Biology Notes

Cell Structure & Cell Organisation
Tuesday, March 17th, 2009
Theory
1. 2. All Cells organisms are are the made fundamental
of
up of and one or more unit cells of structural
Cell
.. life.
3. All cells come from pre-existing cells.
Non-organelle
1. 2. 3. Cell wall (plant cell only)
Structures
Plasma
of
Cell
membrane Cytoplasm
Organelle
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
Structures
Endoplasmic
of
Cell
Nucleus Recticulum Mitochondrion Ribosom
Golgi
apparatus Vacuole
7. Chloroplast (plant cell only)
Plama
1. 2. Separates Regulates the the content movement of of the cell from entering its and external substances
Membrane
environment. the cell. leaving
3. Allows the exchange of nutrients, respiratory gases and wastes products between the cell and its environment
Cytoplasm
1. 2. Acts Maintain as a medium the for the shape biochemical of reactions occur the within the cell. cell
3. Storing chemical substances such as glicogen granules (in animal cells), starch granules (inplant cells) 4. Stores a variety of organelle. and enzymes.
Cell
1. 2. Support Maintain the the cell shape and of the the
Wall
plant. cell.
3. Prevents the cell from bursting when too much water enters the cell through osmosis. 4. Allows substances to move through it.
Nucleus
1. 2. Contains Controls the the genetic activities material of of the a cell. cell.
3. Produces ribosomes and ribonucleic acids (RNA).
Endoplasmic
Rough * * Transporting Involve in the the
Recticulum
Endoplasmic newly systhesis synthesised of
(ER)
Recticulum: protein. protein.
* Provides surface for chemical reaction Smooth * Transporting Endoplasmic lipids and Recticulum: glycerols.
* Synthesising lipids and other non-protein substances.
Mitochonrion
1. Produces ATP (Adenosine triphosphate.) 2. Site of energy production through cellular respiration.
Ribosomes
Site for synthesising protein.
Golgi
* * * Site Produces Storing for the polysacharides, and production of enzyme and and secretory and glycoproteins
Apparatus
lysosome. enzyme. glycoprotein.
modifying
carbohydrate
* Transport and store lipid.
Vacuole
1. 2. Stores Support food (Carbohydrate, plants amino when acid) it and is water. turgid. herbaceous
3. Stores organic waste (in leaf cells).
Chloroplast
Contain chlorophyll and hence a site for photosynthesis to take place.
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Biology
Tuesday, March 17th, 2009
Biology bios
is
the
study
of
life
or
living
organism; life
logy (original: logos) which means study
Importance
* * * Better Better Better understanding understanding understanding on on on the
of
the causes functions of improve of diseases the human and the
Biology
body cure its
ecology;
environment.
* Saving animal and plant species which are facing extinction.
Fields
of
Biology
Research
Anatomy, Bacteriology, Botany, Cell Biology, Developmetal Biology, Ecology, Entomology, Genetics, Histology, Microbiology, Molecular Biology, Physiology, Taxonomy, Zoology.
Career
Medical - Doctor, Biotechnology Agriculture
Related
Nurse, Dentist, Pharmacist, Nutritionist, - Biotechnologist, - Estate Manager,
To
Veterinarian, Food Agricultural
Biology
Physiotherapist Technologist Officer
Botanist,
Industry - Researh Officer, Scientist
Characteristic
Metapolism Respiration Nutrition Locomotion Reproduction Growth - Obtain - Breakdown - Source - Moving of from food
Of
energy to obtain and place to for
Living
life for and growth, Repair place energy growth; another
Organism
activities movement, damaged (only for etc tissue animal) offspring of size
energy one
- Reproduce - Increasing
Excretion - Expelled waste from body
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[Biology Form 4] Organelles And Its Function

Thursday, April 16th, 2009
RIBOSOME Function: A site for the synthesis of proteins
Atomic
structure
of
the
50S
Subunit
from
Haloarcula marismortui. Proteins are shown in blue and the two RNA strands in orange and yellow. The small patch of green in the center of the subunit is the active site. *********************
MITOCHONDRION Function: A site for cellular respiration and the synthesis of ATP
Simplified structure of mitochondrion *********************
CHLOROPLAST Function: Enables the plant cell to carry out photosynthesis
Chloroplast 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. plastoglobule (drop of lipids) plastidial granum thylakoid inner stroma lumen thylakoid (stack thylakoid of outer intermembrane membrane (1+2+3: (aqueous (inside of
ultrastructure: membrane space envelope) fluid) thylakoid) membrane thylakoids) (lamella) starch ribosome DNA
*********************
CENTRIOLES Function: Help to form spindle fibres during cell division
3-dimensional view of a centriole *********************
SMOOTH
ENDOPLASMIC
RETICULUM
Function: A site for synthesis of lipids and steroids GOLGI Function: Processes, packages and transport carbohydrates, proteins and phospholipids BODY
Diagram of secretory process from endoplasmic reticulum (orange) to Golgi apparatus (pink). Please click for full labels.Secretory pathway diagram,
including nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum and golgi apparatus. 1. Nuclear membrane2. Nuclear pore 3. Rough endoplasmic reticulum (rER) 4. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (sER) 5. Ribosome attached to rER 6. Macromolecules 7. Transport vesicles 8. Golgi apparatus 9. Cis face of Golgi apparatus 10. Trans face of Golgi apparatus 11. Cisternae of Golgi apparatus
[Biology Form 4] Single Cell

Monday, March 23rd, 2009
A single cell can carry out many function. A single cell with its numerous components and organelles can be so complete that it is able to function as a complete organism! Examples of such unicellular organisms (or organisms that are made up of ONE cell only) are protozoa, bacteria, viruses, and certain types of algae and fungi. In fact, most microorganisms are usually unicellular in nature. The following table, show how and where the living process are carried out in each of the unicellular organisms;
Living process a) Respiration b) Excretion of excess water
Paramecium Diffusion through its cell membrane Contractile vacuole Mitosis (cell division of nucleus) binary fission Synthesis of new cytoplasm and organelle Taxis whole cell moves toward favourable stimuli and away from unfavourable stimuli Pseudopodia
Amoeba Diffusion through its cell membrane Contractile vacuole Mitosis (cell division of nucleus) binary fission Synthesis of new cytoplasm and organelle Taxis whole cell moves toward favourable stimuli and away from unfavourable stimuli Cilia Ingestion through oral groove, digestion in food vacuoles and egestion through its anal pore
c) Reproduction
d) Growth
e) Response to environment
f) Locomotion
g) Nutrition (eating)
Phagocytosis, digestion in food vacuoles and lysozymes
[Biology Form 4] Organelle 1

Monday, March 23rd, 2009
1) Chloroplast This is an organelle made up of a double membrane and several membranous structures. 2) In organelle 1, energy is not created or distroyed. In fact, one form of energy can convert to another. 3) Lense This is the typical shape of organelle 1. 4) Water This is one of the requirements for the process in organelle 1 to take place. 5) Oxygen The name of the gas released during the process that occurs in organelle 1. 6) It is a plant cell that usually contains organelle 1. 7) Sun The source of all energy in an ecosystem ant the source of the energy that can be absorbed by organelle 1. Light Without this, organelle 1 cannot carry out its funtion.
[Biology Form 4] Diffusion

Thursday, May 14th, 2009
Various substances pass through the plasma membrane of a cell. The simplest mode of transport for these substances is by diffusion. Diffusion is defined as the movement of substances from an area ofhigh concentration to an area of low concentration. When substances move in this manner, we say that they are moving along the concentration gradient. This movement process is simple and passive, which means that the substances move easily from the region of high concentration to the one whose concentration is lower without requiring any energy.
When water moves from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration across a semipermeable membrane, its movement called osmosis. Therefore, when a cell absorbs water by diffusion through its semi-permeable cell membrane, we say that water has entered the cell through osmosis. Eg: Roots absorb water through osmosis because the soil solution around the roots has a higher water concentration than the root cells. Certain substances need help in the diffusion process. These substances move into a cell by diffusion through the membrane but they are brought in by special carrier proteins. Such a diffusion process is known as facilitated diffusion. An active diffusion takes place when a substance moves from an area of low concentration to an area of high concentration, with the use of energy. This movement goes against the concentration gradient. An active diffusion process usually involves transporting important ions into and out of a cell, whose plasma membrane may have special protein pumps to engage in it.
Schematic representation of mixing of two substances by diffusion
Self diffusion, exemplified with an isotopic tracer of radioactive isotope

22
Na
Example of chemical (classical, Ficks, or Fickian) diffusion of sodium chloride in water
Illustration of low (top) and high (bottom) entropy.
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[Biology Form 4] Plasma Membrane

Tuesday, May 12th, 2009
How do substances enter and leave a cell? They have to permeate theplasma membrane a layer that separates the cell from its surrounding. To permeate means to pass through. The plasma membrane (also called the cell membrane orplasmalemma) is the biological membrane separating the interior of a cell from the outside environment. It is a semipermeable lipid bilayer found in all cells. It contains a wide variety of biological molecules, primarily proteins and lipids, which are involved in a vast array of cellular processes such as cell adhesion, ion channel conductance and cell signaling. The plasma membrane also serves as the attachment point for both the intracellular cytoskeleton and, if present, the extracellular cell wall. The plasma membrane is about 7nm-8nm thick. Proteins and a double layer
of phospholipid molecules are the main molecules that make up plasma membrane. A phospholipid is an amphipathic molecule. It has a hydrophobic tail that is not attracted to water and a hydrophilic head that has an affinity for water. The heads of the phospholipid molecules face an aquatic environment on the outside of the cell, while internally, the tails face the water-richcytoplasm. Since the plasma membrane is made up of lipids, only molecules that dissolve in fats/lipids and are non-polar in nature can pass through the phospholipid bi-layer freely. These molecules include steroid hormones eg: estrogen and testosterone and gases (like oxygen and carbon dioxide). Other substances are allowed in selectively by the cell membrane. This means that the membrane chooses the molecules that can pass through it. To do this, the membrane has several types
of proteinsacting as passageways for the entry of specific molecules. Without these proteins, certain molecules cannot enter a cell at all. For example, hydrophilic water-soluble polar molecules such as glucose and amino acids can only be taken into a cell if a special carrier protein for them is present in the membrane. These molecules avoid contact with the lipid bi-layer by passing through such transport proteins that span the membrane. Thus, glucose must bind to a carrier protein first before it can be transported across the membrane. Some carrier proteins are called ion pumps because they hydrolyse ATP and engage in the active transport of ions such as potassium andsodium into and out of the cell. Other special proteins also include pore proteins, which allow water and certain ions to enter the cell through them. In short, the plasma membrane acts as an important barrier between the cell and its environment. It is very selective, allowing only certain molecules to pass through. This nature of the membrane is called semi-permeable.
Illustration of an Eukaryotic cell membrane
Diagram of the arrangement of amphipathic lipid molecules to form a lipid bilayer. The yellow polar head groups separate the grey hydrophobic tails from the aqueous cytosolic and extracellular environments.
[Biology Form 4] Animal Cell & Plant Cell

Monday, April 20th, 2009
The cell is the basic unit of all organism. It is made up of a cell membrane that encloses the cytoplasm.
Contained within the cytoplasm are not only the nucleus but alsoorganelles, whose specific functions help the cell perform a range of activities. While plant and animal cells are similar, the plant cell has, in addition to the cell membrane, another boundary that separates it from its external environment. This is called the cell wall. As most plant cells carry out photosynthesis the synthesis of organic substances they contain chloroplasts. In plant cells, vacuoles also tend to be larger in size and smaller in number than those found in animal cells. Onion Skin Cell
Cheek Squamous Epithelial Cells
Typical Plant Cell
Typical Animal Cell
In the laboratory, you have learned how to prepare a microscope slide of human cheek cells as well as the epidermal cells of onions. a) The differences you can observe between the two types of cells in term of the following: Shape Onion cells have a regular shape while cheek cells have an irregular shape.
Presence
or
absence
of
cell
wall
Onion cells have a cell wall while cheek cells do not.
Presence
or
absence
of
vacuoles
Onion cells have a large vacuole while vacuoles in cheek cells, if present, are small. b) Can you observe chloroplasts in the epidermal cells of onions? Explain your answer. No chloroplasts can be observed in the epidermal cells of onions because epidermal cells do not carry out photosynthesis.
[Biology Form 4] Phases Of Cell Cycle And Mitosis Interphase

Monday, June 15th, 2009
The mitotic phase is a relatively short period of the cell cycle. It alternates with the much longer interphase, where the cell prepares itself for cell division. Interphase is therefore not part of mitosis. Interphase is divided into three phases, G1 (first gap), S (synthesis), and G2 (second gap). During all three phases, the cell grows by producing proteins and cytoplasmic organelles. However, chromosomes are replicated only during the S phase. Thus, a cell grows (G1), continues to grow as it duplicates its chromosomes (S), grows more and prepares for mitosis (G2), and finally divides (M) before restarting the cycle.
[Biology Form 4] Mitosis

Mitosis is the process in which a eukaryotic cell separates the chromosomes in its cell nucleus into two identical sets in two daughter nuclei. It is generally followed immediately by cytokinesis, which divides the nuclei, cytoplasm, organelles and cell membrane into two daughter cells containing roughly equal shares of these cellular components. Mitosis and cytokinesis together define the mitotic (M) phase of the cell cycle the division of the mother cell into two daughter cells, genetically identical to each other and to their parent cell. Mitosis occurs exclusively in eukaryotic cells, but occurs in different ways in different species. For example, animals undergo an open mitosis, where the nuclear envelope breaks down before the chromosomes separate, while fungi such as Aspergillus nidulans and Saccharomyces cerevisiae (yeast) undergo a closed mitosis, where chromosomes divide within an intact cell nucleus. Prokaryotic cells, which lack a nucleus, divide by a process called binary fission. The process of mitosis is complex and highly regulated. The sequence of events is divided into phases, corresponding to the completion of one set of activities and the start of the next. These stages are
prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase. During the process of mitosis the pairs of chromosomes condense and attach to fibers that pull the sister chromatids to opposite sides of the cell. The cell then divides in cytokinesis, to produce two identical daughter cells. Because cytokinesis usually occurs in conjunction with mitosis, mitosis is often used interchangeably with mitotic phase. However, there are many cells where mitosis and cytokinesis occur separately, forming single cells with multiple nuclei. This occurs most notably among the fungi and slime moulds, but is found in various different groups. Even in animals, cytokinesis and mitosis may occur independently, for instance during certain stages of fruit fly embryonic development. Errors in mitosis can either kill a cell through apoptosis or cause mutations that may lead to cancer.
Mitosis divides the chromosomes in a cell nucleus.
[Biology Form 4] Enzyme Extraordinaire

Friday, May 22nd, 2009
Many reactions take place within the cells of living organisms. If these reactions were to happen at a normal pace, they would take forever! So, cells depend on specific protein molecules to speed up or catalyse the rate of the biochemical reactions in them. These catalysts are called enzymes. Since enzymes are proteins in nature, they are easily affected by factors such as temperature and pH. Hence, conditions within the cell must be optimal for enzymes to function effectively. The best way to master the topic on enzymes is to use the comprehensive S.M.A.R.T. guide.
S.M.A.R.T. guide to learning biology

Structure function relationship - knowing the function of every structure.
1.
Structure:
What
chemical
compound
is
an
enzyme
made
up
of?
Proteins. 2. Function: What is the role played by enzymes in living organisms?
Enzymes speed up the rate of chemical reactions in living organisms. Mastery of facts - by asking the right questions and learning from the answer.
A simple way to accomplish this is by using the alphabetical ABCDEFG sub-guide. ABCDEFG means Always (A) Begin (B) with CDEFG. C is for characteristics 3. State the characteristics of enzymes: a) Enzymes are made up of proteins. b) They are catalysts that speed up the rate of a reaction. c) They are not destroyed / altered by the reactions they catalyse. d) Enzymes have specific active sites where they bind with substrates. e) Enzymes show substrate specificity they can only bind with specific substrates. f) Enzymes are needed only in small amounts. g) Enzyme-catalysed reactions are reversible they catalyse reactions in either direction. h) The activity of enzymes can be slowed down by inhibitors. i) Enzymes work more effectively with the help of co-factors. j) Enzymes are affected by factors such as temperature, pH,substrate concentration and enzyme concentration. Continue @ Enzymes Extraordinaire II >>>
[Biology Form 4] Phases Of Cell Cycle And Mitosis Prometaphase

The nuclear envelope disassembles and microtubules invade the nuclear space. This is called open mitosis, and it occurs in most multicellular organisms. Fungi and some protists, such as algae or trichomonads, undergo a variation called closed mitosis where the spindle forms inside the nucleus or its microtubules are able to penetrate an intact nuclear envelope. Each chromosome forms two kinetochores at the centromere, one attached at each chromatid. A kinetochore is a complex protein structure that is analogous to a ring for the microtubule hook; it is the point where microtubules attach themselves to the chromosome. Although the kinetochore structure and function are not fully understood, it is known that it contains some form of molecular motor. When a microtubule connects with the kinetochore, the motor activates, using energy from ATP to crawl up the tube toward the originating centrosome. This motor activity, coupled with polymerisation and depolymerisation of microtubules, provides the pulling force necessary to later separate the chromosomes two chromatids. When the spindle grows to sufficient length, kinetochore microtubules begin searching for kinetochores to attach to. A number of nonkinetochore microtubules find and interact with corresponding nonkinetochore microtubules from the opposite centrosome to form the mitotic spindle. Prometaphase is sometimes considered part of prophase.
Prometaphase: The nuclear membrane has degraded, and microtubules have invaded the nuclear space. These microtubules can attach to kinetochores or they can interact with opposing microtubules.
[Biology Form 4] Phases Of Cell Cycle And Mitosis Prophase

Normally, the genetic material in the nucleus is in a loosely bundled coil called chromatin. At the onset of prophase, chromatin condenses together into a highly ordered structure called a chromosome.
Since the genetic material has already been duplicated earlier in S phase, the replicated chromosomes have two sister chromatids, bound together at the centromere by the cohesion complex. Chromosomes are visible at high magnification through a light microscope. Close to the nucleus are structures called centrosomes, which are made of a pair of centrioles. The centrosome is the coordinating center for the cells microtubules. A cell inherits a single centrosome at cell division, which replicates before a new mitosis begins, giving a pair of centrosomes. The two centrosomes nucleate microtubules (which may be thought of as cellular ropes or poles) to form the spindle by polymerizing soluble tubulin. Molecular motor proteins then push the centrosomes along these microtubules to opposite side of the cell. Although centrosomes help organize microtubule assembly, they are not essential for the formation of the spindle, since they are absent from plants, and centrosomes are not always used in meiosis.
Prophase: The two round objects above the nucleus are the centrosomes. The chromatin has condensed
[Biology Form 4] Phases Of Cell Cycle And Mitosis Preprophase

In plant cells only, prophase is preceded by a pre-prophase stage. In highly vacuolated plant cells, the nucleus has to migrate into the center of the cell before mitosis can begin. This is achieved through the formation of a phragmosome, a transverse sheet of cytoplasm that bisects the cell along the future plane of cell division.
In addition to phragmosome formation, preprophase is characterized by the formation of a ring of microtubules and actin filaments (called preprophase band) underneath the plasma membrane around the equatorial plane of the future mitotic spindle. This band marks the position where the cell will eventually divide. The cells of higher plants (such as the flowering plants) lack centrioles: with microtubules forming a spindle on the surface of the nucleus and then being organized into a spindle by the chromosomes themselves, after the nuclear membrane breaks down. The preprophase band disappears during nuclear envelope disassembly and spindle formation in prometaphase.
[Biology Form 4] Phases Of Cell Cycle And Mitosis Telophase

Telophase (from the Greek ????? meaning end) is a reversal of prophase and prometaphase events. It cleans up the after effects of mitosis. At telophase, the nonkinetochore microtubules continue to lengthen, elongating the cell even more. Corresponding sister chromosomes attach at opposite ends of the cell. A new nuclear envelope, using fragments of the parent cells nuclear membrane, forms around each set of separated sister chromosomes. Both sets of chromosomes, now surrounded by new nuclei, unfold back into chromatin. Mitosis is complete, but cell division is not yet complete.
Telophase: The decondensing chromosomes are surrounded by nuclear membranes. Note cytokinesis has already begun, the pinching is known as the cleavage furrow.
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[Biology Form 4] Phases Of Cell Cycle And Mitosis Anaphase

When every kinetochore is attached to a cluster of microtubules and the chromosomes have lined up along the metaphase plate, the cell proceeds to anaphase (from the Greek ??? meaning up, against, back, or re-). Two events then occur; First, the proteins that bind sister chromatids together are cleaved, allowing them to separate. These sister chromatids, which have now become distinct sister chromosomes, are pulled apart by shortening kinetochore microtubules and move toward the respective centrosomes to which they are attached. Next, the nonkinetochore microtubules elongate, pushing the centrosomes (and the set of chromosomes to which they are attached) apart to opposite ends of the cell. The force that causes the centrosomes to move towards the ends of the cell is still unknown, although there is a theory that suggests that the rapid assembly and breakdown of microtubules may cause this movement. These two stages are sometimes called early and late anaphase. Early anaphase is usually defined as the separation of the sister chromatids, while late anaphase is the elongation of the microtubules and the microtubules being pulled farther apart. At the end of anaphase, the cell has succeeded in separating identical copies of the genetic material into two distinct populations.
Early anaphase: Kinetochore microtubules shorten.
[Biology Form 4] Phases Of Cell Cycle And Mitosis Metaphase

As microtubules find and attach to kinetochores in prometaphase, the centromeres of the chromosomes convene along the metaphase plate or equatorial plane, an imaginary line that is equidistant from the two centrosome poles. This even alignment is due to the counterbalance of the pulling powers generated by the opposing kinetochores, analogous to a tug-of-war between people of equal strength.
In certain types of cells, chromosomes do not line up at the metaphase plate and instead move back and forth between the poles randomly, only roughly lining up along the midline. Metaphase comes from the Greek ???? meaning after. Because proper chromosome separation requires that every kinetochore be attached to a bundle of microtubules (spindle fibres), it is thought that unattached kinetochores generate a signal to prevent premature progression to anaphase without all chromosomes being aligned. The signal creates the mitotic spindle checkpoint.
A cell in late metaphase. All chromosomes (blue) but one have arrived at the metaphase plate.
Metaphase: The chromosomes have aligned at the metaphase plate.
[Biology Form 4] Meiosis

In biology, meiosis (ma????s?s) is a process of reductional division in which the number of chromosomes per cell is halved. In animals, meiosis always results in the formation of gametes, while in other organisms it can give rise to spores. As with mitosis, before meiosis begins, the DNA in the original cell is replicated during S-phase of the cell cycle. Two cell divisions separate the replicated chromosomes into four haploid gametes or spores. Meiosis is essential for sexual reproduction and therefore occurs in all eukaryotes (including singlecelled organisms) that reproduce sexually. A few eukaryotes, notably the Bdelloid rotifers, have lost the ability to carry out meiosis and have acquired the ability to reproduce by parthenogenesis. Meiosis does not occur in archaea or bacteria, which reproduce via asexual processes such as binary fission. During meiosis, the genome of a diploid germ cell, which is composed of long segments of DNA packaged into chromosomes, undergoes DNA replication followed by two rounds of division, resulting in four haploid cells. Each of these cells contain one complete set of chromosomes, or half of the genetic content of the original cell. If meiosis produces gametes, these cells must fuse during fertilization to create a new diploid cell, or zygote before any new growth can occur. Thus, the division mechanism of meiosis is a reciprocal process to the joining of two genomes that occurs at fertilization. Because the chromosomes of each parent undergo genetic recombination during meiosis, each gamete, and thus each zygote, will have a unique genetic blueprint encoded in its DNA. Together, meiosis and fertilization constitute sexuality in the eukaryotes, and generate genetically distinct individuals in populations. In all plants, and in many protists, meiosis results in the formation of haploid cells that can divide vegetatively without undergoing fertilization, referred to as spores. In these groups, gametes are produced by mitosis. Meiosis uses many of the same biochemical mechanisms employed during mitosis to accomplish the redistribution of chromosomes. There are several features unique to meiosis, most importantly the
pairing and genetic recombination between homologous chromosomes. Meiosis comes from the root meio, meaning less.
Events involving meiosis, showing chromosomal crossover
[Biology Form 4] Mitosis Significance & Consequences Of Errors

Mitosis is important for the maintenance of the chromosomal set; each cell formed receives chromosomes that are alike in composition and equal in number to the chromosomes of the parent cell. Transcription is generally believed to cease during mitosis, but epigenetic mechanisms such as bookmarking function during this stage of the cell cycle to ensure that the memory of which genes were active prior to entry into mitosis are transmitted to the daughter cells. Although errors in mitosis are rare, the process may go wrong, especially during early cellular divisions in the zygote. Mitotic errors can be especially dangerous to the organism because future offspring from this parent cell will carry the same disorder. In non-disjunction, a chromosome may fail to separate during anaphase. One daughter cell will receive both sister chromosomes and the other will receive none. This results in the former cell having three chromosomes containing the same genes (two sisters and a homologue), a condition known as trisomy, and the latter cell having only one chromosome (the homologous chromosome), a condition known as monosomy. These cells are considered aneuploid, a condition often associated with cancer. Mitosis is a traumatic process. The cell goes through dramatic changes in ultrastructure, its organelles disintegrate and reform in a matter of hours, and chromosomes are jostled constantly by probing microtubules. Occasionally, chromosomes may become damaged. An arm of the chromosome may be broken and the fragment lost, causing deletion. The fragment may incorrectly reattach to another, non-homologous chromosome, causing translocation.
It may reattach to the original chromosome, but in reverse orientation, causing inversion. Or, it may be treated erroneously as a separate chromosome, causing chromosomal duplication. The effect of these genetic abnormalities depends on the specific nature of the error. It may range from no noticeable effect to cancer induction or organism death.
An abnormal (tripolar) mitoses (12 oclock position) in a precancerous lesion of the stomach. H&E stain
[Biology Form 4] Phases Of Cell Cycle And Mitosis Cytokinesis

Cytokinesis is often mistakenly thought to be the final part of telophase; however, cytokinesis is a separate process that begins at the same time as telophase. Cytokinesis is technically not even a phase of mitosis, but rather a separate process, necessary for completing cell division. In animal cells, a cleavage furrow (pinch) containing a contractile ring develops where the metaphase plate used to be, pinching off the separated nuclei. In both animal and plant cells, cell division is also driven by vesicles derived from the Golgi apparatus, which move along microtubules to the middle of the cell. In plants this structure coalesces into a cell plate at the center of the phragmoplast and develops into a cell wall, separating the two nuclei. The phragmoplast is a microtubule structure typical for higher plants, whereas some green algae use a phycoplast microtubule array during cytokinesis. Each daughter cell has a complete copy of the genome of its parent cell. The end of cytokinesis marks the end of the M-phase.
[Biology Form 4] Meiosis Phases

A diagram of the meiotic phases.
Meiosis I
Meiosis I separates homologous chromosomes, producing two haploid cells (23 chromosomes, N in humans), so meiosis I is referred to as areductional division. A regular diploid human cell contains 46 chromosomes and is considered 2N because it contains 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes. However, after meiosis I, although the cell contains 46 chromatids it is only considered as being N, with 23 chromosomes, because later in anaphase I the sister chromatids will remain together as the spindle pulls the pair toward the pole of the new cell. In meiosis II, an equational division similar to mitosis will occur whereby the sister chromatids are finally split, creating a total of 4 haploid cells (23 chromosomes, N) per daughter cell from the first division.
Prophase I
Homologous chromosomes pair (or synapse) and crossing over (or recombination) occurs a step unique to meiosis. The paired and replicated chromosomes are called bivalents or tetrads, which have two chromosomes and four chromatids, with one chromosome coming from each parent. At this stage, non-sister chromatids may cross-over at points called chiasmata (plural; singular chiasma).
Leptotene
The first stage of prophase I is the leptotene stage, also known asleptonema, from Greek words meaning thin threads. During this stage, individual chromosomes begin to condense into long strands within the nucleus. However the two sister chromatids are still so tightly bound that they are indistinguishable from one another.
Zygotene
The zygotene stage, also known as zygonema, from Greek words meaning paired threads, occurs as the chromosomes approximately line up with each other into homologous chromosomes. This is called the bouquet stage because of the way the telomeres cluster at one end of the nucleus.
Pachytene
The pachytene stage, also known as pachynema, from Greek words meaning thick threads, contains the following chromosomal crossover. Nonsister chromatids of homologous chromosomes randomly exchange segments of genetic information over regions of homology. (Sex chromosomes, however, are not wholly identical, and only exchange information over a small region of homology.) Exchange takes place at sites where recombination nodules (the aforementioned chiasmata) have formed. The exchange of information between the non-sister chromatids results in a recombination of information; each chromosome has the complete set of information it had before, and there are no gaps formed as a result of the process. Because the chromosomes cannot be distinguished in the synaptonemal complex, the actual act of crossing over is not perceivable through the microscope.
Diplotene
During the diplotene stage, also known as diplonema, from Greek words meaning two threads, the synaptonemal complex degrades and homologous chromosomes separate from one another a little. The chromosomes themselves uncoil a bit, allowing some transcription of DNA. However, the homologous chromosomes of each bivalent remain tightly bound at chiasmata, the regions where crossing-over occurred. The chiasmata remain on the chromosomes until they are severed in Anaphase I. In human fetal oogenesis all developing oocytes develop to this stage and stop before birth. This suspended state is referred to as thedictyotene stage and remains so until puberty. In males, onlyspermatogonia(Spermatogenesis) exist until meiosis begins at puberty.
Diakinesis
Chromosomes condense further during the diakinesis stage, from Greek words meaning moving through. This is the first point in meiosis where the four parts of the tetrads are actually visible. Sites of crossing over entangle together, effectively overlapping, making chiasmata clearly visible. Other than this observation, the rest of the stage closely resembles prometaphase of mitosis;
the nucleolidisappear, the nuclear membrane disintegrates into vesicles, and the meiotic spindle begins to form.
Synchronous processes
During these stages, two centrosomes, containing a pair of centriolesin animal cells, migrate to the two poles of the cell. These centrosomes, which were duplicated during S-phase, function as microtubule organizing centers nucleating microtubules, which are essentially cellular ropes and poles. The microtubules invade the nuclear region after the nuclear envelope disintegrates, attaching to the chromosomes at the kinetochore. The kinetochore functions as a motor, pulling the chromosome along the attached microtubule toward the originating centriole, like a train on a track. There are four kinetochores on each tetrad, but the pair of kinetochores on each sister chromatid fuses and functions as a unit during meiosis I. Microtubules that attach to the kinetochores are known as kinetochore microtubules. Other microtubules will interact with microtubules from the opposite centriole: these are
called nonkinetochore microtubules orpolar microtubules. A third type of microtubules, the aster microtubules, radiates from the centrosome into the cytoplasm or contacts components of the membrane skeleton.
Metaphase I
Homologous pairs move together along the metaphase plate: Askinetochore microtubules from both centrioles attach to their respective kinetochores, the homologous chromosomes align along an equatorial plane that bisects the spindle, due to continuous counterbalancing forces exerted on the bivalents by the microtubules emanating from the two kinetochores of homologous chromosomes. The physical basis of the independent assortment of chromosomes is the random orientation of each bivalent along the metaphase plate, with respect to the orientation of the other bivalents along the same equatorial line.
Anaphase I
Kinetochore microtubules shorten, severing the recombination nodules and pulling homologous chromosomes apart. Since each chromosome has only one functional unit of a pair of kinetochores, whole chromosomes are pulled toward opposing poles, forming two haploid sets. Each chromosome still contains a pair of sister chromatids. Nonkinetochore microtubules lengthen, pushing the centrioles farther apart. The cell elongates in preparation for division down the center.
Telophase I
The last meiotic division effectively ends when the chromosomes arrive at the poles. Each daughter cell now has half the number of chromosomes but each chromosome consists of a pair of chromatids. The microtubules that make up the spindle network disappear, and a new nuclear membrane surrounds each haploid set. The chromosomes uncoil back into chromatin. Cytokinesis, the pinching of the cell membrane in animal cells or the formation of the cell wall in plant cells, occurs, completing the creation of two daughter cells. Sister chromatids remain attached during telophase I. Cells may enter a period of rest known as interkinesis or interphase II. No DNA replication occurs during this stage.
Meiosis II
Meiosis II is the second part of the meiotic process. Much of the process is similar to mitosis. The end result is production of four haploid cells (23 chromosomes, 1N in humans) from the two haploid cells (23 chromosomes, 1N * each of the chromosomes consisting of two sister chromatids) produced in meiosis I. The four main steps of Meiosis II are: Prophase II, Metaphase II, Anaphase II, and Telophase II. Prophase II takes an inversely proportional time compared to telophase I. In this prophase we see the disappearance of the nucleoli and the nuclear envelope again as well as the shortening and thickening of the chromatids. Centrioles move to the polar regions and arrange spindle fibers for the second meiotic division. In metaphase II, the centromeres contain two kinetochores that attach to spindle fibers from the centrosomes (centrioles) at each pole. The new equatorial metaphase plate is rotated by 90 degrees when compared to meiosis I, perpendicular to the previous plate.
This is followed by anaphase II, where the centromeres are cleaved, allowing microtubules attached to the kinetochores to pull the sister chromatids apart. The sister chromatids by convention are now called sister chromosomes as they move toward opposing poles. The process ends with telophase II, which is similar to telophase I, and is marked by uncoiling and lengthening of the chromosomes and the disappearance of the spindle. Nuclear envelopes reform and cleavage or cell wall formation eventually produces a total of four daughter cells, each with a haploid set of chromosomes. Meiosis is now complete and ends up with four new daughter cells.
[Biology Form 4] Meiosis Process

Because meiosis is a one-way process, it cannot be said to engage in a cell cycle as mitosis does. However, the preparatory steps that lead up to meiosis are identical in pattern and name to the interphase of the mitotic cell cycle. Interphase is divided into three phases: Growth 1 (G1) phase: This is a very active period, where the cell synthesizes its vast array of proteins, including the enzymes and structural proteins it will need for growth. In G1 stage each of the chromosomes consists of a single (very long) molecule of DNA. In humans, at this point cells are 46 chromosomes, 2N, identical to somatic cells.
Synthesis (S) phase: The genetic material is replicated: each of its chromosomes duplicates, producing 46 chromosomes each made up of two sister chromatids. The cell is still considered diploid because it still contains the same number of centromeres. The identical sister chromatids have not yet condensed into the densely packaged chromosomes visible with the light microscope. This will take place during prophase I in meiosis.
Growth 2 (G2) phase: G2 phase is absent in Meiosis Interphase is followed by meiosis I and then meiosis II. Meiosis I consists of separating the pairs of homologous chromosome, each made up of two sister chromatids, into two cells. One entire haploid content of chromosomes is contained in each of the resulting daughter cells; the first meiotic division therefore reduces the ploidy of the original cell by a factor of 2.
Meiosis II consists of decoupling each chromosomes sister strands (chromatids), and segregating the individual chromatids into haploid daughter cells. The two cells resulting from meiosis I divide during meiosis II, creating 4 haploid daughter cells. Meiosis I and II are each divided into prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase stages, similar in purpose to their analogous subphases in the mitotic cell cycle. Therefore, meiosis includes the stages of meiosis I (prophase I, metaphase I, anaphase I, telophase I), and meiosis II (prophase II, metaphase II, anaphase II, telophase II). Meiosis generates genetic diversity in two ways: (1) independent alignment and subsequent separation of homologous chromosome pairs during the first meiotic division allows a random and independent selection of each chromosome segregates into each gamete; and (2) physical exchange of homologous chromosomal regions by recombination during prophase I results in new genetic combinations within chromosomes.
[Biology Form 4] Occurrence Of Meiosis In Eukaryotic Life Cycles

Meiosis occur in eukaryotic life cycles involving sexual reproduction, comprising of the constant cyclical process of meiosis and fertilization. This takes place alongside normal mitotic cell division. In multicellular organisms, there is an intermediary step between the diploid and haploid transition where the organism grows. The organism will then produce the germ cells that continue in the life cycle. The rest of the cells, called somatic cells, function within the organism and will die with it. Cycling meiosis and fertilization events produces a series of transitions back and forth between alternating haploid and diploid states. The organism phase of the life cycle can occur either during the diploid state (gametic or diploid life cycle), during the haploid state (zygotic or haploid life cycle), or both (sporic or haplodiploid life cycle, in which there two distinct organism phases, one during the haploid state and the other during the diploid state). In this sense, there are three types of life cycles that utilize sexual reproduction, differentiated by the location of the organisms phase(s). In the gametic life cycle, of which humans are a part, the species is diploid, grown from a diploid cell called the zygote. The organisms diploid germ-line stem cells undergo meiosis to create haploid gametes (the spermatozoa for males and ova for females), which fertilize to form the zygote. The diploid zygote undergoes repeated cellular division by mitosis to grow into the organism. Mitosis is a related process to meiosis that creates two cells that are genetically identical to the parent cell. The general principle is that mitosis creates somatic cells and meiosis creates germ cells.
In the zygotic life cycle the species is haploid instead, spawned by the proliferation and differentiation of a single haploid cell called the gamete. Two organisms of opposing gender contribute their haploid germ cells to form a diploid zygote. The zygote undergoes meiosis immediately, creating four haploid cells. These cells undergo mitosis to create the organism. Many fungi and many protozoa are members of the zygotic life cycle. Finally, in the sporic life cycle, the living organism alternates between haploid and diploid states. Consequently, this cycle is also known as the alternation of generations. The diploid organisms germline cells undergo meiosis to produce gametes. The gametes proliferate by mitosis, growing into a haploid organism. The haploid organisms germ cells then combine with another haploid organisms cells, creating the zygote. The zygote undergoes repeated mitosis and differentiation to become the diploid organism again. The sporic life cycle can be considered a fusion of the gametic and zygotic life cycles.
Gametic life cycle.
Zygotic life cycle.
Sporic life cycle.
[Biology Form 4] Class Of Chemicals

Monday, June 22nd, 2009
Cells need various types of organic and inorganic compounds to enable them to carry out their functions, as well as build their cellular components. While organic compounds contain the element carbon, inorganic compounds do not. Below is the classified descriptions of chemical compound.
Carbohydrate
y y y y y
Starch made up of long chain of glucose The ratio of C:H:O in it is 1:2:1 Cellulose that strengthens the cell walls of plants Maltose can be converted into glucose by hydrolysis Its glucose molecules can be converted into glycogen
Lipid
y y y
Cholesterol is an example of it Fats have the triglyceride molecules in them Fatty acids can be saturated and unsaturated
The hormone testosterone is an example of it
Nucleic Acid
y y y
An example is the DNA found in the nucleus of a cell Genetic material that directs protein synthesis Contain pentose sugars and phosphate groups
Protein
y y y y
Amino acids are its building blocks Nearly all enzymes are examples of it The haemoglobin molecules in the red blood cells Builds muscles and aids growth
Water
y y y y
An inorganic compound with no carbon in it A polar molecule with two H atoms and one O atom A universal solvent Acts as a medium for reactions in ones body
[Biology Form 4] Human Respiratory System The Network Within

Monday, November 23rd, 2009
Our lungs are the organs that bring in oxygen into our body. In them are thousands of branch-like, tiny tubules, called bronchioles, which are connected to millions of air sacs known as alveoli.
A dense network of blood capillaries is found on the surface of each alveolus. When oxygen from the air that we breathe in enters the air sacs, it diffuses into these blood capillaries. At the same time, carbon dioxide from the blood diffuses out into the alveoli before we breathe it out.
The pathway of air: nasal cavities (or oral cavity) -> pharynx -> trachea -> right and left bronchi -> bronchioles -> alveoli (site for gaseous exchange in which oxygen enters and crbon dioxide leaves our lungs). Notes: The are some 300 million alveoli in our two adult lungs. These provide a surface area of some 160
m2 (almost 80 times the area of our skin). y

Only a fraction of the oxygen we inhale is taken up by the lungs.
[Biology Form 4] Breathing Under Water

Wednesday, November 11th, 2009
The gills in fish help them to breathe while they get their supply of oxygen from the water that surrounds them. Gills have structures called filaments, which are made up of many thin-walled structures called lamellae. Blood capillaries are found close to the surface of these lamellae, and this is where gaseous exchange occurs. 1. It is this type of blood vessel that is found in a dense network on the gill filaments of a fish. 1. Capillary. In each body cell of the fish, this aerobic process is what helps synthesise the ATP. 0. Respiration.
The thin-walled structures found in filaments (plural). 0. Lamellae. The name given to the respiratory structures of a fish (plural). 0. Gills. The structure that covers and protects the gills. 0. Operculum. This is one of the characteristics of any respiratory surface where gaseous exchange takes place. 0. Thin. Each gill is composed of this (singular). 0. Filament. The all-important gas without which no fish can survive. 0. Oxygen.
[Biology Form 4] Plant & Growth

Wednesday, March 24th, 2010
1. Name
the
phase
in
which
the:
a) centromeres of chromosomes are lined up at an imaginary plane across the middle of the cell 1. Metaphase b) nucleolus re-forms and the spindle fibres disappear 2. Telophase c) chromosomes are visible as duplicated, thick and short thread-like structures
3. Prophase d) cell is about ready to divide by cytokinesis 4. Telophase e) cell is gathering its energy to begin active mitosis 5. Interphase f) two sister chromatids of each chromosome separate at the centromere 6. Anaphase
Based on the diagram, answer the following questions: a) Name the tissue found at the tip of a plant root. 0. Apical meristem b) Where else in a plant is this tissue usually found? 1. Shoot tip c) State the characteristics of the cells found in the tissue named in (a). 2. Very small in size / isodiametric in shape /contain a dense cytoplasm / have a large nucleus d) When mitosis occurs in these cells, primary growth, which records an increase in length and height, results in the root and shoot.
e) For secondary growth in a plant, mitosis occurs in the vascular cambium, a tissue found between the xylem and phloem tissue in dicotyledons. f) Mitosis is important for growth because it increases thenumber of cells in the organism.
[Biology Form 4] The Haploid Cells

Wednesday, February 10th, 2010
Another type of cell division is known as meiosis. Meiosis involves the division of a cell into four daughter cells. It takes place only in reproductive organs (eg: in the testes and ovaries of animals and in the anthers and ovules of plants). The purpose of meiosis is to produce gametes or reproductive cells so that sexual reproduction in organisms can occur. Unlike those produced through mitosis, these daughter cells are usually not genetically identical to their parent cells. The chromosomes in each daughter cell are half the number found in the parent cell. While cell division occurs once during mitosis, cell division occurs twice during meiosis. Meiosis I is followed by Meiosis II. In Meiosis I, the cell divides into two daughter cells, whose number of chromosomes is halved. In Meiosis II, each of the two daughter cells divides into another two daughter cells, resulting in four haploid daughter cells (with the same halved number of the original chromosomes). Shown in the following diagram are the basic differences between mitosis and meiosis.
[Biology Form 4] Enzymes Extraordinaire II

Tuesday, November 24th, 2009
Continue from Enzymes Extraordinaire <<< D 4. is Define for definition enzyme
An enzyme is a biological catalyst that speeds up the rate of chemical reactions occurring in living organisms. D 5. is Where also are for enzymes definition (The synthesised Where in a question) cell?
In ribosomes. 6. Where are enzymes modified and packaged in a cell?
In the Golgy body. E is for examples and effects
7. Example: State an example of enzymes involved in the digestion or hydrolysis of each of the following a) b) c) Starch Proteins Fats substrates: Amylase Pepsin Lipase
d) e) f) g) Cellulose Cellulase 8. Effect: What would be the
Maltose Lactose Sucrose
Maltase Lactase Sucrase
effect
on
digestion
if
enzymes
were
unavailable?
Digestion would be slowed down drastically. F 9. State four is factors that for affect enzyme factors activity.
Temperature, pH, enzyme concentration and substrate concentration. G is for graphs
10. Sketch a graph for each of the factors on enzyme activity. Label the x-axis and y-axis correctly.
[Biology Form 4] Being Multicellular

Monday, April 26th, 2010
A multicellular organism is made up of millions of cells, all of which carry out specific and different functions depending on their shapes and structures, and the organelles contained in them. In multicellular organisms, cells make up tissues, tissues make up organs and organs make up systems. In an entity, they cooperate with one another and ensure the organism carry out its seven main living processes. The kind of organisation is extremely necessary to allow different systems to carry out specific functions and to enable the organism to be a complete and functional individual. Cell organisation 1. To gauge whether you know how multicellular organisms from the plant and animal kingdoms are organised, as the following table.
Plant kingdom Hibiscus plant Shoot system Leaf Vascular tissue Mesophyll palisade cell
2. Another example of how
Level of organisation Organism System Organ Tissue Cell

two other multicellular
Animal kingdom Man Circulatory system Skin Connective tissue Epithelial cell
organisms are organised.
Plant kingdom Maze Root system Root Ground tissue Parenchyma
Level of organisation Organism System Organ Tissue Cell
Animal kingdom Rat Circulatory system Lungs Connective tissue Red blood cell
[Biology Form 4] Movement Across The Plasma Membrane

1. Three types of passive transport. Simple diffusion Osmosis Facilitated diffusion
y y y
2. TRANSPORT
y y
Active Transport Passive Transport
Simple Diffusion: The movement of molecules from region of high concentration to low concentration.
The movement of molecules from region of high concentration to a region of low concentration with the help of carrier proteins.
Osmosis: The movement of water molecules from dilute solution to a concentrated solution across a Semi permeable membrane.
3. The figure below shows the model of the plasma membrane. Label L, M, N, and O shows four types of nutrients. P1, P2 and P3 show three types of protein.
(i) Name the processes labelled L, M, N, O.
Simple
diffusion
Fasilitated
diffusion
Fasilitated
diffusion
O : Active transport (ii) Name the protein labelled P1, P2 and P3.
P1
Pore
protein
P2
Carrier
protein
P3 : Carrier protein (iii) State two characteristics of the molecules that are transported into the cell by process L.
1.
Small
2. Soluble in lipid 4. The figure shows a model of the active transport system that depends on several carrier proteins found in the cell membrane.
(i) Explain what do you understand by active transport.
Movement of particles across the plasma membrane 1. by carrier proteins, 2. against the concentration gradient and 3. requires energy.
(ii)
Give
an example of
active
transport
in
plants.
Ion or mineral uptake by plant root hairs. (iii) State two differences between active transport and diffusion.
Any two differences energy, gradient concentration, living membrane. 5. The table below shows the effect of hypotonic, isotonic and hypertonic solution on spinach strips, red blood cells and plant cells.
Hypotonic solution
Isotonic solution
Hypertonic solution Spinach strip in 30% sucrose solution
Spinach strip in distill water Spinach strip in 5% sucrose solution y The rate of water entering and leaving the spinach y Distill water is hypotonic cell through semi compared to the cell sap. permeable mambrane y Water enters into spinach is the same. cell through cut surface by osmosis . Epidermis is y The shape of spinach strip remains the same water proof. y The epidermis layer curved inward. Red blood cell in distill water.
Red blood in 30% sodium chloride solution
Plant cell in distill water
Red blood cell in isotonic solution Plant cell in isotonic solution
Plant cells in 30% sucrose solution
[Biology Form 4] Cell Structure & Organisation

1. Study the diagrams below. Identify the structures or organelles (A J) and complete the following table.
A B C D E F G H I J
Name of organelle / structure Rough endoplasmic reticulum Mitochondrion Cell wall Smooth endoplasmic reticulum Nucleus Vacuole Cytoplasm Plasma membrane Lysosomes Chloroplast Golgi apparatus
Function Transporting proteins Site for energy production Give fixed shape to the cell Transport lipid and glyserol Control cell activities, contains genetic material. Storing nutrients (sugar and amino acid) in its sap. Food storage, medium for metabolic reaction Controlling entry and exit of substances Releases enzymes outside the cell. Carries out photosynthesis Storing and transporting lipids. Produces glycoprotein, polysaccharide and secretory enzyme.
Consequence if absent No transportation of proteins Energy cannot be produced Have irregular shape (eg. Animal cell) Lipid and glycerol cannot be transport No cell division, all cell activities stop. Cannot store nutrients No site for metabolic reaction No selective barrier No enzymes being released Photosynthesis cannot occur
2. Give
two
differences
between
animal
and
plant
cell
Any two differences: Cell wall, Vacuole, Centriole, Storage granule, Chloroplast 3.
a) What
is
cell
specialization?
Cell changes in structure or function in order to carry out a specific function. b) How are cells organised into a multicellular organism?
Cell > Tissue > Organ > System > Organism c) Give an example of each type of cell organization in human.
Epithelium Cell > Epithelium Tissue > Stomach > Digestive System > Human
[Biology Form 4] How to Synthesis Extracellular Protein?

Sunday, January 16th, 2011
1. Extracellular protein is the protein that is destined for export from a cell such as digestive enzyme that is made by pancreas cell. 2. The organelles that involved in the process are nucleus,ribosome, RER, Golgi
apparatus and mitochondria.
3. Flow chart shows how the internal membrane system of a cell packages a protein for export.
1. Instructions for making protein are transcribed from DNA by RNA in the nucleus. | v 2. RNA leaves the nucleus through nuclear pore and proceeds to aribosome located on the RER. | v 3. Ribosome synthesis the correct sequence of amino acids for synthesizing that particular protein as instructed. | v 4. When protein synthesis is complete, the protein travels through the RER and is then encapsulated in a transport vesicle. | v
5. The transport vesicle fuses with a Golgi apparatus, releasing the protein. | v 6. In the Golgi apparatus, the protein is further modified and is then shunted to the ends of Golgi apparatus or cisternae. There, the protein waits for a secretory vesicle. | v 7. The secretory vesicle will carry the protein to the plasma membrane of the cell and fuses with it. Then, the protein isreleased outside the cell.
[Biology Form 4] Program Bestari Fasa 2 Cell Division

Wednesday, June 16th, 2010
1. The diagram shows a somatic cell during mitosis.
1.
a) State the mitotic phase in the diagram and give your reason.
1. Metaphase. Chromosomes are arranged at the equatorial plane. 2. b) After the mitosis is completed,
0. i) how many daughter cells are produced? 1. 2. 1. ii) how many chromosomes are there in each daughter cell?
0. 4. 3. c) Give an example of technology currently used which applies the mitotic process.
0. Cloning / tissue culture. 4. d) Name 2 cells which do not undergo mitosis.
0. i) Nerve cell. 1. ii) Red blood cell. The figure below shows the different stages of cell division in the mammalian ovary.
a) Using the letters in the diagram, arrange the stages of cell division in their correct sequence. 0. G ? F ? A? C? E ? B? D b) i) Name the type of cell division illustrated in the figure above. 1. Meiosis. ii) With reference to the figure only, state two evidences to support your answer in [b) i]. 2. There are 2 cell divisions.
0. 4 daughter cells are formed. 1. bivalents are formed. c) What biological term is used to describe the cells in stages D and G with respect to the number of chromosomes in their nucleus? 3. D : haploid cell.
4.
G : diploid cell. d) State one difference in appearance between the chromosomes in stage G and F and give your reason.
5.
Chromosomes in stage G appear as one stand but the chromosomes in stage F appear as two strands.
0. Reason: As the chromosomes in G continue to thicken, it is then seen as two sister chromatids in phase F. The cell life cycle of an organism consists of phases X and Y. Phase X comprises of subphases P, Q and R. Phase Y comprises processes U dan V.
a) i) Name process U. 0. Mitosis. ii) State the role of process U in living organisms. 1. 2. For the growth of organism. Replace worn-out tissue // for asexual reproduction. b) Diagrams I, II, III and IV below show the stages in process U.
i) Arrange the stages of process U in the correct sequence below. 3. IV ? II ? III? I ii) Name the stages in process U. 4. I II III IV Prophase. c) What is phase X? 5. Interphase. Telophase. Metaphase. Anaphase.
[Biology Form 4] Program Bestari Fasa 2 Chemical Composition Of The Cell

Wednesday, June 16th, 2010
1. General
properties
of
enzymes.
1.
i) Enzymes are proteins produced by living cells. 2. ii) Enzymes are biological catalysts which speed up the rate of biochemical reactions.
3.
iii) Enzymes are not destroyed at the end of a reaction.
4.
iv)
Enzyme-controlled
reaction
is irreversible
1. Example : lactose + water , glucose + galactose 5. v) Enzymes are sensitive to changes in temperature, and are very active at an optimum
temperature of 40C. Enzymes are denatured at high temperature . 6. 7. vi) Enzymes are sensitive to changes in pH of medium. vii) Enzyme action is very specific, One type of enzyme can catalyse only one type of substrate. The figure represents the action of an enzyme.
0.
a)
State
two
properties
of
enzyme
illustrated
by
the
above
figure.
0. Enzymes action is very specific. 1. Enzymes are not destroyed by the reaction they catalysed. 1. b) Name two digestive enzymes, their substrate and products.
0. Enzyme : Amylase, Substrate : Starch, Products: Maltose. 1. Enzyme : Trypsin, Substrate : Polypeptides, Products: dipeptides. 2. c) Figure below shows the relationship between enzyme activity and temperature. Complete the line to show the effect of increasing the temperature from 10C to 60C.
3.
d) Uses of enzymes.
Enzymes Protease Papain//Protease Cellulase Protease//Lipase Lipase Amylase
Usage types Leather Industry Digestion Industrial use Daily use Digestion Digestion
Effect Remove hairs from skin Tenderise meat Softening vegetables, removing seed coats Add to washing powder to remove protein stains Convert fat to fatty acids and glycerol Convert starch to maltose
The figure shows an experiment set-up to investigate the effect of pH on enzyme activity. Enzyme Q is found inside the mammalian digestive system.
After
24
hours,
the
following
results
were
obtained:
pH 1 2 3 4 5 6
0.
Reduction in length of egg white strip (mm) 7 9 6 3 1 0
a) Using the results in the table, plot a graph to show the reduction in length of the egg white strip against pH of the medium.
0. P axis with scales -1 1. T points plotted accurately 1 2. B shape of line smooth, single curve 1 1. b) Explain the observed reduction in the length of the egg white strip.
0. Increasing the pH value of the medium will decrease the action of enzyme Q on egg white. The optimum pH of enzyme Q is 2. Enzyme Q works at its maximum rate at this pH/ At this pH, the reduction of length of the egg white strip is the greatest. 2. c)
0. Name
enzyme
and
the
products
of
its
action
on
egg
white.
1. Enzyme
Pepsin,
Products: Polypeptides / Peptones 1. Which part of the mammalian digestive system produce enzyme Q?
Stomach. Below shows the structures of four organic compounds which are found in living cells.
0.
a)
0. i)
Name
the
structures
of
compounds
and
Z.
0. X
Protein/
polypeptide.
Y : triglyceride/ lipid. 1. ii) State the monomer of X and Y.
0. X
amino
acid.
Y : glucose. 1. b) What would happen if pancreatic cells unable to synthesis compound X?
0. Enzymes / any pancreatic enzyme / hormones /any pancreatic hormone cannot be synthesised. 2. c)
0. i) In the space below draw and label the structure of the basic unit of organic compound W.
1. ii)
Name
two
types
of
organic
compound
W.
0. DNA & RNA. 2. iii) State two structural differences between the organic compounds you have named in (c)(ii). 0. DNA consists of two/double strands polynucleotide but RNA consists of a single / one strand of polynucleotide. 1. Strands of polynucleotide in DNA are twisted (around each other) / in a form of double helix but strand of polynucleotide in RNA is linear. * reject: molecules of DNA is big but molecules of RNA is small

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Cell Structure & Cell Organisation

Tuesday, March 17th, 2009

3. All cells come from pre-existing cells.

7. Chloroplast (plant cell only)

3. Produces ribosomes and ribonucleic acids (RNA).

* Synthesising lipids and other non-protein substances.

* Transport and store lipid.

3. Stores organic waste (in leaf cells).

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logy (original: logos) which means study

* Saving animal and plant species which are facing extinction.

Industry - Researh Officer, Scientist

Excretion - Expelled waste from body

Archive for the Biology Form 4 Category

[Biology Form 4] Organelles And Its Function

RIBOSOME Function: A site for the synthesis of proteins

Simplified structure of mitochondrion *********************

CHLOROPLAST Function: Enables the plant cell to carry out photosynthesis

CENTRIOLES Function: Help to form spindle fibres during cell division

3-dimensional view of a centriole *********************

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[Biology Form 4] Single Cell

Living process a) Respiration b) Excretion of excess water

Phagocytosis, digestion in food vacuoles and lysozymes

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[Biology Form 4] Organelle 1

[Biology Form 4] Diffusion

Schematic representation of mixing of two substances by diffusion

Self diffusion, exemplified with an isotopic tracer of radioactive isotope

Example of chemical (classical, Ficks, or Fickian) diffusion of sodium chloride in water

Illustration of low (top) and high (bottom) entropy.

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[Biology Form 4] Plasma Membrane

Illustration of an Eukaryotic cell membrane

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[Biology Form 4] Animal Cell & Plant Cell

Cheek Squamous Epithelial Cells

Typical Plant Cell

Typical Animal Cell

Onion cells have a cell wall while cheek cells do not.

[Biology Form 4] Phases Of Cell Cycle And Mitosis Interphase

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[Biology Form 4] Mitosis

Mitosis divides the chromosomes in a cell nucleus.

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[Biology Form 4] Enzyme Extraordinaire

S.M.A.R.T. guide to learning biology

Proteins. 2. Function: What is the role played by enzymes in living organisms?

[Biology Form 4] Phases Of Cell Cycle And Mitosis Prometaphase

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[Biology Form 4] Phases Of Cell Cycle And Mitosis Prophase

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[Biology Form 4] Phases Of Cell Cycle And Mitosis Preprophase

[Biology Form 4] Phases Of Cell Cycle And Mitosis Telophase

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[Biology Form 4] Phases Of Cell Cycle And Mitosis Anaphase

Early anaphase: Kinetochore microtubules shorten.

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[Biology Form 4] Phases Of Cell Cycle And Mitosis Metaphase

Metaphase: The chromosomes have aligned at the metaphase plate.

[Biology Form 4] Meiosis

Events involving meiosis, showing chromosomal crossover

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