered their possessions in India and withdrew all claims to Singapore. In this treaty, the Dutch agreed to allow Aceh to retain its independence. In a later twist, however, the Dutch signed a treaty with Britain in 1871, called the Sumatra Treaty, in which the British authorized the Dutch to invade Aceh. Two years later, in 1873, the Netherlands declared war and invaded Aceh Darussalam. But the Dutch found it more difficult than they expected to gain control of the whole of Aceh. The Acehnese resisted the occupation, touching off the Aceh War, the longest war ever fought by the Dutch and claiming more than 10,000 lives. Many heroes emerged from this war, including Teungku Chik di Tiro Muhammad Saman, Panglima Polem, Teuku Umar, Tjut Nja' Dien and Cut Meutia, to name but a few. Historians differ on when the war actually ended. Some say 1903, when Aceh's Sultan Muhammad Daud Syah surrendered to the Dutch. But some historians said the Aceh War did not really end in 1903, as the Dutch continued to face guerrilla uprisings in a number of areas even after the sultan surrendered. Sultan Muhammad Daud himself launched a guerrilla war from Kutaraja, now Banda Aceh, in 1907. Although his efforts failed and he was captured by the Dutch and sent into exile in Ambon and later in Jakarta, his resistance against Dutch rule inspired many guerrilla fighters. The Dutch met particularly staunch resistance in Pidie, Central Aceh, West Aceh and Southeast Aceh. The Dutch managed to take control of these areas and most of Aceh by 1912. But a number of historians claim the Aceh War really did not end until the Dutch surrendered to Japan in 1942. The surrender of Sultan Muhammad Daud Syah marked the fall of Aceh Darussalam. It also marked the end of the sultanate system in Aceh, which was abolished by the Dutch, making Muhammad Daud Syah the last sultan of Aceh. The Dutch appointed a governor to rule Aceh and installed district chiefs, locally known as uleebalang. The recruitment of uleebalang by the Dutch East Indies deepened the division and conflict with the ulema, who considered the Dutch administration kaphee, the unbeliever according to Islamic teaching. Over time, reformist uleebalang and ulema began to work together. When the ulema established the Association of All Aceh Ulemas (PUSA) on May 5, 1939, with respected ulema Teungku Mohammad Daud Beureueh as chairman, they chose uleebalang Teungku Mohammad Amin as secretary-general. National Movement Under Dutch rule, the Acehnese began to forge cooperation with other areas in Indonesia and were involved in various national and political movements. The Islamic merchant organization

Serikat Islam, established in Surakarta in 1912, came to Aceh about 1917. This was followed by Muslim social organization Muhammadiyah in 1923. The organization constructed a Muslim school in Kutaraja, now Banda Aceh, in 1929. And in 1939, the Great Indonesia Party (Parindra) opened a branch in Aceh, becoming the first political party in the area. In the same year, ulema established PUSA, an anti-Dutch organization. And Aceh became increasingly involved in Indonesia's national movement. When the Volksraad, or parliament, was established, Teungku Nyak Arif was appointed the first representative from Aceh. (Nyak Arif was later appointed Aceh's first regent by Indonesia's first governor of Sumatra, Moehammad Hasan). The Acehnese, like many others in Indonesia and Southeast Asia, welcomed Japanese troops when they landed in Aceh on March 12, 1942, because of Japan's promise to free them from the shackles of colonization. But the way Japan ruled Aceh did not differ much from the Dutch. Japan again recruited uleebalang to fill the positions of Gunco and Sunco, or district and subdistrict heads. This angered the ulema, and again deepened the division between the ulema and uleebalang. Rebellions against Japanese rule broke out in a number of areas, including one in Bayu, near Lhokseumawe, in 1942 led by Teungku Abdul Jalil, and in Pandrah, Jeunieb, in 1944. Aceh, a capital of Indonesia Soon after Indonesia's independence was declared on Aug. 17, 1945, Aceh came to the forefront in support of the new independent country. On Oct. 15, four of the most respected ulema in Aceh -- Teungku Hadji Hasan Kroeeng Kale, Teungku M. Daoed Beureueh, Teungku Hadji Dja'far Sidik Lamdjabat and Teungku Hadji Ahmad Hasballah Indrapoeri -- issued an announcement in the name of all ulema in Aceh, calling on all Acehnese to help defend the new Indonesia. The announcement was endorsed by Aceh regent Teungku Nja' Arif and the chairman of the National Committee, Toeankoe Mahmoed. In the announcement, the four ulema declared war in defense of Indonesia against foreign aggression sabil war, or war in the way of God. The announcement read as follows: "The very destructive second World War has just ended. Now, in the West and in the East, four big kingdoms are managing everlasting world peace for the safety of Allah's creatures. And Indonesia, our homeland, has declared its independence to all the world, and the Republic of Indonesia has been established under the leadership of our respected, great leader Ir. SOEKARNO. "The Dutch is one small, poor country, a country smaller than Atjeh (Aceh), and has been destroyed. They are committing crimes against our nation, the independent Indonesia, attempting again to colonize us. "If they are successful, they will again exploit all of our people, seize all of the wealth of the state and also of the people, and all the wealth that we have collected will disappear altogether.

They will make Indonesians their slaves again, and make efforts to abolish our noble religion of Islam and to crush or inhibit Indonesians' nobility and welfare. "In Java, the Dutch and their henchmen have committed aggression against the freedom of the Republic of Indonesia, leading to wars in a number of areas that eventually were won by us. Even so, they have not yet repented. "All of our people have united, standing behind the great leader Ir. SOEKARNO to await orders as to what they must do. "According to our belief, this struggle is a noble struggle that is called SABIL WAR. "Therefore, believe, all our people, that this struggle is a continuation of the previous struggle in Atjeh led by the late Tgk. Tjhi' di Tiro and other national heroes. "That is why all our people must stand up, unite shoulder to shoulder, move forward and follow the steps and struggles of our ancestors. Heed with respect all the orders from our leaders for the safety of our Homeland, Religion and Nation." Beside moral support, Aceh also gave material support to the young Indonesia. In 1946, Acehnese bought national bonds issued by Indonesia's provisional government in Sumatra, with denominations of Rp 100, Rp 500 and Rp 1,000. In addition, the Acehnese also donated cash to help finance the Indonesian government in Yogyakarta to run its operations and open representative offices abroad. In 1949, the Acehnese donated two airplanes, one of which was the famous Seulawah plane that later became a pioneer in the establishment of national flagcarrier Garuda Indonesia. Because of these donations in the early period of Indonesia, first president Sukarno described Aceh as a capital of Indonesia. Conflicts in Aceh after Independence While the ulema and the youths in Aceh fully supported the inclusion of Aceh in Indonesia, a number of uleebalang in Pidie refused to give their support, leading to the infamous Cumbok incident in late 1945. The uleebalang Cumbok and his supporters fought against supporters of an independent Indonesia. After this incident, there were no significant movements against Indonesia's rule in Aceh until the early 1950s. More serious conflicts occurred after the leader of the Indonesian Emergency Government (PDRI) in Sumatra, Sjafrudin Prawiranegara, issued Decree No. 8/Des/W.K.P.H, dated Dec. 17, 1949, on the establishment of the Aceh province, with Teungku Daud Beureueh as its governor. Before his appointment as Aceh governor, Daud Buereueh served as military governor of Aceh, Langkat and Tanah Karo from 1947. But on Dec. 27, 1949, the Dutch East Indies ceased to exist, becoming the sovereign Federal Republic of Indonesia. The council of ministers of the Federal Republic of Indonesia, in a meeting on Aug. 8, 1950, decided to divide Indonesia into 10

provinces, including the province of North Sumatra, which included Aceh. The council of ministers disregarded the PDRI decree signed by Sjafrudin Prawiranegara on the establishment of the Aceh province. Later in 1950, the Federal Republic of Indonesia ceased to exist, once again becoming the Republic of Indonesia when it joined the United Nations. Prime Minister M. Natsir announced the dissolution of the Aceh province in Kutaraja on Jan. 23, 1951. Daud Beureueh was then appointed a high-ranking official at the Ministry of Home Affairs in Jakarta. Conflict after conflict shook Aceh, encouraging Daud Beureueh to lend his support to the Darul Islam (House of Islam) movement in Java to establish an Islamic state. And on Sept. 20, 1953, Daud Beureueh declared Aceh's independence from Indonesia, with numerous Acehnese backing this rebellion, which took years to crush. In 1959, the central government responded by giving Aceh the status of "special territory", through Decree No. 1/Missi/1959, which was issued by a deputy prime minister. This decree conferred an unusually high degree of autonomy in religious, educational and cultural matters. Many observers believed Aceh's status of special territory would lead to greater prosperity and help bring Aceh into the Indonesian mainstream. Despite some economic gains and wider acceptance of the authority of the Indonesian government, the desire among some Acehnese for an independent Islamic state did not die out altogether. On Dec. 4, 1976, Teungku Hasan M. di Tiro founded the Free Aceh Movement (GAM). The Indonesian government responded harshly. In the late 1970s, the authorities conducted mass arrests of GAM members and kept a lid on their activities until 1989, when the group, now also calling itself the Aceh-Sumatra National Liberation Front (ASNLF), came out of hibernation and renewed its quest for independence, often through attacks on police and military installations. The government responded to GAM's campaign of violence with its own campaign of violence, declaring Aceh a Military Operation Zone (DOM). Nine years later, in August 1998, the government lifted the DOM status following increasing protests from locals and human rights activists, who said the imposition of DOM only worsened the situation in Aceh and led to massive human rights violations by military and police personnel. A team established by the North Aceh district administration reported more than 1,600 cases of human rights violations by the military and GAM during the period DOM was in effect. The campaign of terror led to the deaths and disappearances of at least 760 people. Six hundred women were reported widowed, 10 raped and 1,960 children orphaned during the military operation. Nevertheless, the period following the lifting of the DOM status was not much improved. According to Saifuddin Bantasyam, executive director of the Care for Human Rights Forum (FPHAM), a great number of people became victims of violence between August 1998, when the DOM status was lifted, to December 1999. The forum's data showed that between Aug. 8, 1998,

and Dec. 21, 1999, 534 people were killed, comprising 450 civilians (83.7 percent) and 84 military and police personnel (15.7 percent). The killings were spread across all 13 regions of Aceh, except Sabang, Southeast Aceh and Semeulue. Because of the increasing violence, the administration of President Abdurrahman Wahid decided to pursue a softer approach to deal with the Aceh problem. The government signed a humanitarian pause agreement with GAM representatives in Geneva on May 12, 2000, to end the violence in the territory. Despite the agreement, however, violence continued unabated in Aceh. The humanitarian pause is now in jeopardy, with a GAM leader declaring his group will boycott further talks with the government. GAM demands outright independence for Aceh, but the government insists it will never allow Aceh to leave Indonesia's fold. It is far from clear how the problems in Aceh will evolve in the future, and how or if these problems will be resolved.

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