Cell Theory

The cell theory comprises the following rules: Cells are the smallest unit of life . They were discovered using the microscope, which was invented by Robert Hooke in 1665. Nothing smaller than cells can survive independently. All living things comprise of cells, although the smallest living organism may comprise of only one cell. All cells come from other preexisting cells through cell division. In this manner, new cells cannot be constructed from nonliving chemical substances.

Viruses are not part of the 5 kingdoms as they need a host to do MRS. GREN.

Picture of bacteria branching to other kingdoms.

Bacteria are predominantly single-celled organisms. There are two kinds of bacteria: prokaryotes and eukaryotes. All other kingdoms are only made up of eukaryotes. Protista contains both unicellular and multicellular organisms. Fungi, plants and animals are all multicellular organisms. All organisms including unicellular organisms carry out all the functions of life. These are MRS. GREN, which in itself includes metabolism, response, homeostasis, growth, reproduction and nutrition.

Exam question: discuss the evidence for the cell theory. A theory is not a law as there may be conflicting evidence to the idea that has no explanation to it. For now, the first two statements have no evidence contradicting them; they only have evidence supporting them. Indeed, no unit of life has been discovered to be smaller than a cell, and no organism has been found that consists of cell than 1 cell. The only idea within the theory that contains unanswered questions is the last claim: cells can only be created by pre-existing cells. Francesco Redi proved that a piece of meat in an airtight container would not contain maggots as, with a lack of access from flies, maggots cannot appear. He merely proved that maggots are the product of fly reproduction and will not appear in an area where flies have no access. Louis Pasteur proved that a sterilized broth (which has been boiled to kill microorganisms) will not go bad with bacteria presence if it is kept from air contact in a similar experiment. Both experiments have results in favor of the latter claim of the cell theory. Questions nevertheless arise such as: if cells are only created from pre-existing cells, how was the earth and the life upon it created? A more recent experiment proves the theory to be wrong as scientist Craig Venter created synthetic bacterium by chemically duplicating the chromosomes of a bacterium and placing the synthetic DNA within a different bacterium. The bacterium came to life with the synthetic DNA and behaved as a normal bacterium would. The fact that with experiment proved that man could create life from chemicals in a DNA replicate shows that life can be created without the presence of pre-existing cells, this allowing for reconsideration of the cell theory. Although the majority of the theory has yet to have contradicting evidence, the fact that one point has been proved wrong puts the validity of the entire theory into question. In my opinion, contradicting proof shows that the theory has bee rendered invalid.

Difference between a Hypothesis and a Theory

A hypothesis is a specific prediction that can be tested. A theory, on the other hand, is a more general system of ideas that is used to explain or interpret observations. It is developed after much accumulation of data. A theory is modified when evidence is procured that conflicts with the existing evidence. Therefore, truth of a scientific theory is based on whether or not it has explanatory powers rather than if it corresponds to reality.

In which ways is a theory different from a law? The current consensus among philosophers of science seems to be this: Laws are generalizations about what has happened from which we can generalize about what we can expect to happen. The pertain to observational data. The ability of the ancients to predict eclipses had nothing to do with whether they knew just how they happened. They had a law but not a theory. Theories are explanations of observations (or of laws). The fact that we have a pretty good understanding of how stars explode does not necessarily mean we could predict the next supernova; we have a theory but not a law. William McComus lists gravity as a modern example of a well-established law from which no really satisfying theory is available. We can use the law of gravity, and even correct it for the effects of relativity (general relativity) but we dont have any consensus notion of how it functions. Is it geometry or gravitons?
He cell theory is not valid as we cannot prove it. It implies that life on earth has always existed. Furthermore, recent evidence shows that cells can be manufactured in laboratories and do not require a pre-existing cell to be created.

Cell Sizes
Name Prokaryotic cell (bacteria) Eukaryotic cell Nucleus Chloroplast Mitochondria Large virus (HIV) Ribosome Cell membrane Double DNA helix Size 1.5 m 10-100 m 10-12 m 2-10 m 0.5-5 m 100nm 25nm 7.5nm 2nm diameter Size 1.5 x 10 6 m 10-100 x 10 6 m 10-20 x 10 6 m 2-10 x 10 6 m 0.5-5 x 10 6 m 100 x 10 9 m 25 x 10 9 m 7.5 x 10 9 m 2 x 10 9 m

m micrometers 1mm x 10 3 nm nanometers 1mm x 10-6 pm picometers 1mm x 10 -9 Working out examples 0.007m = x m =7 m 0.0025 m = x pm = 2500 pm

Distance = meters Volume = litres Mass = grams

0.11mm = x m = 11 m

The three dimensional nature of cells makes the volume hard to measure, therefore they are usually measured in a two-dimensional view, using not volume but distance. Cells in multicellular organisms differentiate to carry out specialized functions by expressing some of their genes and not others. Some examples are:

y y y y y

Red blood cell (no nucleus) Neurons (branch out) Ciliated cells (contain cilia) Sperm cells (nucleus with tail) Root hair cells (large surface area)

Emergent properties
When individual components in an environment come together to create distinct, collective and interactive properties and functions, the results are called emergent properties. A further elaboration of emergent properties deduces that the systems they form are called irreducible, since they cannot be fully comprehended when broken down into smaller segments. One reason for the development of emergent properties is that an increase in the number of interacting simple components will naturally bring about an exponentially greater probability of possible reactions. However, it should not be implied that volume inexorably leads to emergent behavior, since many interactions are negligible. The emergent is unlike its components in so far as these are incommensurable, and it cannot be reduced to their sum or their difference. An example of emergent properties is: organisms that exhibit schooling or flocking behavior. Emergent property is like this: Cell Tissue Organ Organ system Organism

Its the property where living things become more and more complex as they go from cellular lever (eg. Humans are made up of cells) to organ system (eg. Human organ systems are made up of millions of cells). Its based on the concept that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. Eg. The heart is made up of cells only, but if you just have heart cells (sum of its parts), it wont do anything but if the whole heart is there, it will perform the function of pumping blood (the whole is greater). A broader example of emergent properties in biology is the combination of individual atoms to form molecules such as polypeptide chains, which in turn fold and refold to form proteins. These proteins, assuming their functional status from their spatial conformation, interact together to achieve higher biological functions and eventually create organelles, cells, tissues, organs, organ systems and organisms.

Field of View (FOV)

Place a metric scale (cm/mm ruler) across the middle of the stage opening. Focus on the lowet power of the microscope (x4) and align it so that the centre of one of the millimeter lines is aligned with the left side. The distance between the centre of one to the centre of the next one is 1mm. This is our field of view and our basis for calculations. Roughly, the low power field is about 1mm. The high power field is roughly 0.2mm. The magnifications difference is therefore 1/0.2 = x5

A prokaryoti cell looks like t is:

Prokaryotic cells di ide by bi ary fission. This is asexual reproduction where the chromosome number is maintained.

Number
1

Name of organelle
Flagella

Structure Hair-like growths on the outside of the cell wall (longer than pili)
Hair-like growths on the outside of cell wall Strong polysaccharide that surrounds the cell wall Composed of carbohydrateprotein complex peptidogycan. It is fully permeable

Function
Allows cell motility Used for attachment between bacterial cells in preparation for sexual reproduction Protects bacterium against teeth, skin and food. Protects and maintains the shape of the cell. Prevents lysis. Controls the movement of materials in and out of the cell by active and passive transport. Plays a part in binary fission. All cellular processes occur there

Pili

Capsule

Cell wall

Plasma membrane Cytoplasm

Semi-permeable membrane

Jelly-like substance

7 8 9

Mesosome Ribosome Nucleoid Region

Invagination of the cell membrane (attached to it) Small structure that looks rather granular and round. Non-compartmentalized area that contains 1 long thread of DNA that is circular.

Site of ATP production Site of protein synthesis Controls the cell and is necessary for reproduction.

A eukaryotic animal cell (liver cell) looks like this:

Number
1

Name of organelle
Ribosomes

Rough endoplasmic reticulum (rER)

Structure Can be free or attached to rER. They are composed of RNA or proteins Found close to the nucleus. They are made up of an extensive network of tubules or channels
Sac bound by membrane that contains hydrolytic enzymes. They have an acidic interior Consists of flattened sacs called cisternae stacked on top of each other. One side is close to rER (cis side). The products are discharged from the other side (trans side). Rod-shaped organelles. They have their own DNA, a circular chromosome. They have autonomy within cells. They contain both a double membrane and their own 70s ribosomes. DNA resides in it. It is bordered by a double membrane and contains numerous pores for communication with the cytoplasm. It is usually found in the centre of the cell.

Function
Protein synthesis

Protein development Transportation of materials throughout the internal region of the cell. Intracellular digestive centre. Recycle old and damaged organelles. Involved in the breakdown of cells brought in by phagocytosis Collection, packaging, modification and distribution of materials in synthesized cell.

Lysosomes

Golgi apparatus

Mitochondrion

Production of ATP (usable cellular energy). They produce ribosomes for themselves.

Nucleus

Isolates DNA from the cell so it doesnt get affected by other cellular processes. It is necessary for reproduction.

Prokaryotic cell Naked DNA

Eukaryotic cell DNA associated with proteins DNA enclosed in a nuclear envelope Contains mitochondria 80s ribosomes Have internal membranes that compartmentalize their functions 10-100m diameter Animal cell No cellular cell wall Small or no vacuole None have chloroplast Nucleus in the centre Starch - glycogen

S= Svedberg unit

DNA in cytoplasm No mitochondria 70s ribosomes No internal membranes then compartmentalize their functions 1-5m diameter Plant cell Cellulose cell wall Large vacuole Some have chloroplast Nucleus on the side Storage starch

Prokaryotic cells reproduce in two manners: asexual reproduction (binary fission of mitosis) and sexual reproduction (sexual conjugation). Plant cell walls are found around all plant cells. They are made up of cellulose and help maintain the shape of the cell. This in turn provides structural support against gravity and prevents excessive water uptake. Animal cells have two animal extracellular matrixes: basement membrane and interstitial matrix. Animals have a basement membrane that excretes a secretion formed from collagen and glycoproteins joined together by a third linkage protein. Their exact composition varies from tissue to tissue. The membrane surrounds the tissues of line ducts and provides structural support for the integrity of the tissue of organ. It is usually found as the basal lamina or the basement membrane of epithelial cells. The basement membrane of the kidney glomerulus provides the effective barrier for ultra filtration. Interestingly, cells often require a base on which to organize before they will form proper tissue. There are implications here for the developmental biology, tissue repair, stem cell therapies and cancer treatment. Interstitial matrix: Bone has a matrix, which includes collagen with a calcium phosphate. Other tissues are surrounded by a matrix composed of a kind of gel that provides support for the tissue. A cell membrane is a phospholipid bilayer. One phospholipid looks like this: