Chng ti xin gii thiu mt s cu hi v tr li tht n gin v ti nguyn nc ni chung v nc di t ni ring.

y cng l ti liu cc bn ng nghip, SV v hc sinh c th s dng luyn ting anh v lnh vc ti nguyn nc. Ti liu ny c trch dn t ngun Cc a cht Hoa K. Questions and answers about droughts Cau hi v tr li v : Hn hn
What is a drought? Hn hn l g? While it is relatively easy to define what a hurricane or earthquake is, defining a drought is more subjective. Droughts do not have the immediate effects of floods, but sustained droughts can cause economic stress throughout an area. The word "drought" has various meanings, depending on a person's perspective. To a farmer, a drought is a period of moisture deficiency that affects the crops under cultivationeven two weeks without rainfall can stress many crops during certain periods of the growing cycle. To a meteorologist, a drought is a prolonged period when precipitation is less than normal. To a water manager, a drought is a deficiency in water supply that affects water availability and water quality. To a hydrologist, a drought is an extended period of decreased precipitation and streamflow. Droughts in Georgia have severely affected municipal and industrial water supplies, agriculture, stream water quality, recreation at major reservoirs hydropower generation, navigation, and forest resources. What causes droughts? Nguyn nhn g gy ra hn hn? A: drought is a period of drier-than-normal conditions that results in water-related problems. Precipitation (rain or snow) falls in uneven patterns across the country. The amount of precipitation at a particular location varies from year to year, but over a period of years, the average amount is fairly constant. In the deserts of the Southwest, the average precipitation is less than 3 inches per year. In contrast, the average yearly precipitation in Atlanta is about 50 inches. The amount of rain and snow also varies with the seasons. In Georgia, most of the yearly precipitation falls during winter, early spring, and in July. Even if the total amount of rainfall for a year is about average, rainfall shortages can occur during a period when moisture is critically needed for plant growth, such as in the early summer. When little or no rain falls, soils can dry out and plants can die. When rainfall is less than normal for several weeks, months, or years, the flow of streams and rivers declines, water levels in lakes and reservoirs fall, and the depth to water in wells increases. If dry weather persists and watersupply problems develop, the dry period can become a drought. Reference: Moreland, 1993. When does a drought begin? Hn hn bt u t khi no? A: The beginning of a drought is difficult to determine. Several weeks, months, or even years may pass before people know that a drought is occurring. The end of a drought can occur as gradually as it began. Dry periods can last for 10 years or more. During the 1930's, most of the United States was much drier than normal. In California, the drought extended from 1928 to 1937. In Missouri, the drought lasted from 1930 to 1941. That extended dry period produced the "Dust Bowl" of the 1930's when dust storms destroyed crops and farms. The first evidence of drought usually is seen in records of rainfall. Within a short period of time, the amount of moisture in soils can begin to decrease. The effects of a drought on flow in streams and reservoirs may not be noticed for several weeks or months. Water levels in wells may not reflect a shortage of rainfall for a year or more after a drought begins. 1

Reference: Moreland, 1993. Does a shortage of rain mean that a drought will occur? C phi s thiu ht nc thi hn hn xy ra? A: period of below-normal rainfall does not necessarily result in drought conditions. Some rain returns to the air as water vapor when water evaporates from water surfaces and from moist soil. Plant roots draw some of the moisture from the soil and return it to the air through a process called transpiration. The total amount of water returned to the air by these processes is called evapotranspiration. Sunlight, humidity, temperature, and wind affect the rate of evapotranspiration. When evapotranspiration rates are large, soils can lose moisture and dry conditions can develop. During cool, cloudy weather, evapotranspiration rates may be small enough to offset periods of below-normal precipitation and a drought may be less severe or may not develop at all. Reference: Moreland, 1993. Why doesn't a drought go away when it rains? C phi hn hn s ht khi c ma? Rainfall in any form will provide some drought relief. A good analogy might be how medicine and illness relate to each other. A single dose of medicine can alleviate symptoms of illness, but it usually takes a sustained program of medication to cure an illness. Likewise, a single rainstorm will not break the drought, but it may provide temporary relief. A light to moderate shower will probably only provide cosmetic relief. It might make folks feel better for awhile, provide cooling, and make the vegetation perk up. During the growing season, most of the rain that falls will be quickly evaporated or used by plants. Its impact is short term. A thunderstorm will provide some of the same benefits as the shower, but it also may cause loss of life and property if it is severe. Thunderstorms often produce large amounts of precipitation in a very short time, and most of the rain will run off into drainage channels and streams rather than soak into the ground. If the rain happens to fall upstream of a reservoir, much of the runoff will be captured by the reservoir and add to the available water supply. No matter where the rain falls, stream levels will rise quickly and flooding may result. Also, because the rainfall and runoff can be intense, the resulting runoff can carry significant loads of sediment and pollutants that are washed from the land surface. Soaking rains are the best medicine to alleviate drought. Water that enters the soil recharges ground water, which in turn sustains vegetation and feeds streams during periods when it is not raining. A single soaking rain will provide lasting relief from drought conditions, but multiple such rains over several months may be required to break a drought and return conditions to within the normal range. Tropical storm rains are usually of the soaking variety, although they may also be intense such as during a thunderstorm and lead to some of the same problems. Tropical storms often produce more total rainfall than a "regular" soaking rain and can provide longer relief than a single soaking rain. However, tropical rains may also be of such intensity that they exceed the capacity of soil to absorb water and often result in significant runoff and flooding. Tropical rains can help to fill water-supply reservoirs and provide long-term drought insurance. If significant rainfall does not occur upstream of reservoirs, the drought relief aspects of tropical storms may be of only little consequence. All things considered, a single tropical storm at the right place, at the right time, and with the right amount of rainfall can break a drought. Considering all of the above, even when a drought has been broken it may not be truly over. The benefits of substantial rainfall such as from a tropical storm may last for months, but a return to normal rainfall patterns and amounts is necessary for conditions in streams, reservoirs, and ground water to also return to normal. 2

Reference: Moreland, 1993. Can drought affect the water level in wells? Hn hn c tc ng n mc nc trong ging khng? A: Ground water, which is found in aquifers below the surface of the Earth, is one of the Nation's most important natural resources. Ground water is used to provide a large portion of the Nation's population with drinking water, it provides business and industries water for their purposes, and is used extensively for irrigation. The water level in the aquifer that supplies a well does not always stay the same. Droughts, seasonal variations in rainfall, and pumping affect the height of the underground water levels. If a well is pumped at a faster rate than the aquifer around it is recharged by precipitation or other underground flow, then water levels in the well can be lowered. This can happen during drought, due to the extreme deficit of rain. The water level in a well can also be lowered if other wells near it are withdrawing too much water. References Moreland, J.A., 1993, Drought: U.S. Geological Survey Water Fact Sheet, Open-File Report 93642, 2p.

Questions and answers about floods Cu hi v tr li v : l lt

What causes floods? Nguyn nhn no gy ra l lt? Flooding occurs in known floodplains when prolonged rainfall over several days, intense rainfall over a short period of time, or a debris jam causes a river or stream to overflow and flood the surrounding area. Severe thunderstorms can bring heavy rain in the spring and summer; or tropical cyclones can bring intense rainfall to the coastal and inland states in the summer and fall. Flash floods occur within six hours of a rain event, or after a dam or levee failure, and flash floods can catch people unprepared. The Kelly Barnes dam failure near Toccoa in 1977 is an example of this type of flood. As land is converted from fields or woodlands to roads and parking lots, it loses its ability to absorb rainfall. Urbanization increases the amount of impervious areas, causing runoff to be two to six times over what would occur on natural terrain. During periods of urban flooding, streets can become swift moving rivers and can be dangerous for drivers. Because of the buoyancy effects and power of moving water, even a foot of moving water can be enough to carry away some cars. Several factors contribute to flooding. Two key elements are rainfall intensity and duration. Intensity is the rate of rainfall, and duration is how long the rain lasts. Topography, soil conditions, and ground cover also play important roles. Most flash flooding is caused by slowmoving thunderstorms, thunderstorms repeatedly moving over the same area, or heavy rains from hurricanes and tropical storms. Floods, on the other hand, can be slow- or fast-rising, but generally develop over a period of hours or days. What is a recurrence interval? Khong thi gian ti din l g? Even though you may never have heard of "recurrence interval", it may be familiar to you. When a major flood occurs, you might have heard that the stream stage reached the "100-year flood level". This means that a flood of that magnitude has a 1 in 100 chance of occuring in any year. Statistical techniques, through a process called frequency analysis, are used to estimate the probability of the occurrence of a given event. The recurrence interval is based on the probability that the given event will be equalled or exceeded in any given year. For example, there may be a 3

1 in 50 chance that 6.60 inches of rain will fall in a county in a 24-hour period during any given year. Thus, the rainfall total of 6.60 inches in a consecutive 24-hour period is said to have a 50year recurrence interval. Likewise, using a frequency analysis (Interagency Advisory Committee on Water Data, 1982) there may be a 1 in 100 chance that a streamflow of 15,000 cubic feet per second (ft3/s) will occur during any year in a particular stream. Thus, the peak flow of 15,000 ft3/s is said to have a 100-year recurrence interval. Ten or more years of data are required to perform a frequency analysis for the determination of recurrence intervals. More confidence can be placed in the results of a frequency analysis based on, for example, 30 years of record than on an analysis based on 10 years of record. Recurrence intervals for the annual peak streamflow at a given location change if there are significant changes in the flow patterns at that location, possibly caused by an impoundment or diversion of flow. The effects of development (conversion of land from forested or agricultural uses to commercial, residential, or industrial uses) on peak flows is generally much greater for low-recurrence interval floods than for high-recurrence interval floods, such as 25-, 50-, or 100year floods. During these larger floods, the soil is saturated and does not have the capacity to absorb additional rainfall. Under these conditions, essentially all of the rain that falls, whether on paved surfaces or on saturated soil, runs off and becomes streamflow. Modified from Robinson, Hazell, and Young, 1998 Does a 100-year storm always cause a 100-year flood? C phi 100-nm ma bo thng gy ra 100-nm l lt? No. Several factors can independently influence the cause-and-effect relation between rainfall and streamflow. When rainfall data are collected at a point within a stream basin, it is highly unlikely that this same amount of rainfall occurred uniformly throughout the entire basin, especially during Atlanta's summer thunderstorm season, for example. Some parts of the basin may even remain dry, supplying no additional runoff to the streamflow and lessening the impact of the storm. Consequently, only part of the basin may experience a 100-year rainfall event. Existing conditions prior to the storm can influence the amount of stormwater runoff into the stream system. Dry soil allows greater infiltration of rainfall and reduces the amount of runoff entering the stream. Conversely, soil that is already wet from previous rains has a lower capacity for infiltration, allowing more runoff to enter the stream. Another factor to consider is the relation between the duration of the storm and the size of the stream basin in which the storm occurs. For example, a 100-year storm of 30-minutes duration in a 1-square-mile (mi2) basin will have a more significant effect on streamflow than the same storm in a 50-mi2 basin. Generally, streams with larger drainage areas require storms of longer duration for a significant increase in streamflow to occur. These and other factors determine whether or not a 100-year storm will produce a 100-year flood. Modified from Robinson, Hazell, and Young, 1998 Can two "100-year floods" occur within several years or even within the same year? Yes, although if "100-year floods" started occuring each year, then the more frequent occurences of the floods would change the statistical probability that the floods would occur, and thus, the "100-year floods" could become "50-year floods"! This question points out the importance of proper terminology. The term "100-year flood" is used in an attempt to simplify the definition of a flood that statistically has a 1-percent chance of occurring in any given year. Likewise, the term "100-year storm" is used to define a rainfall event that statistically has this same 1-percent chance of occurring. In other words, over the course of 1 4

million years, these events would be expected to occur 10,000 times. These events, as well as any recurring events, are assumed to be statistically independent of each other. Therefore, each year begins with the same 1-percent chance that a 100-year event will occur. Recurrence intervals and probabilities of occurencesRecurrence interval, in years Probability of occurrence in any given year Percent chance of occurrence in any given year 100 1 in 100 1 50 1 in 50 2 25 1 in 25 4 10 1 in 10 10 5 1 in 5 20 2 1 in 2 50 How can the same streamflow be a 100-year flood in one location and only a 50-year flood at another? Recurrence intervals are based on the probability of the peak streamflow occurring at a given location in any year. As water flows downstream from point "A" to point "B" and the drainage area (of the watershed) increases, the volume of streamflow increases. Given this, it may seem reasonable to think that peak flows would increase in the same manner, but this is not necessarily true. The flow at any particular point on a stream depends on local stream channel and floodplains conditions as well as on conditions upstream or downstream of the point, such as channel slope, floodplain shape, and any impoundments of streamflow. Downstream points on a stream will have greater total volume of streamflow resulting from flooding (except in certain very unique situations), but the rate of streamflow can be quite different from upstream points, and will often be less. In these cases, streamflow will remain elevated for a longer period of time. This phenomenon, known as peak attenuation, can be attributed to several variables. A narrow, efficient stream channel will allow the water to pass quickly, resulting in a nearly instantaneous increase in peak flow. At locations where the stream channel widens or may contain heavy vegetation, the water velocity may decrease. Also, as the peak flow moves downstream, water may move into the floodplain where it is stored until the water level begins to recede. As the water level recedes, the stored water in the floodplain will slowly re-enter the stream. These combined factors explain why the peak flow may be less in magnitude but longer in duration as the flood progresses downstream. Modified from Robinson, Hazell, and Young, 1998 How is peak flow determined? Stream stage (or water level) and streamflow (or discharge) are measured at locations called streamflow gaging stations. Stage is measured and recorded continuously by electronic instruments to an accuracy of 0.01 foot. Stage information from many streamflow gaging stations is transmitted several times per day by satellite or telephone telemetry to USGS computers. Streamflow is more difficult to measure accurately and continuously than is stage. Streamflow for a gaging station is typically determined from an established stage-streamflow relation, or rating curve. Individual streamflow measurements are made by USGS personnel at a gaging station by using standard procedures (Rantz and others, 1982); ideally, these measurements are made when the stage is not changing. A series of these measurements made over a range of flow conditions defines the rating curve, which is used to convert continuous measurements of stage to a continuous record of streamflow. Channel changes, resulting from scour, deposition, vegetation, or other processes, alter the stage-streamflow relation, so that streamflow measurements must be made routinely and continuously to ensure that the rating curve remains accurate. 5

A rating curve is considered accurate only over the range for which streamflow measurements have been made. Streamflow measurements sometimes are not available for the full range of flows at gaging stations that have been in operation for only a few years. Even at gaging stations that have been in continuous operation for 30 years or more, direct streamflow measurements for extremely high flows are difficult to obtain because (1) these events are rare, (2) debris often accumulates in the channel, (3) extreme peak flows may persist for only a short period of time, and (4) measurement sites are often inaccessible due to road or bridge closures. Estimates of peak flows, which are outside the range of the established rating curve, may be made by an extrapolation of the rating curve to the peak stage. At some gaging stations, indirect methods of streamflow determination based on high-water marks, channel properties, and hydraulic principles may be used to obtain an independent estimate of discharge. These indirect methods generally require accurate field surveys to determine high-water marks, channel properties, and channel shape. The information obtained in the field is then processed using computer programs to determine the streamflow. Continued evaluation of these streamflow computations may result in some revision of previously determined peak flows. Modified from Robinson, Hazell, and Young, 1998

Water Q&A: Chemistry and water Cu hi v tr li v : Ha hc v nc

(1) Q: Why does my water smell like rotten eggs? A: You would know it if you had this problem! In some parts of the country, drinking water can contain the chemical hydrogen sulfide gas, which smells just like rotten eggs. This can occur when water comes into contact with organic matter or with some minerals, such as pyrite. The situation mostly occurs as ground water filters through organic material or rocks. (2) Q: Why does it take so long to rinse the soap off my hands? A: The terms "soft water" and "hard water" are important here. Water is said to be soft if it has a low concentration of calcium and magnesium ions in it, and hard water has a high concentration of calcium and magnesium. If you use soft water, the ions react with the soap you use to produce a residue that feels like it is hard to wash off. If you use hard water, you also will have a harder time working the soap up into a lather. Hard water is prevalent in some parts of the country, and sometimes water-softening chemicals that reduce the amount of calcium and magnesium are added to the water. Find out more about hard water from the www.hardwater.org (3) Q: How does our swimming pool stay so clean? A: It is not an easy task to keep a swimming pool so clear and clean. If you just set a pan of water outdoors in the middle of summer, you'll see that it ends up containing gunk very quickly. People have to resort to both chemical and physical means to keep the water clean and safe for swimming. The water is continuously pumped through a filter to trap particles, like all those bugs that fall in. To keep algae and dangerous bacteria from growing, chemicals such as chlorine are added. Chlorine also is added to your drinking water to keep those bacteria out of your stomach. (4) Q: Why is our porcelain sink stained brown? A: The brown stain is from a large amount of iron in your water. It is closely related to simple rust you see on metal, which is iron oxide. The source of the water you use probably is ground

water, and the water has filtered through rocks containing iron-rich minerals on the way to the well. (5) Q: Why are some lakes I see full of algae and thick plants? A: First of all, plants naturally grow in and around lakes. Maybe you're asking about a lake that is being choked off by too much algae. In many cases, humans are responsible. Actually, these lakes are being fed too much food for plants! There are certain chemicals we use that are nutrients (food) to plants. At our homes we fertilize our yards with nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorus. These chemicals wash off our lawns and eventually get into the water system, such as into creeks, rivers, and lakes. Once there, algae and plants have a feast on this "food." Things used to be worse for our water bodies. Phosphorus used to be an ingredient in our laundry detergent, but this has generally been phased out. (6) Q: Why does my drinking water look cloudy sometimes? A: Once in a while you get a glass of water, and it looks cloudy; maybe milky is a better term. After a few seconds it miraculously clears up! The cloudiness is due to tiny air bubbles in the water. Like any bubbles, the air rises to the top of the water and goes into the air, clearing up the water. The water in the pipes coming into your house might be under a bit of pressure, and gases (the air), which are dissolved in the pressurized water, will come out as the water flows into your glass, where is under normal atmospheric pressure.

Water Q&A: Water use Cu hi v tr li v : S dng nc

(1) Q: What is most of the freshwater in the U.S. used for? A: In 2000, about 346,000 million gallons per day of fresh water was withdrawn from our surface- and ground-water sources, such as rivers, lakes, reservoirs, and wells. Would you think that two uses of water, irrigation and thermoelectric-power production, would account for about 79 percent of water used in 2000? Here's the breakdown by water-use category: Irrigation: 40 percent Thermoelectric power: 39 percent Public Supply: 13 percent Industry: 5 percent Livestock, aquaculture: less than 1 percent Domestic (self-supplied): 1 percent Mining: 1 percent In a way, the large amount of water used for power production (electricity) is deceiving. It is mostly used to just cool the heated power-production equipment. The vast majority of the water used by power plants is returned to the environment, and thus is available for other uses. (2) Q: Which states use the most water? A: In 2000, California alone accounted for almost 11 percent of all freshwater used in the United States. After California was Texas, Idaho, and Illinois, which together accounted for 28 percent of all fresh water used in the U.S. Most of the water used in California was for crop irrigation. In fact, 22 percent of all the Nation's irrigation water used was in California, which indicates how important agriculture is there. Florida also is a large food producer but because it gets a lot more summer rainfall than the Central Valley of California, there is less need to apply irrigation water. 7

The three most populated states, California, Texas, and New York accounted for 30 percent of all water withdrawn for public-supply uses (for example, a city/county withdrawing water and delivering it to our homes and businesses). Texas, Wyoming, and Oklahoma used the most water for mining purposes, and California, Michigan, and Florida used the most water for household (domestic) purposes. (3) Q: Which states used the most water for irrigation? A: Agriculture is a big business in the United States, and a lot of water is used to produce our food. In 2000, farmers used water to irrigate about 61,900,000 acres of land. That is about 96,700 square miles, which you can think of as a big, square plot of land about 311 miles on a side. And that is only the land that was irrigated; other land produced crops without the use of irrigation. As expected, California led the Nation in acres irrigated, about 10,100,000, which was over 16 percent of the national total. Nebraska was next, irrigating about 7,420,000 acres, followed by Texas at about 6,490,000 acres. Agricultural irrigation is much more prevalent in the arid Western United States than in the East. The Western U.S. accounts for the majority of irrigation water use. (4) Q: Where does irrigation water come from and how is it applied to the land? A: Both ground water and surface water are used for irrigation. In 2000, about 56,900 million gallons per day were withdrawn from the ground for irrigation, whereas about 89,700 million gallons per day were taken from surface-water sources. A small amount of treated (reclaimed) wastewater coming from sewage-treatment plants was used for irrigation (no, not on food crops!). It mainly is applied to golf courses and public areas, such as parks and road medians. The USGS keeps records on the types of irrigation systems used in the United States: Flood irrigation: water is poured onto the land and flows through fields Spray irrigation: water is sprayed from spray guns or sprinkled onto fields Drip (micro) irrigation: water is slowly dripped from small pipes onto crops In 2000, about 29.4 million acres of the 61.9 million total irrigated acres (about 47 percent) were irrigated by the flood irrigation process. Another 28.3 million acres were spray irrigated, with the remaining 4.2 million acres received drip irrigation. How the acres are irrigated in major irrigation states is illustrated in the following table:State Acres irrigated (thousands) Acres flooded, (percent) Acres sprayed, (percent) Acres dripped, (percent) California 10,100 54% 16% 30% Nebraska 7,820 53% 47% 0% Texas 6,490 37% 62% 1% Arkansas 4,510 86% 14% 0% Idaho 3,750 35% 65% <1% Colorado 3,400 65% 35% <1% Kansas 3,310 20% 80% <1% Oregon2,170 47% 53% <1% Florida 2,060 41% 25% 34% Montana 1,720 71% 29% 0% Washington 1,570 16% 81% 3% Wyoming 1,160 84% 16% <1% United States 61,900 47% 46% 7% 8

(5) Q: How much water is used to produce power in the U.S.? A: The United States produces a lot of electrical power, and water is important in that production. In 1995, there were about 2,690,000 billion watthours (gigawatt hours) of power produced by thermoelectric power plants (those plants that burn oil, gas, and coal, use geothermal energy, or use nuclear energy). Hydroelectric power plants (falling water spins a turbine to produce power) accounted for another 310,000 gigawatt hours of power. In 2000, about 136,000 million gallons of fresh water and 59,500 million gallons of saline water each day were used in the thermoelectric power-production process. Why do power plants need so much water? Mainly it is used to cool the reactors of nuclear plants, and for condenser cooling in fossil-fuel (such as coal, oil, etc.) power plants. Incidentally, well over 99 percent of water used is from surface-water sources, rather than from ground-water sources. In fact, most power plants are located near a surface-water body so they can have easy access to large amounts of water. (6) Q: Does the U.S. produce any power using natural steam energy? A: Yes, but not very much. In 1995, power produced by using the earth's steam, called geothermal power, totaled about 6,100 gigawatt hours, which is about 0.2-percent of the Nation's total power production. Only about 59 million gallons per day of water was used in this process. Iceland makes great use of its geothermal resources. (7) Q: What about hydroelectric power? A: Power produced by hydroelectric plants was a significant source of energy for the U.S. in 1995. About 310,000 gigawatt hours of power was produced, which was about 12 percent of the Nation's total power output. Hydroelectric power is an "instream use" of water, that is, water flowing in a river or from a reservoir is used to turn a turbine to produce energy, so water is not actually "withdrawn." You can imagine that not every state can make use of hydro power because the water actually has to fall from a high altitude to a low altitude to produce power (although water can be pumped back uphill to be used again in some cases). The generally flat state of Florida does have a hydro plant, though! (8) Q: Water is used for "fish farming?" The U.S. grows fish? A: You mean you've never eaten farm-raised catfish, or a trout from a "trout farm?" Fish farming is a big business in some places. There are large catfish farms in Arkansas and Mississippi. In 2000, Idaho used about 1,970 million gallons of water per day to grow trout, and accounted for a large percentage of the world's farm-raised trout. In Louisiana, more than 50 times more water is used for fish farming than is used for animals that produce meat, poultry, and milk. (9) Q: Is saline water used for anything? A: Saline water has some uses. In 2000, the U.S. used about 62 billion gallons per day of saline water, which was about 15 percent of all water used. But saline water can only be used for certain purposes. The main use was for thermoelectric power-plant cooling. As for the other uses, about 8 percent of water used for industrial purposes was saline, and about 43 percent of all water used for mining purposes was saline. Also, saline water can be desalinated for use as drinking water by putting it through a process to remove the salt from the water. The process costs so much that it isn't used very much right now. (10) Q: How important is ground water? 9

A: Ground water, which is in aquifers below the surface of the Earth, is one of the Nation's most important natural resources. Ground water is the source of about 37 percent of the water that county and city water departments supply to households and businesses (public supply). It provides drinking water for more than 90 percent of the rural population who do not get their water delivered to them from a county/city water department or private water company. Even some major cities, such as San Antonio, Texas, rely solely on ground water for all their needs. About 42 percent of the water used for irrigation comes from ground water. Withdrawals of ground water are expected to rise as the population increases and available sites for surface reservoirs become more limited.

Water Q&A: Water use at home Cu hi v tr li v : S dng nc ti gia nh

(1) Q: Where does our household water come from? A: All of the water that we use in our homes comes from either a ground-water source, such as a well, or from a surface-water source, such a river, lake, or reservoir. In the U.S. in 2000, about 240 million of the 285 million people in the United States got their home water delivered by a public supplier, such as the county water department. At other homes, people provide water for themselves from sources, such as a well, a cistern, a pond, or a stream. (2) Q: Where does it go after we are done with it? A: Water leaving our homes generally goes either into a septic tank in the back yard where it evaporates or seeps back into the ground, or is sent to a sewage-treatment plant through a sewer system. In 1995, the last year for which consumptive-use data was compiled, about 26 percent of the water coming from our homes was "consumptively used." That is, it was evaporated or transpired from yards. The other 74 percent was discharged to septic tanks or sewage-treatment plants, where it was cleaned and sent into streams, or sometimes reused for other purposes, such as watering golf courses and parks. (3) Q: How much water does the average person use at home per day? A: Estimates vary, but each person uses about 80-100 gallons of water per day. Are you surprised that the largest use of household water is to flush the toilet, and after that, to take showers and baths? That is why, in these days of water conservation, we are starting to see toilets and showers that use less water than before. Many local governments now have laws that specify that water faucets, toilets, and showers only allow a certain amount of water flow per minute. In fact, if you look real close at the head of a faucet, you might see something like "1.5 gpm,", which means that the faucet head will allow water to flow at a maximum of 1.5 gallons per minute. (4) Q: How is water supplied to our homes? A: In a modern society such as ours, much work goes into supplying our houses with water. Many years ago when everyone lived in rural areas, they would have to get their own water from rivers or from local wells. Nowadays, most people in the U.S. live in towns and cities, and communities have installed an organized structure called a public water-supply system to provide water to homes (and to some businesses and industries, too). Now, even many rural areas have similar systems. In 2000, the U.S. had a population of about 285 million. About 240 million people had their water delivered from a public-supply system, and about 45 million people supplied their own water (over 90 percent of these people use water from their own wells).

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(5) Q: How is the water I drink made safe? A: Different treatment is used depending on the source of your water. Ground water taken from wells has been filtered through rocks, so it is usually quite free of particles. It can still contain chemicals and organic matter that must be taken out, though. If your water comes from a surfacewater source, such as a river, some work must be done to get rid of particulate matter. In this case filters are used to screen out large particles, and at a minimum, chlorine is added to kill dangerous bacteria and microorganisms. Some systems have additional water treatment, such as adding chemicals to make matter bunch up (flocculate) and fall out of solution and adding chemicals to make the water less corrosive to metal. (6) Q: Is it true that water coming out of sewage treatment plants is used for other purposes? A: Yes, it is called reclaimed wastewater, though its use is limited. Before you start to feel ill, no, it is not used further down the line as drinking water. It is most often used for irrigation and for water parks and golf courses. In the U.S. in 1995 (the last year for which wastewater-treatment data was compiled) about 44,400 wastewater-treatment plants sent about 44,600 million gallons per day of treated water back into the environment. About 983 million gallons per day was used again (reclaimed) after treatment, mainly as irrigation water. (7) Q: I live on a hill, how does water get to my house? A: Let's assume that you get your water from the local water department through pipes buried below the streets. In other words, you don't have your own well in your back yard. Chances are that you get your water through the magic of gravity or pumps. Cities and towns build those big water towers on top of the highest hills and then fill them with water. So even if you live on a hill, there's a good chance the water tower is higher than your house. Water goes down a large pipe from the tower and through an intricate network of pipes that eventually reaches your house. (8) Q: How many baths could I get from a rainstorm? A: In other words, when I have a big storm over my house, just how much rain am I getting? Let's say your house sits on a one-half acre lot. And let's say you get a storm that drops 1 inch of rain. You've just received 13,577 gallons of water on your yard! A big bath holds about 50 gallons of water, so if you could save that inch of water that fell you could take a daily bath for 271 days! (Careful now, that 13,577 gallons of water weighs over 56 tons ... so don't put it in your bathtub all at once). Let's expand that to a city. Atlanta, Ga. has corporate boundaries that cover about 84,100 acres (U.S. Census Bureau). A 1-inch rainstorm deposits 27,154 gallons on one acre, so during this storm Atlanta receives 2.28 billion gallons of water. Don't miss our Challenge Question, where you can find out how much water falls during a rainstorm. (9) Q: Does a little leak in my house really waste water? A: It's not the little leak that wastes water -- it is the little leak that keeps on leaking that wastes water. And the fact that the leak is so little means that maybe you ignore it. So, how can a little leak turn into a big waste? Many of our toilets have a constant leak -- somewhere around 22 gallons per day. This translates into about 8,000 gallons per year of wasted water, water that could be saved. Or think of a leaky water line coming into your house. If it leaks 1 gallon of water every 10 minutes that means that you are losing (and paying for) 144 gallons per day, or 52,560 gallons per year. Use our leak calculator to see how much a leaking faucet wastes. 11

Water Q&A: USGS water data and measurements Cu hi v tr li v : D liu ti nguyn nc ca Hoa K v cng tc o
(1) What kinds of water data does the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) gather? Data about water use is only one kind of water data that USGS compiles. We also collect data about the country's surface water, such as how much water is flowing in our streams and rivers, and when a river reaches "flood stage." Ground water is studied -- the amount of water stored in underground aquifers and how huhumans' usage of that water affects the amount available. We track the movement of contaminants from the land surface into and through aquifers and see if these contaminants are in water withdrawn from wells. A lot of work also goes into studying the quality and chemical makeup of our water resources. The USGS has water-quality laboratories where water samples are analyzed. To accomplish these tasks, the USGS has over 150 field offices where personnel are involved in the following activities: Collecting water samples from ground- and surface-water bodies Making measurements of water properties, such as pH and temperature Measuring stream flows and the amount of water in wells Analyzing water samples in the field and in laboratories Compiling data from many sources about how much water is used for different purposes Writing reports about our water resources Creating many computerized water data bases Producing maps, reports, and other output (such as the screen you're looking at now!) to give the public and others information about our water resources Keeping the U.S. Congress and the President informed about water-resource issues (2) What does the term "stream stage" mean? Stream stage is an important concept when analyzing how much water is moving in a stream at any given moment. Stage is the water level above some arbitrary point in the river and is commonly measured in feet. For example, on a normal day when no rain has fallen for a while, a river might have "a stage of 2 feet." If a big storm hits, the river stage could rise to 15 or 20 feet, sometimes very quickly. This is important because, from past records, we might know that when the stage hits 21 feet, the water will start flowing over its banks and into the basements of houses along the river -- time to tell those people to move out! How high and how fast a river will rise during a storm depends on many things. Most important, of course, is how much rain is falling. But also we have to look at other things, such as the stage of the river when the storm begins, at what the soil is like in the drainage basin where it is raining (is the soil already saturated with water from a previous storm?), and at how hard and in what parts of the basin the rain is falling. The USGS has studied these things at many places across the country for many years, and thus is often able to make predictions about if and where a flood will occur and how bad that flood will be. With the advent of modern computer and satellite technology, the USGS can monitor the stage of many streams almost instantly. Since some streams, especially those in the normally arid Western U.S., can rise dramatically in a matter of minutes during a major storm, it is important to be able to remotely monitor how fast water is rising "in real time" in order to warn people that might be affected by a dangerous flood. Recreational users of streams, such as kayakers, also use "realtime" stream-stage data to tell them if certain streams are at the right height for kayaking. The USGS can now gather data on stream stage and even produce graphs showing stage as the rain is 12

falling. In fact, some of these real-time data and graphics are being made available for you to use via the World Wide Web. You can access current stream conditions for your state right now. (3) But does stage tell you how much water is flowing in a stream? Not directly. You cannot say that because a stream rises (doubles) from a 10-foot stage to a 20foot stage that the amount of water flowing also doubles. Think of a cereal bowl with a rounded bottom. Pour one inch of milk in it. It doesn't take much milk to make it up to the one inch level because the bowl is least wide near the bottom. Now, pour in milk until it is two inches deep -- it takes a lot more milk than it did to fill the first inch because the bowl gets wider as you go up. The same thing happens in a stream -- the stream banks will generally be narrower at the bottom and tend to widen as you go up the bank. So, the amount of water flowing in a stream might double when the stage rises from 1 to 2 feet of stage, but then it might quadruple when it goes from 3 to 4 feet. This graphic helps to illustrate: To find out how much water is flowing in a stream or river, USGS personnel have to go out and make a "discharge measurement." USGS uses the term "discharge" to refer to how much water is flowing, and discharge is usually expressed in "cubic feet per second" (think of a cube of water one foot on a side, and how many of those move past a point in one second). To do this, we often have to go out and stand in the creek, measure the depth and how fast the water is moving at many places across the creek. By doing this many, many times, and at many stream stages, over the years we can develop a relation between stream stage and discharge. Stream stages are not always cooperative, so its not uncommon for someone to have to go measure a stream at 2:00 in the morning during a storm, sometimes in freezing conditions! Also, the stream can be uncooperative in that it changes -- a big storm may come along and scour out bottom material of a creek, or lodge a big log sideways in the creek, or sometimes do both at the same time. These kind of changes result in changes in the relation between stage and discharge. A more detailed explanation is available. (4) We had a "100-year flood" two years in a row.How can that be? The term "100-year flood," is used to describe the recurrence interval of floods. As the table below shows, the "100-year recurrence interval" means that a flood of that magnitude has a one percent chance of occurring in any given year. In other words, the chances that a river will flow as high as the 100-year flood stage this year is 1 in 100. Statistically, each year begins with the same 1-percent chance that a 100-year event will occur. Recurrence intervals and probabilities of occurencesRecurrence interval, in years Probability of occurrence in any given year Percent chance of occurrence in any given year 100 1 in 100 1 50 1 in 50 2 25 1 in 25 4 10 1 in 10 10 5 1 in 5 20 2 1 in 2 50

But, just because a 100-year flood happened last year doesn't mean that it won't happen this year, too. In other words, future rainfall and floods don't depend on the rainfall and floods that happened in the past. The past records are mainly used to show what kind of river flows can be expected. So, when you hear about a 100-year flood, at least you have a general idea that it does mean a BIG flood, and if you hear of a 200-year flood you know that it means one even BIGGER! As an example, in July of 1994, some places in south Georgia received more than 20 13

inches of rainfall in a few days -- the floods they produced were tremendous... way over the 100year flood. At Senoia, Ga., the maximum amount of water flowing by the Line Creek gage was 2.4 times greater than the 100-year flood level. (5) Is measuring water in a well like measuring a stream? No. In ground-water work the USGS puts a lot of effort in measuring the water levels in observation wells. Since water levels in aquifers can change (for a variety of reasons) we need to keep accurate records of these changes, and what factors affect them. Water levels in wells can definitely be affected by water withdrawals nearby -- and sometimes far away. One way to keep a record of the water levels in a well is to place a float at the end of a wire and lower it into a well. The float will go up and down as the water in the well goes up and down. The other end of the wire is attached to a machine that has a pen-like instrument attached, and the pen point moves up and down according to the action of the float. A roll of paper slowly rolls past the pen, so a record of water level is plotted continuously on the paper. Sometimes we don't use paper -- we just log the changes straight into computer memory. (6) What can cause water levels in wells to change? Water levels in wells are constantly changing both in the short term and over the long term. Some wells even have a seasonal change. In the short term, water levels can be lowered just by pumping water out of the well for use. Also, a well may be pumped so much as to cause the water level in nearby wells to be lowered, too. It all depends on how fast the aquifer that the well uses is resaturated with water from the surface or from the area surrounding it (recharge). In some places people have withdrawn water faster than water replenishes the aquifer, and the wells have stopped producing water. Sometimes this is a long-term problem occurring over a very large area. If it takes a long time to replenish the aquifer, maybe because the aquifer is composed of rock that only allows water to move through it very slowly, a field of wells may stop producing. Users will have to wait until the aquifer becomes more saturated again before turning the pumps back on. Also, an aquifer can only contain water if there is water coming into it, usually from rainwater seeping down from the surface. In a severe drought water levels in wells can significantly decline. (7) If the ground filters water, is ground water always clean? Water being drawn from a well was once precipitation that fell onto Earth's surface. It seeped into the ground and, over time, occupied the porous space in some subsurface material. Naturally, big particles that can be found in streams, such as leaf chunks, will not be seen in ground water. So, yes, big particles are filtered out. But ground water can contain other items that you can't see. Some are naturally occurring and some are human-made substances. Ground water can contain hydrogen sulfide or other naturally occurring chemicals. Ground water also may contain petroleum, organic compounds, or other chemicals introduced by humans' activities. Contaminated ground water can occur if the well is located near land that is used for farming where certain kinds of chemicals are applied to crops, or near a gas station that has a leaking storage tank. Leakage from septic tanks and/or waste-disposal sites also can contaminate ground water. A septic tank can introduce bacteria to the water, and pesticides and fertilizers that seep into farmed soil can eventually end up in water drawn from a well. Or, a well might have been placed in land that was once used for something like a garbage or chemical dump site. In any case, it is wise to have your well water tested for contaminates. on Vn Cnh su tm

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