Rural Unemployment

SIR ARTHUR LEWIS INSTITUTE OF SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC STUDIES (SALISES)

Programme: M.Sc. in Social Policy Course Code: SALI6031 Course Name: Techniques of Applied Social Statistical Analysis Lecturer: Dr. Godfrey St. Bernard

EDUCATION, TRAINING AND UNEMPLOYMENT IN RURAL JAMAICA.

Due Date: Monday, May 30, 2011 Students Name: Norician Anderson Student ID#: 05-047799

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Table of Contents I. Introduction 3

II. III. IV. V. VI.

Background to the Study 8 Literature Review Methodology 13 15 25 Analysis of data 27 9

Conclusion and Recommendation 29

VII. Bibliography VIII.Appendix

I. Introduction Over 60% of the poorest people in Jamaica live in rural areas (Statistical Institute of Jamaica & Planning Institute of Jamaica, 2010). The rural population is particularly vulnerable to poverty as most are dependent on agriculture for survival. There was a slight contraction in the prevalence of poverty in rural Jamaica between 1999-2008 (See figure 1.0). Improved agricultural
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performances through the recovery from Hurricane Dean in 2007 and increased food prices (led by the global food crisis of 2008) are factors attributed to the reduced rural poverty levels in 2008 ( Planning Institute of Jamaica 2009, Statistical Institute of Jamaica & Planning Institute of Jamaica, 2010).

Figure 1.0: Distribution of poverty by region (per cent), 1999-2008

Source: Jamaica Survey of Living Conditions, 2008, (STATIN & PIOJ)

Nonetheless, rural neglect has been customary in many socio-economic developments and this has adversely affected the livelihood of the rural population in Jamaica. In the pre-independence period, sugar production was the largest employer of rural labour, the third highest contributor to GNP and Jamaicas chief agricultural export (Harrison, 1998). The heavy dependency on agriculture continued up until the 1950s, and with the decline of sugar, it later involved the cultivation and export of banana, coffee and other revenue earning commodities which provided a means of employment for many rural residences as they engaged in peasantry or worked on plantations (Mintz, 1985). In the presence of population growth pressures and the decline in the employability of agriculture, during the post-independence period, there was a thrust for economic growth in other sectors. Economic developments were primarily concentrated in urban areas and involved the use of foreign investment and the granting of fiscal incentives (e.g. tax holiday, duty free importation, low rental factory space) as an invitation to invest in the manufacturing sector (Martinussen 1997); however this afforded minimal employment opportunities for the rural populous. Noteworthy is the theory that the widening of Jamaicas economic base beyond the agricultural sector through foreign investment in another sector (i.e. manufacturing sector) would absorb the surplus labour evidenced through high unemployment and underemployment (Martinussen 1997). However, in actuality, Benn (1987) noted that the foreseen level of job creation was
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below expectation and that unemployment increased from 6% to 14% between 1956 and 1966. Robotham (1995) also noted that there had been a marked increase in the levels of inequality. Currently, the structure of the Jamaican economy has rendered the agriculture sector (and by extension the rural populous) relatively inferior and obsolete to the higher revenue generating services sector which contributed to 81.7% of the gross domestic product (GDP) in 2009 (Planning Institute of Jamaica, 2009). Furthermore, the Labour force survey shows that the unemployment rate was more prevalent among elementary occupations (15.5%), service workers and shop and market sales workers (12.7%), clerks (10.7%), and craft and related trade workers (9%), and less prevalent among professionals, senior officials and technicians (3.6%), plant and machine operators and assemblers (7.9%) and skilled agricultural and fishery workers (1.3%) (Statistical Institute of Jamaica, 2008). Consequently, less skilled and trained workers may be more vulnerable to unemployment. Rural communities had also been neglected with respect to education and training developments. Educational reforms in the 1970s which involved universally free secondary and college education was a means of redressing social inequalities by enabling persons to have the ability to access government jobs which typically required a secondary school diploma (Meditz & Hanratty, 1987). However, this free education reform created other social problems such as overcrowded classrooms, lowered quality of education, and low school attendance (especially at the secondary level) and the reform was later abandoned during the years of structural adjustment. Furthermore, social inequalities persisted especially through the structure of the education system which was comprised of different types or class of schools; at the secondary level these were namely the traditional high schools, the vocational institutes and the technical high schools and the comprehensive high schools; at the primary level there were the preparatory schools (private primary schools), the public primary schools and the all age or elementary schools and at the tertiary level there were the University of the West Indies, the College of Arts,
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Science, and Technology (CAST), the College of Agriculture, various teachers colleges and community colleges (many of which are also socially stratified, typically located in urban communities and of which approximately 5% of the Jamaican population attend) (Meditz & Hanratty, 1987). In recent years, the Economic and Social Survey of Jamaica has indicated an increase in the level of investment in education and training in Jamaica especially in the area of infrastructural development, maintaining school relief; providing nutritional and educational material support and improving quality of teacher education (Planning Institute of Jamaica, 2009). Records have also shown that a school was built in Westmoreland in 2009 in the bid to increase the number of space within existing schools (Planning Institute of Jamaica, 2009). Notwithstanding this, Bullock (2010) underscored that the fragility of rural existence has engendered a significant rural-urban population drift of a largely uncertified and untrained rural population, "in search of a better life". In addition, Bullock (2010) asserted that rural urban migration generated a catalogue of problems such as squatter communities, substandard housing, substandard sanitation and public health, and crime. This study presumes that regardless of the increased expenditure on education and training, socio-economic investments continue to be unevenly distributed and as such, there is still a high prevalence of rural unemployment, as majority of the rural population remains largely uncertified and untrained. The purpose of this study is to investigate the likelihood of there being a difference in the education and training levels of unemployed persons based on their area of residence. The objective of this study is to test the following hypothesis: Research hypothesis:

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Null hypothesis: There is no difference in the likelihood of unemployed persons having higher levels of education and training in rural areas when compared with the Kingston Metropolitan Area or Other Towns. Alternative hypothesis: The likelihood of unemployed persons having higher levels of education and training is lower in rural areas when compared with the Kingston Metropolitan Area or Other Towns.

The specific objective is:

i.

To determine the odds of unemployed persons receiving vocational training with certificate, technical or professional training with certificate, apprenticeship, on the job training or no training with respect to KMA, Other Towns or Rural Areas.

ii. To determine the odds of unemployed persons having passed none, less than 3 CXC,

More than 3 CXC, CAPE or DEGREE examination/s in KMA, Other Towns or Rural Areas.

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I.

Background

The International Labour Organization (1982) defines unemployed as comprising all persons above a specified age who during the reference period were without work (i.e. were not in paid employment or self-employment) and currently available for work (i.e. were available for paid employment or self-employment during the reference period) and seeking work (i.e. had taken specific steps in a specified recent period to seek paid employment or self-employment). Likewise, the Statistical Institute of Jamaica (2008) refers to unemployed as individuals who are looking for work and wanting work, available for work.
Jamaica can be classified into three geographical planes (Cornwall, Middlesex and Surrey) wherein

Cornwall (western region) includes parishes such as Westmoreland, Hanover, St. James, St. Elizabeth, Middlesex (middle region) includes the parishes such as Clarendon and St. Catherine and Surrey (eastern region) with parishes such as Kingston, St. Thomas and Portland. Another classification is the division into fourteen parishes. Bourne, Eldemire-Shearer, McGrowder, Crawford (2002) noted another classification in 2007 of cities (urban areas) which constitute 27.3% of the population, peri-urban 30.2% and rural areas, 42.5%. For the purpose of this study, Jamaica will be classified into KMA areas which constitute Kingston and St. Andrew, Spanish Town and Portmore, Other Towns which constitute urbanized areas outside of the KMA
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region such as Mandeville in Manchester or May Pen in Clarendon and the Rural areas will be comprised of the non- urbanized areas outside of the KMA region and Other Towns. As such, rural unemployment refers to persons from the rural areas of Jamaica who are looking for work, want work and are available for work.

Characteristic of Rural Unemployment Approximately 47% (617,800) of the labour force population were in rural region of Jamaica in October 2008. The unemployment rate for the rural region of Jamaica has increased from 9.9% in October 2007 to 11% in October 2008. The unemployment rate is 6.4 percentage points higher for females (13.8%) than males (7.4%) in 2008 and particularly severe among persons aged 14-19 (39.9%) and 20-24 (22.0%) in 2008. The unemployment rate was more prevalent among elementary occupations (15.5%), service workers and shop and market sales workers (12.7%), clerks (10.7%) and craft and related trade workers (9%) and less prevalent among professionals, senior officials and technicians (3.6%), plant and machine operators and assemblers (7.9%) and skilled agricultural and fishery workers (1.3%). It is important to underscore that the unemployment rate for gender, age, and occupation was not necessarily related to the rural region but could be used to infer the characteristic of rural unemployment.
II. Literature Review

The differences in education and training among unemployed persons in Jamaica may be explained by George Beckfords theory of structural underdevelopment conditioned by the slave plantation system. Beckford (1972) argued that the plantation, as a total institution, fashioned the whole environment in which the people of the Third World had inherited. Consequently, individuals (especially peasants) were less inclined to undertake wage work on the plantation because of the legacy of slavery; and would typically work on the plantation in situations where

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there was no other ways of making a living (Beckford, 1972: 19). Beckford (1972) then explained that plantation economy, as the dominant force in many third world societies, generally benefitted from better quality of land and the availability of the resources needed for production whilst the subsistence of the peasants was marginalized. Beckford (1972) further explained that despite attempts by the government to provide assistance to peasantry, incremental resources generally flow towards the plantation sector and the peasantry has increasingly been forced to seek possibilities for advancement through migration and or wage work on the plantation. With respect to education and training, Beckford (1972) explains that the educational system was a metropolitan creation and as such black people who passed through the system assimilated their culture and essentially became black Europeans. These black Europeans are the ones who later became the political leaders and the trade unionist who were intent on transferring the constitutional power from Europeans Crown to the colonies but inadvertently, for the most, helped to maintain the status quo of social hierarchies that limit the potential of marginalized groups. A study to determine the factors associated with the difference in academic performance among third and fourth grade primary school students found that teachers perceptions of a childs academic ability and teacher characteristics affected academic performance. The results showed that each additional score point in which teachers attribute student achievement to student ability corresponded to a 21.01 point increase in Language achievement and a 21.59 point increase in Mathematics scores (Casassus, Cusato, Froemel & Palafox 2002). In addition, teachers who did not have a/n additional job/s, who believed that they were being adequately paid and that they were not over-burdened and who had some post-secondary training had students who performed better based on their test scores (Casassus, Cusato, Froemel & Palafox 2002).

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There was also a gender differential for educational performance wherein girls outscored boys in Language and boys outscored girls in Mathematics. The socio-economic level of the school, as perceived by the Principal of the school, was related to an increase of 5.64 points in student Language achievement and of 5.88 points in Mathematics. Other school characteristics such as the size of the school library, the quantity of instructional materials and the student teacher ratio had a positive effect on academic achievement (Casassus, Cusato, Froemel & Palafox 2002).

Parent characteristics such as education and parental involvement were positively related to academic performance (Casassus, Cusato, Froemel & Palafox 2002). The results showed that the education of parents or guardians, defined as the mean value of the number of years of schooling of parents and guardians, increase Language scores of child/ren by 0.97 points and by 0.81 points in Mathematics scores per year for education. Parental involvement in the child/ren education also played an important role in academic performance whereby children with parents that read to them every day scored 5.88 more points in Language and 4.31 more points in Mathematics than the children of those parents or guardians who did not (Casassus, Cusato, Froemel & Palafox 2002). Household characteristics also affected performance, as children living in households with 10 or more books scored 4.54 points higher in Language and 5.20 points higher in Mathematics than for those from households not having this number of books (Casassus, Cusato, Froemel & Palafox 2002). Overall, the results from the Casassus et. al study underscored the importance of having positive social, infrastructural and physiological investment in children during the early years of education. It also showed the potential impact of generational deprivation wherein less educated parents also had children who also underperformed. Zilvere (2002) noted that there was evidence of regional disparities in terms of development, employment opportunities and education in Lativa. The social realities in the rural areas of
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Lativa were generally characterized by high levels of unemployment and widespread poverty (Zilvere, 2002). Zilvere (2002) highlighted that the limited number of affordable households, poor road infrastructure, high transportation cost, low wages, stereotypes and the difference in social values of rural inhabitants were generally obstacles to their mobility as it defined their ability to access jobs in their profession. Zilvere (2002) further explained that some regions of the country had an undeveloped infrastructure which made it more difficult to attract investments and as such unemployment increased. In addition, the chances of residents to acquire high-quality education also differed and as such talented intellectuals generally leave the economically undeveloped regions to move to more developed regions, thereby exacerbating the economic backwardness of undeveloped regions. Zilvere (2002) also noted that the decline in unemployment was bolstered by structural changes in the economy which involved retraining courses for unemployed people, most of which had little education. Individuals who were less willing to be re-trained often faced periods of longterm unemployment likewise women who were involved in child care also faced period of long term employment as they loss their professional skills and relations with their previous employer. Revenga (2002) noted, in reference in Slovak Republic, that traditional safety nets create a culture of dependency wherein persons were less likely to seek employment while receiving government benefits however when benefits were terminated they searched and usually found a job. Revenga (2002) explains the social benefits system in Slovak Republic is designed in such a way that there is little incentive for an individual to seek a job especially if the person is unskilled and market wages are low, as these persons will lose their entitlements once they get a job.

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III. Methodology i. Sampling Procedure

The sampling for the labour force survey was based on a two-stage stratified random sampling design, where there was a Primary Sampling Unit (PSU) and a selection of dwelling from the primary units. The PSU is an Enumeration District (ED), which constitutes a minimum of 100 dwellings in rural areas and 150 in urban areas. An ED is an independent geographic unit that shares a common boundary. This means that the country was grouped into strata of equal size based on dwellings (EDs). Based on the PSUs, a listing of all the dwellings was made and this became the sampling frame from which a master sample of dwelling was compiled which provided the sampling frame for the labor force The labour force (or the economically active population) is comprised of all persons 14 years and over of either sex who engage in the supply of labour for the production of economic goods and services for a particular reference week of the survey. For the purpose of this study, the sample of unemployed respondents (1041 individuals) was selected from the labour force sample (7,500 individuals). The labour force surveys were undertaken by the Statistical Institute of Jamaica on a quarterly basis (January, April, July and October) however the survey utilized for this study was done in April 2009. ii. Data Collection

The 2009 Labour Force Survey dataset from the Derek Gordon Databank, Sir Authur Lewis Institute & Economic Studies, UWI, Jamaica was used for this study. The general contents of the survey include the socio-economic and demographic characteristics, components and characteristics of the labour force, characteristics of the employed labour force including level of training, characteristics of the unemployed labour force including level of training and characteristics of those outside the labour force. However, the specific area of the survey

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analyzed for this study, looked at the characteristics of the unemployed labour force relating to level of training and highest academic examination passed (See appendix for questionnaire). iii. Method of Measurement

Training will be measured by the type of training received which will include vocational with certificate, professional or technical with certificate, apprenticeship, on the job training or no training. Education will be measured by the highest academic examination passed which will include none, Less than 3 CXCs, More than 3 CXCs, CAPE or Degree. Regions of Jamaica will be measured as KMA, Other Towns and Rural areas.

I. Analysis of Data Demographic characteristics of sampled population

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The sample consisted of 1041 respondents (ages 14 to 99 years), with a mean age of 32.63 years (SD 12.61 years). Of the sample of respondents, 43.7% were males and 56.3% were females. Most of the respondents were from the rural Area (49.5%). Moreover, majority of the respondents were either the head of the household (41.4%) or the child of the head of the household (40.1%). On examining area of residence by sex, it was found that 58.3% of the women were in rural areas when compared to 53.6% in the KMA region and 55.1% in other towns (See Table 1.0). In addition, 43% of the unemployed child/ren of the head of the household were in rural regions when compared with the child of the head of the household in KMA (33%) or Other Towns (41%). Table 1.0: Demographic characteristic of respondents by regions of Jamaica
Variable Rural Area n = 515 (49.5%) Regions Other Towns n = 274 (26.3%) KMA n = 252 (24.2%) Level of significance

Age Group

2= 11.981, p= 0.447*

14-19 20-24 25-34 35-44 45-64 55-64 65 and over Total (n=1041)

66(12.1%) 111 (21.6%) 153 (29.7%) 101 (19.6%) 53 (10.3%) 25 (4.9%) 6 (1.2%) 515 (100%)

33(12.0%) 52 (19.0%) 85 (31.0%) 50 (18.2%) 34 (12.4%) 12 (4.4%) 8 (2.9%) 274 (100%)

27 (10.7%) 46 (18.3%) 81 (32.1%) 52 (20.6%) 27 (10.7%) 8 (3.2%) 11 (4.4%) 252 (100%)

Sex

2= 1.718, p= 0.424*

Male Female

215 (41.7%) 300 (58.3%)

123 (44.9%) 151 (55.1%)

117 (46.4%) 135 (53.6%)

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Total (n=1041) 515 (100%) 274 (100%) 252 (100%

Relationship to Head of Household Head Spouse Child Total (n= 868) 168 (39.1%) 78 (18.1%) 184 (42.8%) 430 (100%) 88 (38.6%) 46 (20.2%) 94 (41.2%) 228 (100%) 103 (49%) 37 (17.6%) 70 (33.3%) 210 (100%)

2 = 7.676, p =0.104*

* The p-value is for each variable by area of residence (i.e. rural, other towns and KMA).

An examination of the explanatory variables in the study showed that the percentage share of respondents who had received no training (68.7%) and had passed no academic examination (80.5%) was greatest in rural areas (See Table 2.0). Table 2.0: Distribution of Level of Training and Highest Academic Examination passed of respondents by regions of Jamaica.
Explanatory Variables Rural Area Other Towns KMA Level of significance 2 = 40.499 p =0.000 None Vocational with certificate Professional/ technical with certificate Apprenticeship On the job training Total (n=995) 333 (68.7%) 86 (17.7%) 5 (1.0%) 50 (10.3%) 11 (2.3%) 485 (100%) 163 (61.7%) 39 (14.8%) 10 (3.8%) 46 (17.4%) 6 (2.3%) 264 (100%) 130 (52.8%) 42 (17.1%) 17 (6.9%) 44 (17.9%) 13 (5.3%) 246 (100%)

Level of Training

Highest Academic Examination Passed None 392 (80.5%) 191 (75.5%) 164 (71.6%)

2 = 28.304 p =0.000

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Less than 3 C.X.C More than 3C.X.C CAPE Degree Total (n=969) 41(8.4%) 52 (10.7%) 0 (0%) 2 (0.4%) 487 (100%) 22 (8.7%) 31 (12.3%) 2 (0.8%) 7 (2.8%) 253 (100%) 25 (10.9%) 27 (11.8%) 0 (0%) 13 (5.7%) 229 (100%)

A cross tabulation of the Rural and Other Towns region of Jamaica by Level of Training (2 = 15.372, p =0.004) ( See Table 3.0) and a logistics regression of Rural and Other Towns by Level of Training ( See Table 4.0) was used to analyze the likelihood of having varying levels of training in Rural Areas. Table 3.0 Cross tabulation of the Rural and Other Towns regions by Level of Training received.

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Regions Rural Areas Training Vocational with certificate Count % within Training % of Total Professional/Technical with Count certificate % within Training % of Total Apprenticeship Count % within Training % of Total On the job training Count % within Training % of Total None Count % within Training % of Total Total Count % within Training % of Total 86 68.8% 11.5% 5 33.3% .7% 50 52.1% 6.7% 11 64.7% 1.5% 333 67.1% 44.5% 485 64.8% 64.8% Other Towns Areas 39 31.2% 5.2% 10 66.7% 1.3% 46 47.9% 6.1% 6 35.3% .8% 163 32.9% 21.8% 264 35.2% 35.2% Total 125 100.0% 16.7% 15 100.0% 2.0% 96 100.0% 12.8% 17 100.0% 2.3% 496 100.0% 66.2% 749 100.0% 100.0%

Table 4.0: Logistic regression of unemployment in rural areas compared with Other Town areas by training
Standard Error 0.215 0.556 0.226 0.516 Odds Ratio 0.926 4.086 1.88 1.114 1.360 95% C.I.for Odds Ratio Lower 0.607 1.374 1.208 0.405 Upper 1.413 12.149 2.924 3.066

Vocational with certificate Professional/Technical with certificate Apprenticeship On the job training None

B -0.076 1.408 0.631 0.108

Wald 0.126 6.409 7.826 0.044

df 1 1 1 1

Sig. 0.723 0.011 0.005 0.834

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The results showed that the odds of having vocational training with certificate are 7.4% lower for Other Towns when compared to Rural Areas (OR= 0.926). The odds of having professional or technical training with certificate were four times better in other towns when compared with rural areas (OR= 4.086). The odds of having apprenticeship training were 88% high for Other Towns when compared to Rural Areas (OR= 1.88). The odds of having on the job training were 11% higher for Other Towns when compared to Rural Areas (OR= 1.114). The odds of having no training was 36% higher for Rural Areas when compared to Other Towns (OR= 1.360).

The difference in the odds of having apprenticeship training is statistically significant for Rural Areas and Other Towns (p =0.005).

A cross tabulation of the Rural and Other Towns region of Jamaica by highest academic Examination Passed (2 = 12.361, p =0.015) ( See Table 5.0) and a logistics regression of Rural and Other Towns by highest academic examination Passed ( See Table 6.0) was used to analyze the likelihood of having passed varying levels of examinations in Rural Areas. Table 5.0 Cross tabulation of the Rural and Other Towns regions by Highest Academic Examination Passed.

Region Rural 392 Other Towns 191 Total 583

Highest academic

None

Count

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examination passed % within Exam passed % of Total Less than 3 CXC Count % within Exam passed % of Total More than 3 CXC Count % within Exam passed % of Total CAPE Count % within Exam passed % of Total Degree Count % within Exam passed % of Total Total Count % within Exam passed % of Total 67.2% 32.8% 100.0%

53.0% 41 65.1%

25.8% 22 34.9%

78.8% 63 100.0%

5.5% 52 62.7%

3.0% 31 37.3%

8.5% 83 100.0%

7.0% 0 .0%

4.2% 2 100.0%

11.2% 2 100.0%

.0% 2 22.2%

.3% 7 77.8%

.3% 9 100.0%

.3% 487 65.8%

.9% 253 34.2%

1.2% 740 100.0%

65.8%

34.2%

100.0%

Table 6.0: Logistic regression of unemployment in rural areas compared with Other Town areas by highest academic examination passed

B Less than 3 CXC More than 3 CXC CAPE Degree None .096 .202 21.922 1.972

S.E. .279 .243 28420.72 2 .807

Wald .120 .687 5.950E07 5.975

df 1 1 1 1

Sig. .729 .407 .999 .015

Odds Ratio 1.101 1.224 3.316E+0 9 7.183 1.341

95% C.I.for Odds Ratio Lower .638 .759 .000 1.478 Upper 1.901 1.972 . 34.908

The results showed that the odds of having passed Less than 3 CXCs are 10% higher for Other Towns when compared to Rural Areas (OR= 1.101). The odds of having passed more than 3
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CXCs are 22% higher in Other Towns when compared to rural areas (OR= 1.224). The odds of having passed CAPE is significantly higher in Other Towns when compared to Rural Areas (OR= 3.316E+09). The odds of having passed an academic examination for a Degree is seven times higher for Other Towns when compared to Rural Areas (OR=7.183 ). The odds of having passed no exam is 34% higher for Rural Areas when compared to Other Towns (OR= 1.341).

A cross tabulation of the Rural and KMA region of Jamaica by level of Training (2 = 37.043, p =0.000) (See Table 7.0) and a logistics regression of Rural and KMA by levels of training ( See Table 8.0) was used to analyze the likelihood of having varying levels of training in Rural Areas.

Table 7.0 Cross tabulation of the Rural and KMA regions by Level of Training

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Regions Rural Areas Training Vocational with certificate Count % within Training % of Total Professional/Technical with certificate Count % within Training % of Total Apprenticeship Count % within Training % of Total On the job training Count % within Training % of Total None Count % within Training % of Total Total Count % within Training % of Total 86 67.2% 11.8% 5 22.7% .7% 50 53.2% 6.8% 11 45.8% 1.5% 333 71.9% 45.6% 485 66.3% 66.3% KMA 42 32.8% 5.7% 17 77.3% 2.3% 44 46.8% 6.0% 13 54.2% 1.8% 130 28.1% 17.8% 246 33.7% 33.7% Total 128 100.0% 17.5% 22 100.0% 3.0% 94 100.0% 12.9% 24 100.0% 3.3% 463 100.0% 63.3% 731 100.0% 100.0%

Table 8.0: Logistic regression of unemployment in rural areas compared with KMA by Level of Training
Odds Ratio 1.251 95% C.I.for Odds Ratio Lower .821 Upper 1.906

Vocational with certificate

B .224

S.E. .215

Wald 1.087

df 1

Sig. .297

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Professional/Technical with certificate Apprenticeship On the job training None 2.164 .519 17.381 1 .000 8.709 3.148 24.093

.813 1.108

.231 .423

12.366 6.872

1 1

.000 .009 .000

2.254 3.027 0.507

1.433 1.323

3.546 6.930

The results showed that the odds of having vocational training with certificate are 25% higher for KMA when compared to Rural Areas (OR= 1.251). The odds of having professional or technical training with certificate were eight times better in KMA when compared with rural areas (OR= 8.709). The odds of having apprenticeship training were two times better for KMA when compared to Rural Areas (OR= 2.254). The odds of having on the job training were 3 times better for KMA when compared to Rural Areas (OR= 3.027). The odds of having no training was 51% higher for Rural Areas when compared to KMA (OR= 0.507). The difference in the odds of having professional training with certificate, apprenticeship training or no training are statistically significant for Rural Areas and KMA (p =0.000).

Table 9.0 Cross tabulation of the Rural and KMA regions by Highest Academic Examination Passed.
Regions Rural Areas 392 KMA 164 Total 556

Exam passed

None

Count

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% within Exam passed % of Total Less than 3 CXC Count % within Exam passed % of Total More than 3 CXC Count % within Exam passed % of Total Degree Count % within Exam passed % of Total Total Count % within Exam passed % of Total 70.5% 54.7% 41 62.1% 5.7% 52 65.8% 7.3% 2 13.3% .3% 487 68.0% 68.0% 29.5% 22.9% 25 37.9% 3.5% 27 34.2% 3.8% 13 86.7% 1.8% 229 32.0% 32.0% 100.0% 77.7% 66 100.0% 9.2% 79 100.0% 11.0% 15 100.0% 2.1% 716 100.0% 100.0%

Table 10.0: Logistic regression of unemployment in rural areas compared with KMA by highest academic examination passed

95% C.I.for Odds Ratio Less than 3 CXC B .377 S.E. .270 Wald 1.943 df 1 Sig. .163 Odds Ratio 1.457 Lower .858 Upper 2.475

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More than 3 CXC Degree None .216 2.743 .255 .765 .719 12.851 1 1 .397 .000 .000 1.241 15.537 1.638 .753 3.467 2.045 69.617

The results showed that the odds of having passed Less than 3 CXCs are 46% higher for KMA when compared to Rural Areas (OR= 1.457). The odds of having passed more than 3 CXCs are 24% higher in KMA when compared to rural areas (OR= 1.241). The odds of having passed an academic examination for a Degree is fifteen times higher for KMA when compared to Rural Areas (OR=15.537). The odds of having passed no exam is 64% higher for Rural Areas when compared to KMA (OR= 1.638). The difference in the odds of having passed an academic examination for a degree or having passed no examination is statistically significant for Rural Areas and KMA (p =0.000).

II. Conclusion and Recommendations The study sought to investigate the likelihood of there being a difference in the education and training levels of the unemployed respondents sampled based on their area of residence. The results showed that difference in education and training were particularly acute with respect to
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KMA and Rural areas and less so with respect to Other Towns and Rural Areas. A review of the statistically significant results showed that the odds of having passed an academic examination for a Degree was fifteen (15) times better in KMA and seven (7) times better in Other Towns when compared with Rural areas. The odds of having passed no examination 64% higher in rural areas when compared with KMA and 34% higher in rural areas when compared to Other Towns. The odds of having professional training was eight (8) times better in KMA and four (4) times better in Other Towns when compared to Rural Areas. The odds of having apprenticeship training is two (2) times better in KMA when compared to Rural Areas and 88% higher in Other Towns when compared to rural areas. The odds of having no training is 51% higher in Rural Areas when compared with KMA and 36% higher in rural areas when compared with Other Towns. It is possible, that the odds of the level of training received and the highest academic examination passed for rural areas with respect to KMA is indicative of an uneven distribution of resources as is reminiscent in the late Professor George Beckfords theory of persistent poverty. From a social policy perspective, this uneven distribution of resources would necessitate increased level of social investment in the rural areas of Jamaica. This social investment should

not necessarily take the form of additional infrastructural resources (e.g. better roads which would lower transportation cost, more educational and training institutions which would lower overcrowding) more so capacity building initiative (e.g. remedial training to increase academic proficiency or training in new areas ( as noted in Zilvere, 2002) , educational loans and grants to buy uniform, food etc, parenting programmes that will help to orient parents on the value of education and training and providing the requisite positive psycho-social environment). In
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addition, there is a need for the diversification of the educational and training options and the types of employment opportunities available.

Bearing in mind financial limitation, social policy initiatives aimed at the diversification of the educational and training options and employment opportunities should consider alternative usage of natural resources such as eco-tourism, health tourism, more ecologically intensive agriculture and the building of the professional and service delivery capacity in these areas.

III. Bibliography

Beckford, George W (1972): Persistent Poverty: Underdevelopment in Plantation. Economies of the Third World: Oxford University Press Benn, Dennis. The growth and development of political ideas in the Caribbean 1774-1983. Kingston: Institute of Social and Economic Research, 1987. Bourne PA, Eldemire-Shearer D, McGrowder D, Crawford T. Examining Health Status of Women in Rural, Peri-urban and Urban Areas in Jamaica. North Am J Med Sci 2009; 1: 256-271.
Bullock, C. (2010). Agriculture, Rural Poverty & Public Policy. Retrieved on May 26, 2011 from http://jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20100711/focus/focus1.html 26 | P a g e

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Casassus J, Cusato S, Froemel J E, Palafox J C. (2002) First International Comparative Study of language, mathematics, and associated factors for students in the third and fourth years of primary school (two reports) Santiago, LLECE Harrison, M. (1998). Living with the sugar legacy: International Policy Change and Local level Impact in Rural Jamaica. In D. McGregor, Resource Sustainability and Caribbean Development (pp. 232-253). Kingston: The Press University of the West Indies. International Labour Organization: Resolution concerning statistics of the economically active population, employment, unemployment and underemployment, adopted by the Thirteenth International Conference of Labour Statisticians (October 1982); see page 4; accessed May 26, 2011 Jamaica, Statistical Institute of. The Labour Force Survey. Kingston: Statistical Institute of Jamaica, 2009. Martinussen, John. Society, State & Market. London: Zed Books Ltd., 1997. Mintz, Sidney. (1985). From Plantations to Peasantries in the Caribbean. In M. Sidney, & S. Price, Caribbean Contours (pp. 127-153). Baltimore: The John Hopkins University Press Planning Institute of Jamaica (2009). Economic and social survey of Jamaica 2008. Kingston: Planning Institute of Jamaica Planning Institute of Jamaica & The Statistical Institute of Jamaica (2010). Jamaica Survey of Living Conditions 2008. Kingston: Planning Institute of Jamaica & The Statistical Institute of Jamaica. Revenga, A (2002). "Unemployment, Poverty, and Social Exclusion in Central and Eastern Europe," Chapter 29 in Bernard Funck and Lodovico Pizzati, eds., Labor, Employment, and Social Policies in the EU Enlargement Process, The World Bank, Washington, D.C., 2002, 337-342. Robotham, Don. "Social and Economic Policy: Starting Gates and End States." Kingston University of the West Indies, 1995. 1-7. Sandra W. Meditz and Dennis M. Hanratty, editors. Caribbean Islands: A Country Study. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1987. Zilvere, R (2002). "Searching for solutions to reduce social exclusion in Lativa" Chapter 30 in Bernard Funck and Lodovico Pizzati, eds., Labor, Employment, and Social Policies in the EU Enlargement Process, The World Bank, Washington, D.C., 2002, 343-354.

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