Introduction to Java

Introduction: Java is an Objected Oriented Programming. As seen in C++ java has all the compositions of C++ with some additional advances changes. Java was developed for internet programming through html by Sun Microsystems CEO James Gosling. Characteristics of Java: The OOP concept in java is same as C++ with changes in technique and style. It has object and class It has Data Abstraction and Encapsulation It has Inheritance and Polymorphism It has Dynamic Binding (constructor) It has Message Communication from one object to other and through applet application in html.

Java Features: Platform independent and portable because source code is converted to byte code. Robust and secure because manages memory well. Distributed data can be share online through internet and intranet. Multithread and interactive; can run more than one program or block at a time. Java Virtual Machine (JVM) help to manage the memory resource effectively and thus reducing the startup time of loading the class and sharing data among classes. Body of Java: class room //Sub class and Base class { float area (float l, float b) //Method or function default is friend {return l*b;} double area (double l, double b) {return l*b;} } class display // Main class {public static void main (String[] args) { System.out.println("Friends"); } } Java has two files source file which has the code, and class file. The source file need hot have the same name as class file when there is no public class in the source code file. When complied java creates separate class file for each class from the source code file, the class be super class, sub class, or main class. However if the source code file has public class the source code file should be saved in the name of public class. It the sub class and main class are public then the source code file should be saved in the name main class. Source file and class files are case sensitive Java, Netscape Navigator, and Internet Explorer. Browsers: Hot

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Java and C++ Java does not support operator overloading Java does not support template class. Java does not support multiple inheritances; it is achieved through interface. Java does not support global variable. Java has no pointers. Java does not support independent function all function must be inside the class. In java functions are referred as Method. The main program is product: Packages to develop java also inside a separate class. It is called main class. Package is collection class and methods. The following packages help to develop java The main class must have same name as the file name with .java as file extension. applications. Language Support Product: to support basic java features. Java canPackage: to support data and time functions. extensively and exclusively used Utilities be developed as stand alone product but it is to Input/Output Package: to support I/O activities. Network Package: to support online activity through internet. develop internet based software applications. AWT Package: to support platform independent graphical user interface. Applet Package: to support java applets. Java does not use destructor instead finalize( ) function is called to destroy object. Data Types: Character, Integer, float, and double. Boolean True of false default false. Array, Class, Interface. Floating point default is double precision to convert single precision use f or F as suffix to the float point value. When double variable is assigned to float variable, the double variable value must be suffixed with f or F to store in float variable as single precision. It can also be converted using type cast (float)x; Array: One dimensional Array Declaration Method 1: Step1: int x [ ]; This is an array set to null Step2: x = new int[10]; This an array allocated with 10 elements. Method 2: int x = new int[10]; Array of size 10. int x[3]={11,2,43}; is invalid; int y[ ] ={3,5,12}; is valid Rules of Array: It checks for boundary unlike C or C++

 Array size can be found using array_variable.length function. One array can be assigned to another array of same or higher order a=b; Two dimensional Array Declaration Method 1: Step1: int y [ ][ ]; This is an array set to null Step2: y = new int[3][3]; This an array allocated with 9 elements. Method 2: int y[ ][ ] = new int[3][3]; 3x3 Array. The two dimensional array in Java is different from other programming tool. Java two one dimensional arrays are arranged in that order. The advantage of have two one dimensional arrays to form two dimensional array is shown in the following example. int z[ ] [ ] = new int[4] [ ]; z[0] = new int[1]; First row has only one column z[1] = new int[2]; Second row has two column z[2] = new int[3]; Third row has three column z[3] = new int[4]; Fourth row has four column. Therefore total number of elements are 10 Here array z is arranged as follows which is known as uneven or irregular array. This is rarely used in the programming technique but situation may arise to use such type of declaration. 0 00 000 0000 Scope of Variables: Instance variable created for each instance of object. Each object has separate memory address to store the data. Class variable are global to all the objects created from that class. It has only one memory location, which is for class alone. Local variable within the braces in the main and in methods. Constant: A symbolic constant value is defined using the keyword final. It cannot be defined inside the method. It can be used as data member in the class. final int x=100; Type casting: This method is adopted only when to assign higher order variable to lower order variable. Casting higher order data to lower order data may result in loss of data. int x=10; float y; x = (int)y; S.P.SAM DHANA SEKAR 3

Automatic conversion is possible when the lower order variable is assigned to higher order variable in such case data is not lost and type casting is not required. y = x; Java Operators: 1. Arithmetic operators +, -,*,/, and % - % can be used for real number also. 2. Relational operators <, >, <=, >=, = =, and !=. 3. Logical operators &&, ||, and ! 4. Assignment Operators. = 5. Shorthand operator x += 1 is same x=x+1 6. Increment and Decrement operator ++ and 7. Conditional Operator: exp1?exp2:exp3; 8. Bitwise operator: to manipulate data at bit level. &, |, ^ ~(once complement), <<,>>, >>>(right shift with zero fill) 9. Instanceof operator To find the instance of an object. A a = new A( ); if (a instanceof student) statement 10. Dot operator to access data members in the class.

Initialization: Float must be initialized with suffix f or F to avoid compiler error. Ex: float x =23.45 will be error float x=23.45F is right way to initialize. Arithmetic expressions Evaluation of Expressions Precedence of Operators Control Structures: If, if else, else if. Switch for and while Note: unreachable error message can be over come using if control structure. Jumping Loop: break, continue, return In programming languages like C, and C++ jumping in and out or loop is achieved through break and continue statements. But these jump statements are not specific and it works only for the block of that control structure. In other word a break or continue cannot be redirected to other inner block or outer block. This may be overcome through goto statement. Whereas in Java break or continue can be specifically redirected. Since break and continue statements can be labeled. Which work similar to goto statement. Java does not support goto statement. Break or continue statement can be with or without label. If it is without label statement is applied for that block or else it is redirected to label. 4

Class and Objects: All the algorithm or program must be inside a class as method or data. Even main must be inside a class which is called main class. Class defined as public should be saved in that file name. Class not defined as public. The file may be saved as main class name or first sub class name. It is always preferred to save as main class name. All other classes are called sub class. Methods are defined only inside the class. Method without argument must be empty not even void. Method cannot have default argument value. Method can have final argument with out assigning value to the argument. Constructor has same name, no return type, and declared any where in the class. Object can be created only by constructor when constructor is defined. Method finalize( ) work just like destructor but it should he explicitly created in the class as protected member and called through object like regular method. This is seldom used because java takes care of memory management of objects. Static data members use class itself as instance; the static members are referred directly through classname.member. All members and its class are friend by default. The friend members and class can be used only within that package. It is inherited and accessed outside the class. Public classes and members can be accessed from any package. It is inherited and accessed outside the class. Protected members can be accessed by class and derived of same package and derived of other packages but not by class of other packages. It can be accessed outside the class and it is inherited. Private protected is visible only in the derived of the packages. Private data member can be accessed only by its class within the class and it cannot be inherited. Where private method can be accessed outside the class and it is cannot be inherited. Each variable must have its own access modifier, that access modifier cannot be grouped to variables like in c++. S.P.SAM DHANA SEKAR The keyword final can be used to make the final data, final method, and final class. The final data work just like declaring a variable as constant. Whereas final method will not 5

Program 8.18 to understand visibility control of members class visibility {private int pvt=10; //protected privateint pvtprt=20; int frd; //default is friend void displaypvt() {System.out.println("The private value is :"+pvt); protected int prt; } void int pub; public display(String t, int a) {System.out.println("The "+t+ " value is :"+a); } } class visibilitycontrol {public static void main(String...args) {int x; visibility v = new visibility(); v.displaypvt(); x=v.frd=20; //chain assingment v.display("friend",x); x=v.prt=30; //chain assingment v.display("protected", x); x=v.pub=40; //chain assingment v.display("public", x); } }

Program 8.1 and 8.2 Understanding class, objects, and constructor class rectangle { private //: not required in java it makes only next statement as part of access modifier int x, y; private rectangle() //default constructor {System.out.println("friends"); } rectangle(int a, int b) {x=a;y=b;} int area() //void not allowed like in C++ {rectangle a = new rectangle(); //private constructor invoked return x*y; } }

class RectArea //main class { public static void main(String args[]) {int area; System.out.println("welcome"); //rectangle a = new rectangle(); //Invokes default contructor rectangle b = new rectangle(5,5); //Invokes constructor with two argument } } area=b.area(); System.out.println("Area is "+area);

Program 8.8 Overloading Methods and constructors //a=b; class rectangle { private //area=a.area();in java it makes only next statement as part of access //: not required modifier int x, y; //System.out.println("Area is "+area); rectangle() //default constructor {System.out.println("friends"); } rectangle(int a, int b) //constructor with two argument {x=a;y=b; } int area() // {return x*y;} int area(int l, int b)//Method overloading {return l*b; } } public class Overload //main class { public static void main(String args[]) {int area; System.out.println("welcome"); rectangle a = new rectangle(); //Invokes default contructor rectangle b = new rectangle(5,5); //Invokes constructor with two argument area=b.area(); System.out.println("Area is "+area); area=a.area(11,12); System.out.println("Area is "+area);

} }

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Program 8.9 Understanding static members public class staticmembers {static int sa; int a; void addn() //Do not use void as argument in method { ++sa; ++a; (){} staticmembers System.out.println("Static value in non static method= "+sa); System.out.println("Non static value = "+a); } static void adds() {++sa; System.out.println("Static method = "+sa); //System.out.println("Sum of Non static = "+ sa); cannot read non static data in static method } } class total { public static void main (String...args) { staticmembers t=new staticmembers(); t.addn(); t.adds(); staticmembers.adds(); staticmembers s=new staticmembers(); s.addn(); staticmembers.adds(); } }

Program 8.10 Understanding nesting of methods class nesting {private int pvt=10; private void displaypvt() {System.out.println("The private value is :"+pvt); } void display() {displaypvt(); } } public class nestingmethods {public static void main(String...args) {nesting n = new nesting (); n.display(); } }

Inheritance: Base is inherited by using key word extends The inherited base class is not restricted as private, protected, or public as in C++ All members and its class are friend by default. The friend members and class can be used only within that package. It is inherited and accessed outside the class. Public classes and members can be accessed from any package. It is inherited and accessed outside the class. Protected members can be accessed by class and derived of same package and derived of other packages but not by class of other packages. It can be accessed outside the class and it is inherited. Private protected is visible only in the derived of all the packages. Private data member can be accessed only by its class within the class and it cannot be inherited. Whereas private method can be accessed outside the class and it is cannot be inherited. Constructor is not inherited. Program 8.11 Inheritance & constructor and super method to pass value to base class class OneD The base class is called super class in inheritance. {double l; OneD(int a) The constructor value to base class is passed through the derived class by calling the {l=a; } method super in the derived class or sub class constructor. double length() {return l; } } Method super can be used only in sub class that is derived class. class TwoD extends OneD Method {double b; super must be the first statement in the sub class. TwoD(int x, int y) Method super must have the same argument as in the base class. {super(x); l=x; b=y; Even when there is more than one constructor to a base class only one constructor of } double area() the {return (l*b); } } derived can be initiated through the method super in the derived class constructor. Only Multilevel and hierarchical inheritance can be performed using keyword extends. S.P.SAM DHANA SEKAR Multiple inheritances is developed using interface. 9

class ThreeD extends TwoD {double h; ThreeD(int x, int y, int z) { super(x,y); l=x; b=y;h=z; } public class inheritance// main class double volume() { public static void main(String args[]) {return (l*b*h); } new OneD(5); { OneD OD = System.out.println("The length of the box is " +OD.length()); } TwoD TD = new TwoD(5,5); System.out.println("The Area of the box is " +TD.area()); ThreeD ED = new ThreeD(5,5,5); System.out.println("The Volume of the box is " +ED.volume()); } } Program 8.12 and 8.13 overriding and final variable, method, class class base {void display(int a) {System.out.println("Base or super class value is "+a); } } class derivedA extends base {void display(float a) //does not override base class method {System.out.println("Derived A or sub class float value is "+a); } final void display(int a) //override base class method {System.out.println("Derived A or sub class value is "+a); } } final class derivedB extends derivedA {void display(float a) //does not override base class method {System.out.println("Derived B or sub class float value is "+a); }

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//The below method is not possible because it was made final in the base class //void display(int a) } //{System.out.println("Derived B or sub class value is "+a);

public class override //} { //final static int x=10; public static void main(String...str) {final int x=10; base b = new base(); b.display(x); derivedA da = new derivedA(); da.display(20.0f); da.display(30); derivedB db = new derivedB(); db.display(20.0f); db.display(30);

} } Program 8.16 Abstract method and class abstract class base {void display(int a) {System.out.println("Base or super non abstract method value is "+a); } abstract void displayabs(int b); } class derivedA extends base {final void displayabs(int a) //must override base class method because it was abstract {System.out.println("Derived A or sub class value is "+a); } }

public class abstractmethod { public static void main(String...str) {final int x=10; derivedA da = new derivedA(); da.display(10); da.displayabs(20); } }

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Program 8.17 Method with variable argument-It must be last argument in the method class vararg {void display(Object...args) {for(Object O:args) void display(int a, String...args) {System.out.println("The object value is :"+O); {for(String s:args) {System.out.println("The string value is :"+s); } } System.out.println("The value is :"+a); } } void display(int a, int...args) {for(int s:args) {System.out.println("The integer value is :"+s); } System.out.println("The value is :"+a); } /* void display(int...args) {for(int s:args) //for(Object s:args) will also work {System.out.println("The integer value is :"+s); } } } public class vararguments {static int x[]={2,4,6,8}; public static void main(String...args) {vararg v = new vararg(); v.display("apple", 1, 11.23,33.53f, 'z'); v.display(1, "apple", "is", "fruit"); v.display(1,2,3,4,5,6); //executes display(int a, int..arg) will not invoke object var arg for(Object s:x) //for(Object s:args) will also work {System.out.println("The integer value is :"+s); } } } */

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9.5 Strings It has two class String class and StringBuffer class. The capacity of String class is same as the length of the string value. The capacity of StringBuffer class is length of string value and Program 9.5 Method to Handle Strings and StringBuffer

public class stringmethod 16 additional bytes which is default size of StringBuffer. { static void strings() //space is also part of string {String s1 = new String (" APPLE COMPUTERS "); String s2 = new String (" apple computers "); System.out.println("S1 Length = " + s1.length()); System.out.println("Lowercase = " + s1.toLowerCase()); System.out.println("Uppercase = "+s2.toUpperCase()); System.out.println("Trim = " +s1.trim()); System.out.println("Replace = "+s1.replace('P','B')); System.out.println("Equals = "+s1.equals(s2)); //true or false System.out.println("Ignore Case = "+s1.equalsIgnoreCase(s2)); System.out.println("Char At 6 = "+s1.charAt(6)); //Read Character at 6th position System.out.println("SubString1 = "+s1.substring(7)); //Read all from 7th character System.out.println("SubString2 = "+s1.substring(0,6)); //Read 0 to 6th character System.out.println("Compare To = "+s1.compareTo(s2));//Compare return integer System.out.println("Index 1 = "+s1.indexOf('P'));//First occurrence of P System.out.println("Index 2 = "+s1.indexOf('P',5));//First occurrence of P after 5th character System.out.println("Concat = "+s1.concat(s2)); //Add two strings float x=1234.3445f; String s; s= String.valueOf(x); //Converts float to string. System.out.println("Float as String = "+s.substring(0,7)); } static void stringbuffer() {StringBuffer strb = new StringBuffer("Ele "); //Default size 16 //StringBuffer strbf="null"; Buffer must be created with memory allocation System.out.println("String Buffer Class"); System.out.println("Length "+ strb.length()); System.out.println("Capacity "+ strb.capacity()); //Size of string buffer System.out.println("Append "+ strb.append("Comm")); //Add to string System.out.println("append "+ strb.append(" Engg")); strb.setCharAt(0,'S'); //Replace character S at 0th position. System.out.println("Set Char At 0 " +strb); System.out.println("Char At 2 " + strb.charAt(2));//Find character at 2nd position System.out.println("Insert 3 c " + strb.insert(3,'c')); //Insert at 3rd position System.out.println("Insert 0, BE " +strb.insert(0,"BE "));//Insert at the beginning System.out.println("Reverse String "+ strb.reverse()); //Reverse the string strb.setLength(5); //Set or change the length System.out.println("Set Length "+strb); }

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public static void main(String args[]) {strings(); System.out.println("--------------------------"); String s1="Einstein "; stringbuffer(); String s2= new String ("College"); System.out.println(s1 + " " + s2 + 34); s1 = s1 + s2 + " Of Engineering " + 1; System.out.println(s1); } } Program 9.6 Understanding vector class It can store any data type of any size. It is easy to delete or add objects to the class Unlike array size varies to the number element size is dynamic import java.util.*; public class vectorclass {public static void main(String args[]) { Vector list = new Vector(); String str[]={"Einstein", "Raman", "Newton"}; for(String s:str) {list.addElement(s); } int sa = list.size(); String strc[]= new String[sa]; list.copyInto(strc);//All elements in the list should be string values for(String sc:strc) {System.out.println(sc);

list.insertElementAt("Babbage",2); list.insertElementAt(627012,2); int i[]={11,22,33}; for(Object o:i) list.addElement(o); list.addElement(100); list.addElement(22.56f); list.addElement(11.34); list.addElement('a'); list.addElement("All");

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list.removeElement(100); //data type should match list.removeElementAt(1); //removes the 2nd element Raman int size = list.size(); //list.removeAllElements(); Object stro[]= new Object[size]; list.copyInto(stro);//Values in the list can be any type for(Object so:stro) {System.out.println(so);

for(int c=0; c<size; c++) {System.out.println("The Element is " + list.elementAt(c)); } }

Interface: Multiple inheritances is developed using key word interface. Interface variables (data member) are final and static by default. Only these variables can be declared. Variables must be initialized within interface. Only body of methods is defined in the interface. The interface is included in the class using the keyword implements. All the methods of the interface must be defined in the class when implementing interface. Something similar to abstract method, when the abstract class extends with abstract method the abstract method must be override. More than one interface can be included to a class. Thus multiple inheritances are achieved. Then the class must define all or required method inside that class. If the class use the same name as method in the interface the interface method is implemented, or if the name is different from the interface included then it method of that class alone not a method from interface. Interface cannot have private or protected members. The members must be public when implementing the interface in a class. Object can be created from interface just like from class, but class object must be assigned to the interface object before calling the member from interface object. Class can be created by extending the base and also including the interface this is similar to hybrid inheritance in C++. 10.2 Understanding Simple Interface interface area {float r=3.14f; //int z; it is not possible in interface must be initialized float square(float x, float y); float circle(float x); S.P.SAM DHANA SEKAR 15

} class TwoD implements area {float s,c,l,b,r; //r will have higher precedence public float square(float x, float y) {l=x;b=y; return(s=x*y); } public float circle(float x) { //r = 2*r; illeagal because r is final by default in interface r=area.r; //variable r in class is assigned from interface variable return(c=r*x*x); //r read from class variable } void display() {System.out.println("Square "+s); System.out.println("Circle "+c); } } class simpleinterface {public static void main(String...str) {TwoD TD = new TwoD(); TD.square(10.0f, 20.0f); System.out.println("Length "+TD.l+ " Breadth "+ TD.b); TD.circle(10f); TD.display(); } }

10.2 Extending Interface interface length {float r=3.14f; //int z; it is not possible in interface must be initialized float ruler(float x); } interface area extends length { float r=6.141f; //override interface length r float square(float x); float ruler(float x);//will have no impact }

class base implements area { public float ruler(float x) {return x; } public float square(float x) { return 2*r*x;} }

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class extendinterface {public static void main(String...str) {base b = new base(); float f; f=b.square(10.0f); System.out.println("Square "+f); f=b.ruler(20f); Multiple inheritances through interface interface area System.out.println("Ruler "+f); {float pi=3.14f; float square(float x, float y); float} circle(float x); } } interface volume //extends area {//float pi=3.14f; will cause ambiguity when implementing float cube(); float square(float x, float y); //only one method will be implemented float cylinder(float h); float circle(float x, float y); //overload method can be implemented } class TwoD implements volume,area //Multiple inheritance {float s,c,l,b,cu,cy,r, cya; public float square(float x, float y) { l=x;b=y; return(s=x*y); } public float circle(float x) {return(c=pi*x*x); } public float circle(float x, float y) {return(cya=2*pi*x*y); } public float cube() {return (cu=l*l*b); } public float cylinder(float h) {return (cy=pi*r*r*h); } void display() {System.out.println("Square "+s); System.out.println("Circle "+c); S.P.SAM DHANA SEKAR 17

System.out.println("Cube "+cu); System.out.println("Cylinder "+cy); System.out.println("Surface area Cylinder "+cya); } } class multipleinheritance {public static void main(String...str) {TwoD TD = new TwoD(); TD.square(10.0f, 20.0f); TD.circle(10f); 10.5 Hybrid extending a class and implementing interface TD.circle(10f,29.5f); interface area {float pi=3.14f; floatTD.cube(); x, float y); square(float float circle(float x); TD.cylinder(10.0f); } TD.display(); class volume {float cube(float x) } {return(x*x*x); }; } } class mix extends volume implements area {float s,c,l,b,cy; float cylinder(float r, float h) {return (cy=pi*r*r*h); } public float square(float x, float y) { return(s=x*y); } public float circle(float x) {return(c=pi*x*x); } void display() {System.out.println("Square "+s);

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System.out.println("Circle "+c); System.out.println("Cylinder "+cy); } } class hybridinheritance {public static void main(String...str) {mix hy = new mix(); float c; hy.square(10.0f, 20.0f); hy.circle(10f); c=hy.cube(5f); hy.cylinder(10f,10f); System.out.println("Cube "+c); hy.display(); } }

Package: Package is a collection of class. Ex: java.lang.Math java is package which is inside another package called lang which has class called Math. Each package will have its own classes. Through those classes methods are accessed, just like regular class as seen earlier. Example; Math.sqrt(x); Math.sin(x), etc. Package works like a folder storing different files and sub folders. Similarly a package can have class or sub package which may its own class. The keyword package package_name should be used before beginning the class. This will create the package; if the package already exists it will store the class in that package. Each class should be stored as separate file with package name at the beginning (test.java). At least one class should be public class; the file should be saved in the name of public class. Package can be hidden by making it as default class, default class can be accessed only by the members of same package. Package can have base class and derived file as single file, but only one class must be public class preferably derived class so that base can be accessed through derived class. A derived class can be created in a separate file by including the base class package at top. Only public method can be accessed from a class object when placed in a package. No other methods such as protected or default can be accessed through object when placed in package. Scope and Visibility of Package and its class: Private member can be accessed only within that class and not inherited. Public member can accessed from any class and any package and inherited. Default member can be accessed from any class from same package and inherited. S.P.SAM DHANA SEKAR 19

 Protected member can be accessed from any class from the same package and from derived class of different package; but not from separate class of different package. Private protected is only visible in the derived class of any package. This class saved as pkg1classA.class in package pkg1: package pkg1; public class pkg1classA {int def =100; private int pvt =200; protected int prt=300; public int pub=400; public void displayA() {System.out.println("Default "+def);System.out.println("Private "+pvt); System.out.println("Protected "+prt);System.out.println("Public "+pub); } } This derived class saved as pkg1extendsA.class in package pkg1: Except private member all other members can be accessed using inheritance if both classes reside in same package. package pkg1; public class pkg1extendsA extends pkg1classA {public void displayExtendA() {System.out.println("Default "+def); //System.out.println("Private "+pvt); Cannot access private outside its class System.out.println("Protected "+prt); //private protected also visible because inherited System.out.println("Public "+pub); } } This class saved as pkg1classB.class in package pkg1: Except private and private protected member all other members can be accessed using object creation if both classes reside in same package. package pkg1; public class pkg1classB {pkg1classA a = new pkg1classA(); public void displaypkg1B() {System.out.println("Default "+a.def); //System.out.println("Private "+a.pvt); Cannot access private outside its class System.out.println("Protected "+a.prt); //private protected not visible because cannot System.out.println("Public "+a.pub); } } This class saved as pkg2classB.class in package pkg2: Only public members can be accessed from other package using object creation 20

package pkg2; public class pkg2classB {pkg1.pkg1classA a = new pkg1.pkg1classA(); public void displaypkg2B() {//System.out.println("Default "+a.def); Cannot access default outside its package //System.out.println("Private "+a.pvt); Cannot access private outside its class This class saved as pkg2extendsA.class in package pkg2: //System.out.println("Protected "+a.prt); Cannot be accessed from other package Private Protected, Protected and public members can access default outside its package using inheritance System.out.println("Public "+a.pub); package pkg2; public class pkg2extendsA extends pkg1.pkg1classA } {public void displayExtendApkg2() {//System.out.println("Default "+def); cannot access from another package } //System.out.println("Private "+pvt); Cannot access private outside its class System.out.println("Protected "+prt); //private protected also visible because inherited System.out.println("Public "+pub); } } 11.7 Using Packages: import pkg1.*; import pkg2.*; class pkg1pkg2 {public static void main(String...s) {pkg1.pkg1classA pkg1A = new pkg1.pkg1classA(); pkg1A.displayA(); pkg1.pkg1extendsA pkg1EA = new pkg1.pkg1extendsA(); pkg1EA.displayExtendA(); pkg1.pkg1classB pkg1B = new pkg1.pkg1classB(); pkg1B.displaypkg1B(); pkg2.pkg2extendsA pkg2EA = new pkg2.pkg2extendsA(); pkg2EA.displayExtendApkg2(); pkg2.pkg2classB pkg2B = new pkg2.pkg2classB(); pkg2B.displaypkg2B(); } S.P.SAM DHANA SEKAR 21

Multithreading: Operating systems like windows XP, UNIX, Linux, Macintosh, etc can execute or run more than one program or application at a time this is called Multitasking or Multithreading in Java. A single processor shares the processing time; which is not possible to visualize during execution of these application. Thread is a small program. Method I: 1. Create a class by extending the built-in class Thread 2. Create a method run( ). 3. Create object from Mythread class and call the start( ) method. Method II: 1. Create a class by implementing the built-in interface Runnable. 2. Create a method run( ). 3. Create object from the above class 4. Create object from the Thread class passing object as argument and call the start( ) method. Points to be remembered when implementing Multithreading: 1. The method run should be created to implement multithreading. 2. The method start will invoke the code written inside the run method. 3. To run more than one program the step 1 and 2 should be created again. 4. A running program can be stopped with stop method. 5. A running program may be suspended or blocked with sleep, suspended, or wait method. 6. Method yield will give way to execute another program. 7. Method sleep should be placed inside the try block followed by the catch block, because it raises an exception after sleep period is completed. 8. Exceptions in thread are Exception, ThreadDeath, InterruptedException, and IllegalArgumentException. 9. Before starting more than one program priority can be given or set to each program in method setPriority(1 to 10). One (MIN_PRIORITY) being the lowest, five (NORM_PRIORITY) is default, and 10 (MAX_PRIORITY) being highest. The priority can be set by integer values or using those three terms. 10. The priority set to a thread can be found from the method getPriority( ). 11. When same thread is called at two different points a deadlock may occur. The deadlock can be overcome by creating a method with keyword synchronized. 12.6 Thread from extending Thread class: class ThreadA extends Thread {public void run() {for (int i=0; i<10; ++i) {if (i==1) yield();

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System.out.println("Thread A " +i); } System.out.println("Exit Thread A "); } } class ThreadB extends Thread {public void run() { for (int i=0; i<10; ++i) {System.out.println("Thread B " +i); if (i==3) stop(); } System.out.println("Exit Thread B "); } } class ThreadC extends Thread {public synchronized void run() {for (int i=0; i<10; ++i) {System.out.println("Thread C " +i); if (i==6) try{sleep(1000);} catch(Exception e) {System.out.println("Slept");} } System.out.println("Exit Thread C "); } } class example2 {public static void main(String args[]) {ThreadA A = new ThreadA(); ThreadB B = new ThreadB(); ThreadC C = new ThreadC();

System.out.println("Start Thread A"); System.out.println("Start Thread B"); System.out.println("Start Thread C"); System.out.println("End of Main "); } }

A.start(); B.start(); C.start();

12.8-12.10 Thread from interface Runnable: class ThreadA implements Runnable //Step 1 {public void run()//Step 2 {for (int i=0; i<10; ++i) System.out.println("Thread A " +i); System.out.println("Exit Thread A "); S.P.SAM DHANA SEKAR 23

} } class ThreadB extends Thread {public void run() {for (int i=0; i<10; ++i) System.out.println("Thread B " +i); System.out.println("Exit Thread B "); } } class example4 {public static void main(String args[]) {ThreadA ARun = new ThreadA(); //Step 3 Thread A = new Thread(ARun);//Step 4 ThreadB B = new ThreadB();

B.setPriority(Thread.MIN_PRIORITY); A.setPriority(B.getPriority()+1); System.out.println("Start Thread A"); A.start(); System.out.println("Start Thread B"); B.start(); System.out.println("End of Main "); } } Exception Handling: Errors are three types, syntax error, run-time error, and logical error. Syntax error can be easily fixed because a program cannot be executed without fixing syntax errors. The runtime error will not happen always, this error will trigger only at an instance. For example x=y/z; will continue to execute without any error unless the value of z is zero. Logical error is like answering the question incorrectly, example x=a+b*c+d is not same as x=(a+b)*(c+d); Try compiler block should be followed by catch block. will Each try block should have its own catch block. fix it . not give any error until the programmer finds it and There can be more than one catch block for a try block, this called multiple catch statement, but it will catch only one catch block at a time The generic catch is called by calling keyword Exception as argument in the catch it normally placed as last catch block when used with other exception. The finally block will be executed irrespective of the exception raised or not raised. This must be the last block after the catch block. A try block can have just a finally block without catch block. Built in exception are automatically thrown when an exception is raised. A specific exception can be thrown by throwing that exception throw new exception.

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 User-defined exceptions must be thrown exclusively; unlike built-in exception this will not raise exception automatically.

Most commonly used of Exceptions: ArithmeticException ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException ArrayStoreException FileNotFoundException IOException NullPointerException NumberFormatException OutOfMemoryException

divide by zero exceeding array boundary invalid data in an array non existence of file I/O failures read or write to a file etc Referring a null object conversion between string and number not enough memory

Exmple1: class anexception {void display() {int x=2,z=0; int a[]={2,4,6,8}; for(int e=0; e<5;++e) {z=a[e]/x; System.out.println("finally " + z); } } }

public class finallymethod {public static void main(String s[]) {int x=0,z=0; int a[]={2,4,6,8}; try { for(int e=0; e<4;++e) {z=a[e]/x; System.out.println("finally " + z); } } catch(ArithmeticException e) {System.out.println(e);} catch(ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException e) {System.out.println(e);} catch(Exception e) {System.out.println(e);} finally {System.out.println("finally " + z); }

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anexception ae = new anexception(); try{ae.display(); } catch(ArithmeticException e) {System.out.println(e);} catch(ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException e) {System.out.println(e);} } catch(Exception e)

{System.out.println(e);} Example2: class error finally { public static void main(String args[]) method"); {System.out.println("finally through { int a=0,y=5,z=0; } } try{ if(z==0) throw new ArithmeticException(); else a=y/z; } catch (ArithmeticException x) {System.out.println("AE " +x);} catch (ArrayStoreException x) {System.out.println("ASE " +x);} catch (Exception e) {System.out.println("Error " +e);} finally {System.out.println("Finally")};

} } Example3: class exception {public static void main (String...s) {int x=20,y=0; try {y=x/y; } finally

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{System.out.println("finally" +y); } } }

Example4: class MyException extends Exception {private int detail; MyException(int a) {detail=a; } public String toString() {return "Userdefined Exception " + detail; } } class MyExceptionA extends Exception {private int detail; MyExceptionA(String m) {super(m);

} } public class errorhandling {public static void main(String []args) {int x=2,y=40,z=0; try{if (z==0) throw new MyExceptionA("Error"); } catch (MyExceptionA e) {System.out.println(e); } try{if (z==0) throw new MyException(z); } catch (MyException e) {System.out.println(e); } try{ x=y/z; } catch (ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException e) {System.out.println(e); } finally{System.out.println("Finally"); System.out.println(x=y+z);

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} } } Managing Input/Output Files in Java Java has developed stream classes to handle input and output operation of files as well as from keyboard, mouse, disk, memory, network, etc. The stream classes are classified into two groups. 1. Byte stream classes to handle I/O on bytes. 2. Character stream classes to handle I/O on characters. Bytes stream classes: Input Stream classes To handle input on bytes several methods are developed in InputStream class which is the abstract class. These methods are defined in DataInputStream and FileInputStream which extend the InputStream class. 1. Reads a byte from input stream - method read( ) 2. Reads array of bytes - method read(byte b[]) 3. Reads m bytes into b starting from nth byte - method read(byte b[], int n, int m) 4. Finds number of bytes in the input - method available( ) 5. To skip n bytes from the input - method skip(n) 6. To go to the beginning of the stream - method reset( ) 7. To close the stream - method close( ) DataInputStream also implements the method contains in the DataInput interface. The methods in DataInput interface are. 1. readShort( )5. readDouble( ) 2. readInt( )6. readLine( ) 3. readLong( )7. readChar( ) 4. readFloat( )8. readBoolean( ) Output Stream classes To handle output on bytes several methods are developed in OutputStream class which is the abstract class. These methods are called through DataOutputStream and FileOutputStream which extend the InputStream class. 1. Writes a byte from input stream - method write( ) 2. Writes array of bytes - method write(byte b[]) 3. Writes m bytes into b starting from nth byte - write(byte b[], int n, int m) 4. To flush the output stream - method flush( ) 5. To close the stream - method close( ) DataOutputStream also implements the method contains in the DataOutput interface. The methods in DataOutput interface are. 1. writeShort( )5. writeDouble( ) 2. writeInt( )6. writeLine( ) 3. writeLong( )7. writeChar( )

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4. writeFloat( )

8. writeBoolean( )

Character Stream classes: Input and Output Stream classes The methods have the same name as in the bytes input stream except each method in the character streams are placed in separate class. Character Stream Class Reader FileReader FilterReader StringReader Writer FilterWriter FileWriter CharArrayReader CharArrayWriter Byte Stream Class InputStream FileInputStream FilterInputStream StringBufferInputStream OutputStream FilterOutputStream FileOutputStream ByteArrayInputStream ByterArrayOutputStream

PipedReader PipedWriter

PipedInputStream PipedOutputStream

Note: Some stream classes and their methods should be placed inside the try block. The class Stream Tokenizer breaks the text to meaningful pieces called tokens. The StreamTokenizer class is similar to StringTokenizer class which breaks string into tokens. Exception Classes in File Handling: 1. EOFException 2. FileNotFoundException 3. InterruptedIOException 4. IOException Interactive Input and Output Interactive IO can performed using DataInputStream classes. To perform keyboard activity the objects of DataInputStream and StringTokenizer classes. The System class contains three objects namely System.in, System.out and System.err. These objects are used for input from keyboard, output to the screen, and display error messages. System class is stored in java.lang package which is import automatically during compilation. S.P.SAM DHANA SEKAR 29

Two or more files can be converted to single file using SequenceInputStream class. And also Graphical Input and Output can be performed by importing java.awt package and extending Basic IO from keyboard Example 1: class Frame. import java.io.*; import java.util.*; //Tokenizer class public class basicIO {public static void main(String...s) throws IOException {DataInputStream din = new DataInputStream(System.in); //Keyboard action StringTokenizer st; System.out.println("Enter Reg No"); st = new StringTokenizer(din.readLine()); int reg = Integer.parseInt(st.nextToken()); System.out.println("Name "); st = new StringTokenizer(din.readLine()); String name = String.valueOf(st.nextToken()); System.out.println("Cut Off Mark"); st = new StringTokenizer(din.readLine()); float mark = Float.valueOf(st.nextToken()); System.out.println("Total "); st = new StringTokenizer(din.readLine()); double total = Double.valueOf(st.nextToken()); System.out.println("Register No " + reg); System.out.println("Name " + name); System.out.println("Cut Off Mark " + mark); System.out.println("Total " + (mark+total));

} }

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Write and Read to and from file Example 2: import java.io.*; import java.util.*; //Tokenizer class class interactive {public static void main(String...s) throws IOException {File interact = newfos =("interact.txt"); FileOutputStream File new FileOutputStream(interact); DataOutputStream dos = new DataOutputStream(fos); DataInputStream din = new DataInputStream(System.in); //Keyboard action System.out.println("Enter Reg No"); StringTokenizer st; st = new StringTokenizer(din.readLine()); int reg = Integer.parseInt(st.nextToken()); System.out.println("Name "); st = new StringTokenizer(din.readLine()); String name = String.valueOf(st.nextToken()); System.out.println("Cut Off Mark"); st = new StringTokenizer(din.readLine()); float mark = Float.valueOf(st.nextToken()); System.out.println("Total "); st = new StringTokenizer(din.readLine()); double total = Double.valueOf(st.nextToken()); dos.writeInt(reg); dos.writeUTF(name); //String value dos.writeFloat(mark); dos.writeDouble(mark+total); din.close(); dos.close(); fos.close();

FileInputStream fin = new FileInputStream(interact); DataInputStream dis = new DataInputStream(fin); System.out.println(dis.readInt()); System.out.println(dis.readUTF()); System.out.println(dis.readFloat()); System.out.println(dis.readDouble()); fin.close();dis.close(); } }

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Read and Write to and from file by bytes Example 3: import java.io.*; class BytesIO {public static void main(String...s) {File in = new File ("in.txt"); File out = new File ("out.txt"); FileInputStream ins = null; FileOutputStream outs = null;

try{ins = new FileInputStream(in); //must be in the try block outs = new FileOutputStream(out); //must be in the try block int x; byte b; System.out.println(x=ins.available());//finds number of character ins.skip(0);//moves the cursor to afer first character while ((b=(byte)ins.read())!=-1) {outs.write(b); //do not convert to char to write to a file System.out.print((char)b); //convert to char to display on monitor } }

catch(IOException e) {System.out.println(e); System.exit(-1); } finally {try{ins.close(); outs.close(); } catch(Exception e){} } } }

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Read and Write to and from file by character Example 4: import java.io.*; class CharacterIO {public static void main(String...s) {File in = new File ("in.txt"); File out = new File ("outc.txt"); FileReader ins = null; FileWriter outs = null; try{ins = new FileReader(in); //must be in the try block outs = new FileWriter(out); //System.out.println(ins.available()); for bytes only ins.skip(0);//It moves the cursor to first position int c; while ((c=ins.read())!=-1) {outs.write(c); //do not convert to char to write to a file System.out.print((char)c); //do not convert to char to display on monitor }

catch(IOException e) {System.out.println(e); System.exit(-1); } finally {try{ins.close(); outs.close(); } catch(Exception e){} } } }

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Read from file and display on monitor by bytes Example 5: import java.io.*; class FileToMonitor {public static void main(String...s) {File in = new File ("in.txt"); FileInputStream ins = null; while ((b=(byte)ins.read())!=-1) {System.out.print((char)b); try{ins}= new FileInputStream(in); //must be in the try block or throws } byte b; catch(IOException e) {System.exit(-1); } finally {try{ins.close(); //must be in the try block System.out.println(); } catch(Exception e){} } } } Read from file and display on monitor by character Example 6: import java.io.*; class FileToMonitorChar {public static void main(String...s) {File in = new File ("mtfc.txt"); FileReader ins = null; try{ins = new FileReader(in); //must be in the try block int c; while ((c=ins.read())!=-1) {System.out.print((char)(c)); } } catch(IOException e) {System.exit(-1);} finally {try{ins.close(); System.out.println(); } catch(Exception e){} } } }

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Monitor to File Example 7: import java.io.*; class MonitorToFile {public static void main(String...s) {File out = new File ("mtf.txt"); FileOutputStream outs = null; byte c[]={'a','b','c', '\n','d','e'}; try{outs = new FileOutputStream(out); //must be in the try block outs.write(c); } catch(IOException e) {System.exit(-1); } finally {try{outs.close();

} catch(Exception e){} } } } Random file access Example 8: import java.io.*; class RandomFile {public static void main(String...s) throws IOException {RandomAccessFile random = new RandomAccessFile ("random.txt", "rw"); random.writeInt(9800); random.writeDouble(2213.76); random.writeBoolean(false); random.writeChar('R'); random.seek(0); System.out.println(random.readInt()); System.out.println(random.readDouble()); System.out.println(random.readBoolean()); System.out.println(random.readChar()); random.seek(random.length()); //goes to the 4th item random.writeBoolean(true); //System.out.println(random.length()); random.seek(0); //go to 4th item false S.P.SAM DHANA SEKAR System.out.println(random.readInt()); 35

random.seek(4); //go to 4th item false System.out.println(random.readBoolean()); random.close(); } } Primary Data Type Example 9: import java.io.*; class PrimaryDataType {public static void main(String...s) throws IOException {File primary = new File ("primary.txt"); FileOutputStream fos = new FileOutputStream(primary); DataOutputStream dos = new DataOutputStream(fos); dos.writeUTF("Electronics "); dos.writeLong(9800); dos.writeDouble(2213.76); dos.writeBoolean(true); dos.writeChar('R'); dos.writeUTF("and Communication "); dos.writeLong(980105); dos.writeDouble(22.76); dos.writeBoolean(false); dos.writeChar('C'); dos.close(); fos.close(); FileInputStream fin = new FileInputStream(primary); DataInputStream din = new DataInputStream(fin); for(int i=0; i<din.available(); ++i) {System.out.print(din.readUTF()); System.out.print(din.readLong()); System.out.print(din.readDouble()); System.out.print(din.readBoolean()); System.out.print(din.readChar()); System.out.println(i);} din.close(); fin.close(); } }

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Points to Remember File name must be same as class name when there is public class. File must have .java as extension. javac test.java to compile java program. java test.java to run java program. System.out.print function to display output System.out.println function to display output and goes to next line. Built in methods must be identified through class. System is a package, out is the class and println is the method or function. Variables in the System.out.println can be concacted using + operator; it implicitly converts all data to string. Control structure logic has same rule as C and C++. Identifier includes number, alphabet, _ and $. The first must not be number. Java does not support unsigned integers. Integer is 4 bytes. Java does not converts float to int even if the data to be lost like in C++ (pg.42). The conversion is automatic if smaller type is assigned to larger type (pg.57), in such type casting not required like in C++. Type cast is used other wise (pg.58). Char data type with ++/-- can be used to find the next or previous character in java (pg:48). Java has boolean as data type like C++ (pg:49). Java supports string class to instead of character array but character array can also be used. Java does not support two variables with same name even in different blocks (pg:56). Array size is mention only by using memory manipulator new in java, which is similar to C++, in other word java does allow to create array with static size. Array length can be found using length method in java. Java does check for array boundary when it exceeds it generates error. To initialize array new is not required (pg.63). Java has new data type called string. Strings are concataed (appended) with simple + operator instead of strcpy in C, C++. Java does not support pointer because there is no pointer in java. Modulus operator % can be used for all numeric data type. if(!x) is same as if(x==0) but cannot use if(!x) method like in C, C++.

S.P.SAM Short Circuit Logical operator DHANA SEKAR

Boolean logical operator 37

 Class declared as public must be separate file. Base class is public by default in inheritance. Separate directory or folder must be created for the Package the directory must have the same name as package. When creating package for the first time another folder is created with same name as package. Class declared as public to place in a package. Doubt: can class be inherited for package. Ex square class A user defined exception class should be defined. Those exceptions should be called only through methods (just restricting throw in C++) for all other run-time and error built exception can be used.

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