Surveying

Definition
Surveying is the technique and science of accurately determining the three-dimensional space position of points and the distances and angles between them. These points are usually, but not exclusively, associated with positions on the surface of the Earth and are often used to establish land maps and boundaries for private ownership or government purposes. The basic principles of surveying have changed little over the ages, but the tools used by surveyors have evolved tremendously. Engineering, especially civil engineering, depends heavily on surveyors. Whenever there are roads, dams, retaining walls, bridges or residential areas to be built, surveyors are involved. They determine the boundaries of private property and the boundaries of various lines of political divisions. They also provide advice and data for geographical information systems (GIS), computer databases that contain data on land features and boundaries. Surveyors must have a thorough knowledge of algebra, basic calculus, geometry, and trigonometry. They must also know the laws that deal with surveys, property, and contracts. In addition, they must be able to use high-tech instruments with accuracy and precision.

surveying up close

tional lands acquired by the U.S. from Spain, France, and other Nations. Today, Americas public lands total about one-eighth of the land mass of the country. The Public Land Survey System (PLSS) covers major portions of thirty southern and western states and is managed by the federal Bureau of Land Management.

Origins
Surveying techniques have existed throughout much of recorded history, beginning with ancient Egypt. Some of the turning points in surveying are: The establishment of the Egyptian land register (3000 BC). Under the Romans, land surveyors were recognized as a profession; they developed the basic measurements under which the empire was divided, such as a tax register of conquered lands (300 AD). In England, The Domesday Book by William the Conqueror (1086) covered all England and contained names of the land owners, area, land quality, and specific information of the areas content and habitants. It did not include maps showing exact locations. Continental Europe's cadastre was created in 1808. It was founded by Napoleon I A good cadastre will be my greatest achievement in my civil law. Large-scale surveys are a necessary pre-requisite to map-making. In the late 1780s, a team from the Ordnance Survey of Great Britain began the Principal Triangulation of Britain using the specially built Ramsden theodolite. In the U.S., the creation of a national cadastre goes back to the Land Ordinance of 1785 and the Northwest Ordinance of 1787. These laws provided for the survey and settlement of the original thirteen colonies ceded to the federal government after the War of Independence and of addi-

Historically, angles and distances were measured using chains with links of a known length, for instance a Gunters Chain, or measuring tapes made of steel or invar. Horizontal angles were measured using a compass, which would provide a magnetic bearing. This type of instrument was later improved with telescopes with reticles for more precise sighting, giving rise to the theodolite. Vertical angles were measured with a transit (developed at the turn of the 19th century). The simplest method for measuring height is with an altimeter basically a barometerusing air pressure as an indication of height. But for surveying, more precision is needed. Toward this end, a variety of means, such as differential levels, have been developed. Levels are calibrated to provide a precise plane from which differences in height between the instrument and the point in question can be measured, typically by using a vertical measuring rod. As late as the 1990s the basic tools used in planar surveying were a tape measure (for determining shorter distances), a level (to determine height or elevation differences), and a theodolite (to measure angles) combined with triangulation. These instruments measured the distance and angles to an unknown point using a monument, a position with known location and elevation. The total station, a theodolite with an electronic distance measurement device (EDM) that can also be used for leveling when set to the horizontal plane, replaced optical-mechanical devices with a fully electronic instrument with an onboard computer and software. Modern top-of-the-line total stations use a reflec-

Methods and instruments

Compiled by Ilse Genovese from Wikipedia; FIG Commission 2 Report on Education [schema by Prof. Stig Enemark (2001); a listing of surveying education programs in the U.S. by Rita Lumos, NSPS; careers-scotland.org.uk, http://outreach.eos.nasa.gov/ [source of geodesy image]; http://www.mnsengineers.com [surveying image].

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tor or prism to return ambient light and thus measure distance, they are fully robotic, and they can send point data to the office computer and connect to satellite positioning systems, such as the global positioning system (GPS). Robotics allows surveyors to gather measurements at considerable speed and efficiency. The latest in surveying technology includes laser scanners.

Types of surveys & applications

ALTA/ACSM survey: A surveying standard jointly developed by the American Land Title Association and the American Congress on Surveying and Mapping that incorporates elements of the boundary, mortgage, and topographic surveys. ALTA/ACSM surveys, frequently shortened to ALTA surveys, are often required for real estate transactions. Archaeological survey: Used to determine the position of archaeological sites in a landscape or to record finds on an archaeological site. As-Built survey: A survey conducted several times during a construction project to verify, for local government or regulatory agencies, that the work authorized was completed to the specifications set on the Plot Plan or Site Plan. This usually entails a complete survey of the site to confirm that the structures, utilities, and roadways proposed were built in the proper locations authorized in the Plot Plan or Site Plan. Bathymetric survey: A survey carried out to map the seabed profile. Boundary survey: Measures the actual physical extent of property ownership, typically witnessed by monuments or markers and recorded on a map or plat drawn from the data. Construction surveying ("lay-out" or "setting-out"): The process of establishing and marking the position and detailed layout of new structures such as roads or buildings for subsequent construction. Deformation survey: A survey to determine if a structure or object is changing shape or moving. Engineering surveys: Those surveys associated with engineering design, i.e. topographic, layout and as-built. Erosion and sediment control plan: A plan that is drawn in conjunction with a subdivision plan that denotes how upcoming construction activities will effect the movement of storm water and sediment across the construction site and onto abutting properties, and how this can be controlled. Foundation survey: A survey done to collect the positional data on a foundation that has been poured and is cured. Should not be confused with an As-Built survey which is not to be done until all work on the site is completed. Hydrographic survey: A survey conducted with the purpose of mapping the coastline and seabed for navigation, engineering, or resource management purposes. Products of such surveys include nautical charts. Mortgage survey or physical survey: A determination of land boundaries and building locations; required by title companies and lending institutions when they provide financing to show that there are no structures encroaching on the property and that the position of structures is gener-

ally within zoning and building code requirements. Plot plan or site plan: A plan for a construction site that includes all existing and proposed conditions on a site, such as structures, utilities, roadways, topography, and wetlands. The plan might also, but not always, include hydrology, drainage flows, endangered species habitat, FEMA Federal Flood Insurance Reference Maps and traffic patterns. Subdivision plan: A plot or map based on a survey of a parcel of land. Boundary lines are drawn inside the larger parcel to indicated the creation of new boundary lines and roads. The plats are recorded in the cadastre (USA, elsewhere) or land registry (UK). Always, upon finally completion of a subdivision an As-built plan is required by the local government, to facilitate the transfer of ownership of roadways from the developer to the local government. Tape survey: This type of survey is the most basic and inexpensive type of land survey. Popular in the middle part of the 20th century, tape surveys, while being accurate for distance, lack substantially in their accuracy of measuring angle and bearing. Topographic survey: A survey that measures the features and elevation of points on a particular piece of land and presents them as contours and locations of improvements. Wetlands delineation & location survey: A survey that is completed when construction work is to be done on or near a site containing defined wetlands. Depending on the local, state, or federal regulations, wetlands are usually classified as areas that are completely inundated with water more than two weeks during the growing season. The boundary of the wetlands is determined by observing the soil PH, vegetation, erosion patterns or scour marks, hydrology, and morphology. A survey is done to collect the data on the key locations and a plan is drawn to reference the boundary of the wetlands against the boundary of the surrounding plots or parcels of land and the construction work proposed within.

Surveying as a career

surveyors may work as land surveyors, remote sensing and photogrammetry surveyors, geodesists, hydrographers, minerals and mining surveyors, and geomatics engineers. In addition, some countries recognize building and quantity surveyors.

In the U.S., surveying is recognized as a distinct profession apart from engineering. Depending on their specialization,

Building surveying emerged in the 1970s as a profession in the United Kingdom. In the U.S., these tasks are shared by surveyors, appraisers, construction managers, and other professionals. The services they provide include, among others, construction design and building works, project management and monitoring, insurance assessment and claims, and building inspection to ensure compliance with building regulations. Clients of a building surveyor can be the public sector, local authorities, and government departments, as well as private sector organizations, and work closely with architects, planners, homeowners, and tenants groups. Building surveyors may also
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Building Surveyor

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be called to act as expert witnesses. They must undertake an accredited degree qualification and undertake professional training for a period of at least two years, at the end of which they sit an assessment of professional competence.

Geodetic Surveyor

Geodetic surveying studies the shape of the Earth and determines the exact position of geographical points. Geodetic surveyors use applied mathematics to determine, by means of observations and measurements, the figures and areas of large portions of the Earths surface, or the general figure and dimensions of the Earth; or that branch of surveying in which the curvature of the earth is taken into account, as in the surveys of States, or of long lines of coast. [For further information, visit http://www.ngs.noaa.gov/ and http://www.aagsmo.org]

GIS Professional

Surveyors now use laptop computers, total stations, GPS, and geographic information systems (GIS) technology to determine boundaries, elevation, and distance. GIS is a rapidly developing technique that focuses on spatial information (i.e., information that has a location). GIS profes-

Hydrographic surveyors carry out surveys of areas of water such as oceans, harbours and rivers. They use GPS, recording fathometers, echo sounders and theodolites. They put survey data to a variety of uses, for example to draw up marine charts, locate inland water routes and to build sea defenses. Hydrographic surveyors carry out surveys of oceans, ports, harbours and inland waterways and rivers. They find out water depths and measure tides and currents. They also locate, identify and measure physical features such as rocks, sandbanks and sunken wrecks. When theyve collected the information, they analyze it using computers. Hydrographic surveyors make offshore surveys to find out where ships and boats can travel, to find suitable locations for oil or gas rigs, to develop sea mining projects or to aid the recovery of a sunken wreck. They conduct inshore surveys on rivers and canals to predict the environmental effects of building marinas or flood defenses, assess the progress of dredging and maintain river channels for boats to use. Hydrographic cartographers use the survey data to produce and improve marine charts, navigation aids and oceanographic publications. As a hydrographic surveyor you will need to be strong in science and mathematics with a good understanding of technology and computers. You should be analytical, accurate and able to pay attention to detail. You will need a wide knowledge of marine construction and law and should enjoy working in or near a marine environment. [For other details, see p. 52 for information on hydrographer certification, visit http://www. survmap.org/hydroapp.pdf.] Land surveyors are licensed by state governments to establish and mark land boundaries. This information is required to define ownership and rights in real property (land, water, mineral, easements, rights-of-way, etc.); to resolve boundary disputes between neighbors; and for any subdivision of land, building development, and road boundary realignment. Licensing requirements vary by state, however these requirements generally all have a component of education, experience and examinations. In the past, experience gained through an apprenticeship, together with passing a series of state-administered examinations, was required to attain licensure. Currently, many states require a Bachelor of Science in Surveying, or a Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering with additional coursework in surveyingin addition

Hydrographer

Land Surveyor

sionals apply spatial information in creating management systems for decision making at various levels of government. GIS professionals are involved in a wide variety of information gathering activities and applications that enhance mankinds knowledge about the Earththe land, the oceans, natural resources, and man-made features.

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surveying

to experience and examination requirements. [For a listing of accredited surveying programs, see pp. 16.] Typically the process for registration follows two phases. First, upon graduation, the candidate may be eligible to sit for the Fundamentals of Land Surveying exam, to be certified upon passing and meeting all other requirements as a Surveyor In Training (SIT). Upon being certified as an SIT, the candidate then needs to gain additional experience until he or she becomes eligible for the second phase, which typically consists of the Principles and Practice of Land Surveying exam along with a state-specific examination. Registered surveyors usually denote themselves with the letters P.S. (professional surveyor), L.S. (land surveyor), P.L.S. (professional land surveyor), or P.S.M. (professional surveyor and mapper) following their names, depending on the dictates of their particular state of registration. Typically, a licensed land surveyor is required to seal all plans; the format of the seal is dictated by their state jurisdiction, which shows their name and registration number. In many states, land surveyors are also required to place caps bearing their registration number on property corners that they have set. [For professional certifications, scholarship awards, and other programs, visit http://www.nspsmo.org.] Minerals/mining surveyors map mineral deposits. Their tasks include working out the potential use and value of mineral deposits, managing and developing mines, and forecasting possible environmental effects of mining, such as air pollution. As a minerals/mining surveyor you need to be good at mathematics. You also need to be familiar with electronic instruments, computers and computer-aided design techniques. Minerals/mining surveyors need a wide knowledge of mining economics, planning legislation, health and safety issues and mineral properties. In dealing with planning matters with local authorities you will need to have good communication skills. Photogrammetry is a remote sensing technology in which geometric properties about objects are determined from photographic images. Photogrammetry is used in different fields, such as topographic mapping, architecture, engineering, manufacturing, quality control, police investigation, and geology, as well as by archaeologists to quickly produce plans of large or complex sites. It is also used to combine live action with computer generated imagery in movie post-production; Fight Club is an excellent example of the use of photogrammetry in film. In the broadest sense, remote sensing is the short or large-scale acquisition of information of an object or phenomenon, by the use of either recording or real-time sensing devices that is not in physical or intimate contact with the object (such as by way of aircraft,

spacecraft, satellite, buoy, or ship). In practice, remote sensing is the stand-off collection through the use of a variety of devices for gathering information on a given object or area. Thus, Earth observation or weather satellite collection platforms, ocean and atmospheric observing weather buoy platforms, monitoring of a pregnancy via ultrasound, Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), Positron Emission Tomography (PET), and space probes are all examples of remote sensing. In modern usage, the term generally refers to the use of imaging sensor technologies including but not limited to the use of instruments aboard aircraft and spacecraft, and is distinct from other imaging-related fields such as medical imaging.

Quantity Surveyor

Mineral/Mining Surveyor

Quantity surveyors play a key role in the organization and financial management of construction projects. Their job is to manage costs effectively and to ensure that they get the best value from contractors and suppliers. This involves obtaining tenders, arranging contracts, and managing costs for the client while the works are undertaken. It is also their job to negotiate with the clients representative on payments and the final settlement. Quantity surveyors deal with other professionals within their company as well as clients out-with the organization. It is an extremely diverse area and can include project management, facility management, construction management and management consultancy.

Photogrammetric mapping

Surveyors Review Course

Co-sponsored by the University of Missouri-Rolla and Missouri Society of Professional Surveyors, the 2007 surveyor refresher course will cover Exam Preparation, Legal Principles, USPLSS, Errors Analysis, Route Surveys, Celestial Observations, Instrumentation, Photogrammetry, GPS Surveys, State Plane Coordinates, Problems Session, and Practice NCEES-like Exams. Instructors Dick Elgin, Joe Paiva, Norman Brown. $795.00. Contact: Engineering Continuing Education, UMR, Rolla, Missosuri 65409; 573-341-4132.

Remote sensing

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surveying: educational institutions

State Alaska California California Colorado Florida Georgia Indiana Kentucky Louisiana Michigan Michigan New Jersey New Jersey New Mexico New York New York New York Ohio Ohio Ohio Ohio Ohio Oregon Pennsylvania Pennsylvania South Carolina Tennessee Tennessee Texas Virginia Institution University of Alaska Anchorage California State Polytechnic University California State University, Fresno Metropolitan State College of Denver University of Florida Location Anchorage Pomona Fresno Denver Gainesville Program Geomatics Geospatial Engr. Option in Civil Engr. Geomatics Engineering Surveying and Mapping Geomatics Surveying and Mapping Land Surveying Engineering Civil Engineering Technology Geomatics Surveying Engineering Surveying Engineering Surveying Engineering Technology Civil Construction Engineering Technology, Land Surveying Option (Dual Admin. w/ NJIT) Surveying Engineering Surveying Engr. Technology Surveying Technology Surveying Technology Geomatics Engineering Surveying Engineering Technology Civil Engr. Tech. - Surveying Major Civil Engineering Technology, Surveying Certificate Civil Engr. Tech.-Surveying Option Geomatics Surveying Technology Surveying Technology Geomatics Technology Surveying and Mapping Degree BS BS BS BS BS, MS, PhD BS BS, MS, PhD BS, ETA BS BS BS BSET AAS BS BS, AAS AS AS BS BS, AAS AS AAS AAS BS AS AS AS BS Accreditation ABET/ASAC ABET/EAC ABET/EAC ABET/ASAC ABET/ASAC ABET/ASAC ABET/EAC CE ABET/TAC ABET/ASAC in progress ABET/ASAC ABET/EAC ABET/TAC CE ABET/TAC ABET/EAC ABET/TAC ABET/TAC ABET/TAC ABET/EAC ABET/TAC CE ABET/TAC CE ABET/TAC CE ABET/TAC ABET/ASAC ABET/TAC ABET/TAC ABET/TAC ABET/ASAC CE ABET/TAC ABET/ASAC CE ABET/TAC

Southern Polytechnic State University Marietta Purdue University Murray State University, College of Industry & Engineering Technology Nicholls State University Michigan Technological University Ferris State University New Jersey Institute of Technology Essex County College New Mexico State University Alfred State College Mohawk Valley Community College Paul Smiths College The Ohio State University The University of Akron Community and Technical College Cincinnati State Technical Community College Sinclair Community College Stark State College of Technology Oregon Institute of Technology Pennsylvania College of Technology Pennsylvania State University, Wilkes-Barre Campus, Commonwealth College Greenville Technical College East Tennessee State University Chattanooga State University Texas A&M University at Corpus Christi Old Dominion University West Lafayette Murray Thibodaux Houghton Big Rapids Newark Newark, NJ Las Cruces Alfred Utica Paul Smiths Columbus Akron Cincinnati Dayton North Canton Klamath Falls Williamsport Wilkes-Barre Greenville Johnson City Chattanooga

Civil Engineering Technology,Surveying AAS Certificate Geographic Information Corpus Christi BS Science Civil Engineering Technology, Norfolk AAS Surveying & Site Development

Accredited surveying programs at U.S. colleges. [Extracted from a 2006 compilation by Rita Lumos.]