Previous Page | Next Page

Home Independent Networking

Modems
A modem is a modulator/demodulator. It converts digital signals from a computer to analog signals so they can be sent over a telephone line. The receiving computer will normally have a modem which will convert the analog signals back to digital signals. A modem may be an internal modem which is a card inside your computer or it may be external with a connection to a serial RS-232 line on your computer. The telephone jack that will plug into the modem is called an RJ-11 jack. Speed of the modem is measured in bits per second (bps). There are a set of V-series standards developed by the International Telecommunications Union which indicate the speed of the modem.
y y y y y y y

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Introduction Network Model Topology Physical Media Wireless Media Network Card Modems Outside Connections Wide Area Network Connections

10.

Repeaters, Bridges, Routers

11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28.

Network Types Ethernet Token Ring ARCnet AppleTalk FDDI Architecture Comparisons Categories TCP/IP

V.22bis - 2400bps V.32 - 9600bps V.32bis -14,400bps V.32terbo - 19,200bps V.FastClass (V.FC) - 28,800bps V.34 - 28,800bps V.42 - 57,600bps

These are data compression standards which enable the transmission to operate at a higher speed. Due to data compression used on modems in recent years baud rates and bps when referring to modem speed are no longer the same. Now, more than one bit can be sent with each sound wave oscillation (baud). In the past, only one bit could be sent per sound wave oscillation.

Modem Types
y

IPX/SPX NetBEUI AppleTalk SNA

y
Others Suites and Network Layers Installing Drivers DNS Network Operating

Asynchronous - The common modem used today. Each byte is placed between a stop and a start bit. Each modem must operate with the same start and stop bit sequence, operate at the same baud rate and have the same parity settings for the data checking in order to communicate correctly. Define parity checking. Synchronous - Synchronous modems can be faster than asynchronous. They depend on timing to communicate. Data is transmitted in frames with synchronization bits which are used to be sure the timing of the transmission and reception of data is accurate. Synchronous modems are normally used on dedicated leased lines. Synchronous modems are one of binary synchronous

Systems 29. Applications, mail, groupware, DBMS 30. 31. 32. Backing up the network Troubleshooting Web, SNMP, admin, firewalls 33. Networking Terms and Definitions 34. Credits Networking Independent Home

communications protocol (bisync), high level data link control (HDLC), or synchronous data link control (SLDC). Three methods can be used to control synchronization: o Additional clock signal o Guaranteed state change - Clocking is part of the data signal. o Oversampling - The reciever samples the signal much faster than the data is sent. The extra samples can be used to be sure the clock is synchronized. Digital Modems - These are used with ISDN services and are not actually modems, although they are called modems. They can provide connection speeds of 128Kbps.

Terms
y y y y

y y

BRI - Basic rate interface CSU - Channel Service Unit are used to translate network signal strengths to signal levels for a leased line DSU - Digital Service Unit MNP - Microcom Network Protocol is a modem standard used for modem error detection and correction. classes 2,3, and 4 are used for error correction. MNP Class 5 - A data compression standard by Microcom. LAPM - Link access protocol for modems is the V.42 standards developed by the International Telecommunications Union.

Classifying Modems according to : Synchronization

* Asynchronous Modems Most of the modems that operate in slow and moderate rates, up to 1800 bps, are asynchronous (using asynchronous data). Asynchronous modems operate in FSK modulation and use two frequencies for transmission and another two for receiving. Asynchronous modems can be connected in different opt ions to the communication media: Using 2-wire or 4-wire interface. Using switched lines or leased lines. Using interface to call unit/automatic answer, when dialing-up.

y y y

In a 2-wire line, full duplex operation can be achieved by splitting the channel into two sub -channels.l

Figure Modem - 1 * Asynchronous data Asynchronous data is not accompanied by any clock, and the transmitting and receiving modems know only the nominal data rate. To prevent slipping of the data relative to the modems' clocks, this data is always grouped in very short blocks (characters) wi th framing bits (start and stop bits). The most common code used for this is the seven -bit ASCII code with even parity. * Synchronous Modems Synchronous modems operates in the audio domain, at rates up to 28800 bps in audio lines, used in telephones systems (using synchronous data). The usual modulation methods are the phase modulation and integrated phase and amplitude (at higher rates than 4800 bps).

In synchronous modems, equalizers are used, in order to offset the misfit of the telephone lines. These equalizers are insert ed in addition to the equalizers, that sometimes already exist in the telephon e lines. These equalizers can be classified into three main groups:

1. 2. 3.

Fixed/statistical equalizer - these equalizers offset the signal according to the average of the known attenuation in each frequency. Tuning the equalizer is sometimes done in the factor y and stays fixed, usually they are used to operate at low rates in a dial up line. Manually adjusted equalizer - these equalizers can be tuned to optimal performance to a given line. These equalizers should be re-tuned when the line is replaced and periodically. Specially, it should be tuned frequently when the line is of a low quality and it's parameters are chang ed frequently. Tuning is done using a button inside the modem (or on the external board). Automatic equalizer - these equalizers are tuned automatically when the connection is established. Depending on the line quality in a specific moment, in a process o f about 15ms to 25ms, after the first tuning, the equalizer samples the line continually and adjusts itself to the changed conditions, so the modem operates at each moment under optimal conditions. The fitness process operates, in some modems, at rates of 2400 times in a second.

Synchronous modems operate in the same manner asynchronous modems. However, synchronous modems operates at higher rates and since the requirements to transmit at these rates is increasing, most of the innovations are implemented fo r synchronous modems. In synchronous modems the channel can be split for several consumers at various speeds. Modems who have this ability are call ed SSM - Split System Modem. These modems can use a simple split or a split using multipoint connection. Synchronous data is accompanied by a clock signal. Synchronous data is almost always grouped in blocks, and it is the responsibility of the data source to assemble those blocks with framing codes and any extra bits needed for error detecting and/or correctin g according to one of many different protocols (BISYNC, SDLC, HDLC, etc.). The data source and destination expect the modem to be transparent to this type of data, conversely, the modem can ignore the blocking of the data.

Asynchronous vs. Synchronous

Most communications circuits perform functions described in the physical and data link layer of the OSI Model. There are two general strategies for communicating over a physical circuit: Asynchronous and Synchronous. Each has it's advantages and disadvantages.

ASYNCHRONOUS
Asynchronous communication utilizes a transmitter, a receiver and a wire without coordination about the timing of individual bits. There is no coordination between the two end points on just how long the transmiter leaves the signal at a certain level to represent a single digital bit. Each device uses a clock to measure out the 'length' of a bit. The transmitting device simply transmits. The receiving device has to look at the incoming signal and figure out what it is receiving and coordinate and retime its clock to match the incoming signal. Sending data encoded into your signal requires that the sender and receiver are both using the same enconding/decoding method, and know where to look in the signal to find data. Asynchronous systems do not send separate information to indicate the encoding or clocking information. The receiver must decide the clocking of the signal on it's own. This means that the receiver must decide where to look in the signal stream to find ones and zeroes, and decide for itself where each individual bit stops and starts. This information is not in the data in the signal sent from transmitting unit. When the receiver of a signal carrying information has to derive how that signal is organized without consulting the transmitting device, it is called asynchronous communication. In short, the two ends do not always negotiate or work out the connection parameters before communicating. Asynchronous communication is more efficient when there is low loss and low error rates over the transmission medium because data is not retransmitted and no time is spent setting negotiating the connection parameters at the beginning of transmission. Asynchronous systems just transmit and let the far end station figure it out. Asynchronous is sometimes called "best effort" transmission because one side simply transmits, and the other does it's best to receive. EXAMPLES: Asynchronous communication is used on RS-232 based serial devices such as on an IBMcompatible computer's COM 1, 2, 3, 4 ports. Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) also uses this means of communication. Your PS2 ports on your computer also use serial communication. This is the method is also used to communicate with an external modem. Asynchronous communication is also used for things like your computer's keyboard and mouse. Think of asynchronous as a faster means of connecting, but less reliable.

SYNCHRONOUS
Synchronous systems negotiate the communication parameters at the data link layer before communication begins. Basic synchronous systems will synchronize both clocks before

transmission begins, and reset their numeric counters for errors etc. More advanced systems may negotiate things like error correction and compression. It is possible to have both sides try to synchronize the connection at the same time. Usually, there is a process to decide which end should be in control. Both sides can go through a lengthy negotiation cycle where they exchange communications parameters and status information. Once a connection is established, the transmitter sends out a signal, and the receiver sends back data regarding that transmission, and what it received. This connection negotiation process takes longer on low error-rate lines, but is highly efficient in systems where the transmission medium itself (an electric wire, radio signal or laser beam) is not particularly reliable.

Asynchronous Communication
The asynchronous communication technique is a transmission technique which is most widely used by personal computers to provide connectivity to printers, modems, fax machines, etc. This allows a series of bytes (or ASCII characters) to be sent along a single wire (actually a ground wire is required to complete the circuit). The data is sent as a series of bits. A shift register (in either hardware or software) is used to serialise each information byte into the series of bits which are then sent on the wire using an I/O port and a bus driver to connect to the cable. At the receiver, the remote system reassembles the series of bits to form a byte and forwards the frame for processing by the link layer. A clock (timing signal) is needed to identify the boundaries between the bits (in practice it is preferable to identify the centre of the bit - since this usually indicates the point of maximum signal power). There are two systems used to providing timing:
1. Asynchronous Communication (independent transmit & receive clocks)

y y y y y

Simple interface (limited data rate, typically < 64 kbps) Used for connecting: Printer, Terminal, Modem, home connections to the Internet No clock sent (Tx & Rx have own clocks) Requires start and stop bits which provides byte timing and increases overhead Parity often used to validate correct reception

1. Synchronous Communication (synchronised transmit & receive clocks)

y y y

More complex interface (high data rates supported up to ~ 10 Gbps) Used for: Connections between computer and telephony networks Clock sent with data (more configuration options)

The principle difference between the synchronous and asynchronous modes of transmission is that in the synchronous case, the receiver uses a clock which is synchronised to the transmitter clock. Synchronous transmission has the advantage that the timing information is accurately aligned to the received data, allowing operation at much higher data rates. It also has the advantage that the receiver tracks any clock drift which may arise (for instance due to temperature variation). The penalty is however a more complex interface design, and potentially a more difficult interface to configure (since there are many more interface options). Most computers support asynchronous communication, not all computers support synchronous serial communication. The most significant aspect of asynchronous communications is that the transmitter and receiver clock are independent and are not synchronised. In fact, there need be no timing relationship between successive characters (or bytes of data). Individual characters may be separated by any arbitrary idle period.

Asynchronous transmission of a series of characters

An asynchronous link communicates data as a series of characters of fixed size and format. Each character (usually represented by an ASCII code) is preceded by a start bit and followed by 1-2 stop bits. Parity is often added to provide some limited protection against errors occurring on the link. The use of independent transmit and receive clocks constrains transmission to relatively short characters (<8 bits) and moderate data rates (< 64 kbps, but typically lower). The asynchronous transmitter delimits each character by a start sequence and a stop sequence. The start bit (0), data (usually 8 bits plus parity) and stop bit(s) (1) are transmitted using a shift register clocked at the nominal data rate.

Asynchronous transmission - each character is framed by a start and one or more stop bits

At the receiver, a clock of the same nominal frequency is constructed and used to clock-in the data to the receive shift register. Only data that are bounded by the correct start and stop bits are accepted. This operation is normally performed using a UART (Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter). UART chips are available as Integrated Circuits (ICs) or may form a part of a more complex component. Some CPUs include UARTs as a standard feature. The receiver is started by detecting the edge of the first start bit as shown below:

The transition from the idle state triggers the UART at the receiver to start reception

The reconstructed receive clock (receive (rx) clock) is normally generated using a local stable high rate clock, frequently operating at 16 or 32 times the intended data rate. Such a clock signal (square wave signal) may be created using a crystal oscillator circuit. In most cases, the computer will already have a square wave clock generator (e.g. connected to the clock input of the CPU), and rather than using a separate clock, this clock signal may be routed to the UART. In general, whatever method is used, the clock will be of too high a frequency for the UART, the clock frequency may however be easily reduced using a succession of frequency dividers (each a flip-flop wired to divide the input clock by 2).

Reception proceeds by detecting the edge of the start bit and counting sufficient clock cycle from the high frequency clock (16 times the transmission clock in the example here) to identify the mid position of the start bit. The number of bits to be converted is the number corresponding to one half the original bit period, 8 high frequency clock cycles in this example). From there the centre of the successive bits are located by counting cycles corresponding to the original data speed (16 in this example).

Reconstruction of the clock (red) , by matching of phase to the transmitted data (blue) to the local stable high rate clock (black)

Asynchronous serial links may be used to connect computers via modems to an Internet Service Provfider (ISP). When asynchronous transmission is used to support packet data links (e.g. the Internet), then special characters have to be used ("framing") to indicate the start and end of each frame transmitted. One character (known as an escape character) is reserved to mark any occurrence of the special characters within the frame. In this way the receiver is able to identify which characters are part of the frame and which are part of the "framing". Packet communication over asynchronous links is used by most home users to get access to a network using a modem. The set of rules governing what sequence of characters are sent is known as the Point-to-Point Protocol (or PPP for short).

Puzzled???

If you ever have connected a computer terminal to a storage oscilloscope to look at the waveform you may have been rather puzzled at the result! Click HERE to find out why.

See also: EG2069 Home Page

Authot: Gorry Fairhurst (Email: G.Fairhurst@eng.abdn.ac.uk)