A+ Hardeware

INSTRUCTORS
EDITION
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A+ Certication
Core Hardware
JUTTA JOE GAIL JOHN VANSTEAN
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FROEHLICH SANDLER K. ELBERFELD
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A+ Certication
Core Hardware
Jutta VanStean
Jutta VanStean started her IT career administering networks in 1989. She moved into the technical writing eld in 1996, writing multiple network operating system related courses for Element K. Her book NetWare 4.11: System Administration received the Award of Excellence from the Society for Technical Communication. Juttas certications include Novells CNE (for versions 3, 4, and 5) and Master CNE (NT Integration), as well as CompTIAs Network+ certication. She is also the editor of Element K Journals Inside NetWare, and has written other IT titles, including Sybexs Windows 2000 Instant Reference. Jutta has been working as a freelance technical writer since early 1999.
Gail Sandler
Gail Sandler has been a technical writer and course developer since 1992. After getting a degree in Music History and Theory, she went back to school and got a degree in Data Processing. She is still playing music when she isnt writing or coding. Gail has several Novell certications including Certied Intranet Manager, Certied Internet Business Strategist, and Certied Novell Administrator for NetWare 4 and NetWare 5. She holds several Brainbench certications in NetWare, Linux, and other areas. Her book Novell Web Server: Web Authoring and Publishing won the Award of Excellence from the Society for Technical Communication.
John K. Elberfeld
Joe Froehlich
Joe Froehlich has held professional positions as a network administrator, technology coordinator, and instructional designer in a variety of commercial and educational settings. He holds the CompTIA A+, Network+, and i-Net+ certications. Hes also a Certied Novell Administrator (CNA) and a Microsoft Certied Professional (MCP). Formerly the Editor of Element K Journals Inside NetWare, Exploring Windows NT, and Windows NT Professional, Joe currently works as a technical writer and curriculum developer for Element K.
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John Elberfeld was Science Department Head and Computer Coordinator at Allendale Columbia School in Rochester, NY, before becoming president of EduTech, an educational science software company. In addition, John has developed training materials and taught courses on computer use for several organizations, including the University of Rochester and the Rochester Institute of Technology Learning Development Center. Recently, he has designed several commercial, database-oriented Web sites. Teaming with his wife, Jane McLean, John has expanded the focus of EduTech to encompass technical writing. Recent projects include work on the i-Net+ certication manual and this manual for Element K.
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A+ CERTIFICATION: CORE HARDWARE

Course Number: 077811 Course Edition: 2.5 For software version: na
Project Team
Project Support
Managing Editor: Susan B. SanFilippo
Administration
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A+ Certication: Core Hardware
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TRADEMARK NOTICES: Element K Content LLC, ZDU, FirstEdition, Element K Journals and the corresponding logos are trademarks and service marks of Element K Content LLC. All product names and services used throughout this book are common law or registered trademarks and service marks of their respective companies. Use of another entitys product name or service in this book is for editorial purposes only. No such use, or the use of any trade name, is intended to convey endorsement or other afliation with the book. Copyright 2001 Element K Content LLC. All rights reserved. This publication, or any part thereof, may not be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, storage in an information retrieval system, or otherwise, without express written permission of Element K Content LLC, 500 Canal View Boulevard, Rochester, NY 14623, (716) 240-7500, (800) 434-3466. Element K Content LLCs World Wide Web site is located at www.elementkpress.com. Unauthorized reproduction or transmission of any part of this book or materials is a violation of federal law. If you believe that this book, related materials, or any other Element K Content LLC materials are being reproduced or transmitted without permission, please call 1-800-478-7788.
DISCLAIMER: While Element K Content LLC takes care to ensure the accuracy and quality of these materials, we cannot guarantee their accuracy, and all materials are provided without any warranty whatsoever, including, but not limited to, the implied warranties of merchantability or tness for a particular purpose. The name used in the data les for this course is that of a ctitious company. Any resemblance to current or future online companies is purely coincidental. We do not believe we have used anyones name in creating this course, but if we have, please notify us and we will change the name in the next revision of the course.
NOTICES
Senior Director of Content and Content Development: William O. Ingle Director of Certication: Mike Grakowsky Director of Design and Web Development: Joy Insinna Manager of Ofce Productivity and Applied Learning: Cheryl Russo Manager of Databases, ERP, and Business Skills: Mark Onisk Director of Business Development: Kent Michels Instructional Design Manager: Susan L. Reber Manager of Publishing Services: Michael Hoyt
Curriculum Developers and Technical Writers: Jutta VanStean, Joe Froehlich, Gail Sandler and John Elberfeld Copy Editor: Elizabeth M. Swank Reviewing Editors: Christy D. Flanders, Angie J. French and Taryn Chase Quality Assurance Analysts: Frank Wosnick and Paul J. Froehlich Print Designer: Daniel Smith and Isolina Salgado
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The logo of the CompTIA Authorized Curriculum Program and the status of this or other training material as Authorized under the CompTIA Authorized Curriculum Program signies that, in CompTIAs opinion, such training material covers the content of the CompTIAs related certication exam. CompTIA has not reviewed or approved the accuracy of the contents of this training material and specically disclaims any warranties of merchantability or tness for a particular purpose. CompTIA makes no guarantee concerning the success of persons using any such Authorized or other training material in order to prepare for any CompTIA certication exam. The contents of this training material were created for the CompTIA A+ exam covering CompTIA certication exam objectives that were current as of November, 2001. How to Become CompTIA Certied: This training material can help you prepare for and pass a related CompTIA certication exam or exams. In order to achieve CompTIA certication, you must register for and pass a CompTIA certication exam or exams. In order to become CompTIA certied, you must: 1. Select a certification exam provider. For more information please visit http://www.comptia.org/certification/test_locations.htm. 2. Register for and schedule a time to take the CompTIA certification exam(s) at a convientent location. 3. Read and sign the Candidate Agreement, which will be presented at the time of the exam(s). The text of the Candidate Agreement can be found at www.comptia.org/certification. 4. Take and pass the CompTIA certification exam(s). For more information about CompTIA's certifications, such as their industry acceptance, benefits, or program news, please visit www.comptia.org/certification. CompTIA is a non-profit information technology (IT) trade association. CompTIA's certifications are designed by subject matter experts from across the IT industry. Each CompTIA certification is vendor-neutral, covers multiple technologies, and requires demonstration of skills and knowledge widely sought after by the IT industry. To contact CompTIA with any questions or comments: Please call + 1 630 268 1818 questions@comptia.org.
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Credits
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2. Click on Student Enrollment 3. Enter the following Enrollment Key 23816-33790-comptia
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1. Log on to www.elementk.com
To use your Knowledge2 online ID, follow these five easy steps:
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About This Course . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv Lesson 1: Introduction to Microcomputers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Lesson 2: Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Lesson 3: System Components. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
CONTENT OVERVIEW
Lesson 4: Bus Architectures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 Lesson 5: Ports, Connectors, and Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Lesson 6: Expansion Boards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Lesson 8: Peripheral Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 Lesson 9: Portable Computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291 Lesson 10: Networking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315 Appendix A: Customer Satisfaction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
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Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
Glossary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
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Lesson 7: Storage Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
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CONTENTS
CONTENTS
Topic 1A
Topic 1B
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Numbering Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Task 1B-1 Understanding the Decimal Number System . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Binary Number System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Task 1B-2 Understanding the Binary Number System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Hexadecimal Number System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Task 1B-3 Understanding the Hexadecimal Number System . . . . . . . . . . Exploring Computer Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Task 1B-4 Applying Number Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A Brief History of Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Task 1A-1 Identifying Contributions to the Development of Mechanical Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Electronic Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Task 1A-2 Identifying Key Technologies in the Development of Electronic Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
LESSON 1: INTRODUCTION TO MICROCOMPUTERS
About This Course . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv Course Setup Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvi How To Use This Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii
Topic 1C
Topic 1D
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Software and Firmware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Task 1D-1 Identifying the Role of Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Firmware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Task 1D-2 Defining Terms Related to Read-only Memory . . . . . . . . . . . .
Microcomputer System Components and Their Functions . . 19 Task 1C-1 Identifying System Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 25 27 28 30 30 33 33 34 36
Topic 1E
Tools of the Trade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Task 1E-1 Identifying Tools Needed for Servicing Microcomputers . . . . . Software Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Task 1E-2 Creating a Windows 98 Startup Disk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lesson Review 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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10 12 12 15 15 17 18 19
LESSON 2: SAFETY
Topic 2A
Basics of Electricity and Electronics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Task 2A-1 Applying Ohms Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Measuring Electricity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Task 2A-2 Testing a Wall Outlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Understanding Static Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Task 2A-3 Identifying the Components of an ESD-free Environment . . . . 40 42 43 45 46 50 51 56 57 64 65 65 67 67 69
CONTENTS
Topic 2B
Topic 2D
Topic 3A
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Topic 3C
Central Processing Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CISC and RISC Instruction Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Intel Family Processors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8086 and 8088 CPUs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 CPU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The 386 Family of CPUs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386DX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386SX. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Topic 3B
ROM BIOS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Task 3B-1 Identifying the Power-On Self-Test (POST) Sequence . . . . . . . Configuring the ROM BIOS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Task 3B-2 Examining the BIOS Settings of a Computer . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Power Supplies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Task 3A-1 Measuring the Output of a Power Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Servicing Power Supplies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Task 3A-2 Replacing a Power Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Power Supply Problems and Their Prevention. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Task 3A-3 Diagnosing Power Supplies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
LESSON 3: SYSTEM COMPONENTS
Computer Equipment Disposal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Task 2D-1 Identifying Proper Disposal Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Lesson Review 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
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Fire Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fire Extinguishers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Task 2C-1 Fire Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fire Emergency Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Task 2C-2 Identifying Steps in Using a Fire Extinguisher . . . . . . . . . . .
Topic 2C
General Safety Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Task 2B-1 Identifying Hazards of Servicing Microcomputers . . . . . . . . . Potential Hazards of Using PCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Task 2B-2 Identifying Safe Computing Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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386SL. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 Math Coprocessors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 486 CPU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 486 Variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Pentium CPUs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 The Pentium Manufacturing Process and Chip Voltages . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 Superscalar Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 Superpipelining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 Speculative Execution and Branch Prediction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 Register Renaming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 Out-of-order Completion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 Dual Independent Bus (DIB). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 Processors Beyond the Original Pentium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 Pentium Pro. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 Pentium with MMX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 Pentium II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 Celeron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 Pentium III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 Pentium III Xeon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 The Next Generation of Processors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 Merced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 Task 3C-1 Reviewing Processors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 Mobile Processors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 Comparing CPUs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 Clock Speed and MIPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 Internal and External Bus Width. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 Addressable Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 Task 3C-2 Identifying the Processor Internal Bus Width . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 Heat Sinks and Fans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 Servicing Processors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 Dual Inline Package (DIP). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 Pin Grid Array (PGA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 Single Edge Contact Cartridge (SECC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 Socket and Slot Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 Task 3C-3 Replacing a Microprocessor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
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Topic 3D
System Boards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105 Task 3D-1 Identifying Computer Enclosures and System Board Form Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 System Board Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 Task 3D-2 Identifying the System Boards Major Components . . . . . . . . 114 Repairing System Boards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 Task 3D-3 Examining the System Board DIP Switch Settings . . . . . . . . . 116 Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .116 Task 3E-1 Identifying Types of Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 Memory Chip Packages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Topic 3E
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Task 3E-2 Replacing Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 Lesson Review 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
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LESSON 4: BUS ARCHITECTURES

Topic 4B Topic 4C Topic 4D Topic 4E Topic 4F Topic 4G
The 8-bit Bus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .128 Task 4B-1 Replacing an 8-bit Expansion Card . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 The ISA Bus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .130 Task 4C-1 Replacing a 16-bit Expansion Card . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 The EISA Bus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .133 Task 4D-1 Identifying an EISA Expansion Card . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 Micro Channel Architecture Bus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .136 Task 4E-1 Identifying a Micro Channel Architecture Expansion Card . . . . 138
The PCI Bus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .138 Task 4F-1 Replacing a PCI Expansion Card . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
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Topic 5B Topic 5C
Topic 5A
Overview of Input/Output Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .146 Task 5A-1 Examining Ports. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 How Data is Transmitted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 Task 5A-2 Comparing Data Transmission Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 PS/2 Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .148 Task 5B-1 Working with PS/2 Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Serial Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .150 Task 5C-1 Configuring Serial Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 Task 5C-2 Identifying Pins that are Necessary for a Connection. . . . . . . 157
LESSON 5: PORTS, CONNECTORS, AND CABLES
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Topic 4H
Video Circuitry Buses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .142 Task 4H-1 Replacing an AGP Expansion Card . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 Lesson Review 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Plug and Play. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .139 Plug and Play Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 Plug and Play BIOS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 Plug and Play Operating System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 Task 4G-1 Reviewing Plug and Play . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
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Topic 4A
What is a Bus? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .125 Task 4A-1 Identifying the Physical Components of a Bus . . . . . . . . . . . 128
CONTENTS
Topic 5D Topic 5E Topic 5F
Parallel Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .157 Task 5D-1 Identifying Parallel Port Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 Universal Serial Bus Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .160 Task 5E-1 Connecting USB Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Topic 6A
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Drive Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .176 ST-506/ST-412. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 ESDI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 SCSI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 SCSI-II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 SCSI-III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 Low Voltage Differential (LVD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 IDE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 LBA and ECHS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 INT13 Extensions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 EIDE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 PIO Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 Ultra DMA (UDMA). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 Interface Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 Task 6A-1 Discussing Drive Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 Installing Hard Drive Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 Task 6A-2 Installing a SCSI Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Topic 6B Topic 6C Topic 6D
Modem Cards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .197 Task 6D-1 Replacing an Internal Modem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 IRQs and I/O Addresses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 Task 6D-2 Configuring a Modem in Windows 9x. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 Configuring a Remote Access Connection Through Dial-up Networking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 Task 6D-3 Configuring a Dial-up Networking Connection . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 Lesson Review 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Video Cards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .192 Task 6B-1 Examining Video Displays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 Sound Cards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .195 Task 6C-1 Replacing a Sound Card . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
LESSON 6: EXPANSION BOARDS
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FireWire Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .168 Task 5F-1 Connecting FireWire Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 Lesson Review 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
LESSON 7: STORAGE SYSTEMS

Topic 7A
Fixed Disk Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .208 Task 7A-1 Examining Fixed Disk Drive Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 IDE and EIDE Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 Task 7A-2 Replacing an IDE Hard-disk Drive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 Troubleshooting IDE Hard Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 Ultra DMA Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 Task 7A-3 Enabling DMA Support in Windows 98 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 Troubleshooting Ultra DMA Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 Installing SCSI Disk Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 Task 7A-4 Installing a SCSI Drive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 Troubleshooting SCSI Hard Drives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 Removable Media Disk Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .222 Task 7B-1 Replacing a Floppy-disk Drive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 CD-ROM Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 Task 7B-2 Replacing an IDE CD-ROM Drive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 Other Removable Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 Task 7B-3 Installing an IDE Drive as a Slave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
CONTENTS
Topic 7B
Topic 7C
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Topic 8B
Primary Output Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .252 CRT-based Monitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252 Task 8B-1 Configuring a Monitors Color Depth, Resolution, and Refresh Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 Printers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 Task 8B-2 Identifying the Phases of the EP Print Process . . . . . . . . . . . 278
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Topic 8A
Primary Input Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .238 Keyboard Function. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 Task 8A-1 Checking the Keyboard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 Mouse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 Task 8A-2 Cleaning the Mouse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
LESSON 8: PERIPHERAL DEVICES
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Backup Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .229 Backup Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 Procedural Backup Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 Rotation Method and Backup Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 Rotation Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 Backup Types. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 Backup Types and Their Backup and Restore Time Requirements . . . . 234 Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 Task 7C-1 Discussing Backup Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 Lesson Review 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
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Connecting Printers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 Task 8B-3 Connecting and Adding a Local Printer with the Add Printer Wizard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Topic 8C
Other Input/Output Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .281 Task 8C-1 Identifying the Function of Various Peripheral Devices . . . . . . 287 Lesson Review 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
LESSON 9: PORTABLE COMPUTING

Topic 9A
Topic 9B Topic 9C
PC Cards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .305 Task 9B-1 Identifying PC Card Characteristics and Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
LESSON 10: NETWORKING
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Topic 10B
Introduction to the OSI Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .332 Task 10B-1 Identifying the Role of Each Layer in the OSI Model . . . . . . . 343 Network Architecture Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343 Task 10B-2 Identifying IEEE 802 Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
Topic 10C
Network Connectivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .348 Task 10C-1 Identifying the Purpose of Common Connection Devices . . . . 353 Network Media. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353 Task 10C-2 Identifying Network Cabling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359 Network Adapters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359 Task 10C-3 Installing a Network Interface Card . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361 Half Duplex and Full Duplex Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
Topic 10A
Network Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .316 Network Terminology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316 Task 10A-1 Identifying Operating System Applicability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321 Network Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321 Task 10A-2 Comparing the Advantages and Disadvantages of Different Network Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325 Network Topologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326 Task 10A-3 Comparing Fault Tolerance of Different Network Topologies . . 330 Infrared Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
Power Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .308 Task 9C-1 Identifying Battery Power Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312 Lesson Review 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
Components of Portable Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .292 Task 9A-1 Comparing Portable and Desktop Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303 Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303 Task 9A-2 Reviewing Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs) . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
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Network Protocols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363 Task 10C-4 Installing the TCP/IP Protocol and Assigning an IP Address . . 366 Common Network Problems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367 Task 10C-5 Identifying Common Network Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368 Lesson Review 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
CONTENTS
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .389 Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .409
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Importance of Customer Satisfaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .371 Communication Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .376 Service Calls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .382
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APPENDIX A: CUSTOMER SATISFACTION
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INTRODUCTION
Welcome to the Element K Content training team. Our goal is to provide you with the best computer training available and we know exactly what that takes. Our corporate heritage is based in training. In fact, we use our Student Manuals every day, in classes just like yours, so you can be condent that the material has been tested and proven to be effective. If you have any suggestions on how we can improve our products or services, please contact us.
ABOUT THIS COURSE
We designed A+ Certication: Core Hardware for the student who has a basic knowledge and experience with PCs and who wants to pursue a career as a computer service technician. To ensure your success, we recommend you rst take the following Element K courses or have equivalent knowledge: Hard Disk Management for DOS 6.22 Introduction to Personal Computers Using Windows 98
When youre done working your way through this book, youll be able to: Identify proper procedures for installing and conguring system components and devices.
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Identify popular motherboards, types of memory, bus architectures, and the purpose of CMOS. Dene the print process and identify procedures for servicing printers. Identify the unique components of portable systems. Dene basic networking concepts and congure a computer to function on a network. Differentiate between effective and ineffective behaviors related to customer satisfaction.
Identify safety procedures, environmental hazards, and preventative maintenance techniques.
Diagnose and troubleshoot system problems and determine whether theyre hardware- or software-related.
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Course Objectives
Course Prerequisites
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About This Course xv
A+ Certication: Core Hardware is a hands-on instruction book that helps prepare you for CompTIAs A+ Core Hardware exam #220-201.
ABOUT THIS COURSE
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ABOUT THIS COURSE
COURSE SETUP INFORMATION

Hardware and Software Requirements
To run this course, you will need:
ATX mid-tower case with ATX power supply. ATX-style motherboard using the Intel 440BX chipset. Pentium II or Pentium III using Slot 1 architecture. 32 MB of RAM. 1.44 MB oppy-disk drive. 4 GB internal IDE hard-disk drive.
4 GB SCSI internal hard-disk drive (not pre-installed). Soundblaster 16-bit sound card.
IDE internal Zip disk drive, SuperDisk drive, or second CD-ROM drive (not pre-installed). 56K 3COM (U.S. Robotics) ISA internal modem. 3COM 3C905B 10/100 PCI network adapter. PS/2-style Enhanced-101 keyboard.
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PS/2-style Microsoft mouse. PC-compatible microphone. PC-compatible speaker set. Computer technicians toolkit. Digital multimeter. Windows 98 Second Edition (full version) installed on each PC. A portable computer for demonstration purposes. Blank oppy disk. Isopropyl alcohol and cotton swabs. Optionally, the instructor should have an assortment of computer components including RAM, disk drives, interface cards, cables, connectors, and adapters to show the class throughout the teaching time. Optionally, you can have one or more printers available for demonstration purposes during teaching time. You will also need at least one research workstation, preferably one for each student or pair of students, which is capable of running Windows 98.
Pentium or better.
24x internal IDE CD-ROM drive.
AGP video adapter.
SCSI host adapter with bootable BIOS (not pre-installed).
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A pre-assembled Intel-based microcomputer which students will disassemble and reassemble during the courseone for the instructor and one for each student in the class. The system should meet the following requirements as closely as possible:
32 MB of RAM or better. 500 MB or larger drive. Internet access.
ABOUT THIS COURSE
Class Requirements
In order for the class to run properly, perform the procedures described below. 1. 2. 3. Install Windows 98 Second Edition on each PC using the Typical Settings option. Network the PCs using a 10/100 Base T hub and Category 5 cabling. Congure each PC for networking as follows: Install Client for Microsoft Networks. 4. Install NetBEUI.
Enable a live connection to the Internet.
You can use this book as a learning guide, a review tool, and a reference.
As a Learning Guide
We organized each lesson into explanatory topics and step-by-step activities. Topics provide the theory you need to master A+ Certication: Core Hardware, and activities allow you to apply this theory to practical hands-on examples. You get to try out each new skill on a specially prepared sample le. This saves you typing time and allows you to concentrate on the technique at hand. Through the use of sample les, hands-on activities, illustrations that give you feedback at crucial steps, and supporting background information, this book provides you with the foundation and structure to learn A+ Certication: Core Hardware quickly and easily.
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As a Review Tool
Any method of instruction is only as effective as the time and effort you are willing to invest in it. For this reason, we encourage you to spend some time reviewing the books more challenging topics and activities.
As a Reference
You can use the Concepts sections in this book as a rst source for denitions of terms, background information on given topics, and summaries of procedures.
About This Course xvii
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Each lesson covers one broad topic or set of related topics. Lessons are arranged in order of increasing prociency with A+ Certication: Core Hardware; skills you acquire in one lesson are used and developed in subsequent lessons. For this reason, you should work through the lessons in sequence.
HOW TO USE THIS BOOK
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Introduction to Microcomputers
Overview
Microcomputers are small, relatively inexpensive computers designed for an individual user. Todays personal computers have more memory, more disk space and faster processing capabilities than the giant mainframes of a few years ago. This lesson reviews the development of personal computers, introduces the number systems used by computers, lists the components that make up personal computers, describes programs that control computers, and organizes the tools you will need to maintain computers.
LESSON
1
Data Files none
1A
Identify key persons and key technologies that contributed to the development of the modern-day personal computer. Knowing the history of computers will help you appreciate the current situation and prepare you for the future.
Computers deal only with numbers, so to begin to understand computers, you must understand how they store and process numerical information. 1C Identify the basic system components and describe the function of each.
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This topic introduces vocabulary and ideas you need to master future lessons. Describe the functions of software and rmware as they relate to hardware. Programs are organized lists of instructions that determine the behavior of a computer. Programs may be stored on many media, including oppy disks, hard disks, tape, CD-ROMs, and ROMs. Identify the hardware and software tools needed to service and maintain a microcomputer. A good collection of software and hardware tools (kept ready to use) will make your life much easier.
Lesson 1: Introduction to Microcomputers 1
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1B
Investigate the mathematical basis for number systems and how to convert values between decimal, binary, and hexadecimal systems.
To gain a basic understanding of the development and function of personal computers, you will:
Objectives
Lesson Time 4 hours
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Topic 1A
A Brief History of Computers
Early Mechanical Computers
Mechanical Computers
An Abacus
Figure 1-1: An abacus.
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Napiers Bones: In 1617, the Scotsman John Napier designed a set of rectangular rods with numbers etched on them that let the users do multiplication by adding the numbers on properly positioned rods.
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The written number for zero appeared around 650 A.D. in India and made written calculations much easier. A Persian scholar wrote the rst textbook on algebra in 830 A.D. During the 1100s, Europeans learned the written form of math used by the Arabs and wrote down multiplication tables to help merchants. Five hundred years later, John Napier, a Scotsman, carved a set of multiplication tables on ivory sticks that could slide back and forth to indicate certain results. The use of logarithms on Napiers Bones in 1617 led to the development of the slide rule. Todays mature engineers can still remember using slide rules in their college days.
abacus: An early calculating instrument that uses sliding beads in columns that are divided in two by a center bar.
The abacus is usually listed as the rst mechanical computation device. Created 2,000 or more years ago in India or the Far East, an abacus consists of columns of beads that can slide up and down on rods that are held together in a frame. The position of the beads represents a number. Skilled users could outperform early electronic computers.
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The history of computational devices is full of uncertainties. Few historians can agree on who was the rst inventor or what was the rst machine in any number of categories. However, certain advances were so outstanding that they have become part of the folklore of computer history.
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Figure 1-2: Babbages Difference Engine.
Punched cards rst appeared in 1801. Joseph Marie Jacquard used the holes placed in the card to control the patterns woven into cloth by power looms. In 1832, Charles Babbage was working on a Difference Engine when he realized Jacquards punched cards could be used in computations. The Analytical Engine, the machine Babbage designed but never manufactured, introduced the idea of memory for storing results and the idea of printed output. His drawings described a general-purpose, fully program-controlled, automatic mechanical digital computer. Lady Ada Augusta Lovelace worked with Babbage on his machine. She became the rst computer programmer when she wrote out a series of instructions for his Analytical Engine.
Stepped Reckoner: A mechanical calculator developed by the German, Gottfried von Leibniz, that improved Pascals design to include multiplication and division. Only two prototypes were produced.
Arithmometer: Charles Xavier Thomas of Colmar, France, or Thomas de Colmar, established the industry of manufacturing calculating machines when he started production of the Arithmometer.
Difference Engine: Charles Babbages Difference Engine No. 1 was the rst successful automatic calculator. Although the 12,000 parts were never assembled into a nished engine, the parts that were completed functioned perfectly.
Analytical Engine: Charles Babbages vision of a mechanical calculator that would follow programmed instructions to perform any mathematical operations. The engine could store results for use later, and look up values in tables and call on standard subroutines.
Babbages Difference Engine
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The Frenchman Blaise Pascal is usually given credit for the rst calculating machine. In 1642, to help his fathera tax collectorwith his work, Pascal invented a machine with eight metal dials that could be turned to add and subtract numbers. Leonardo da Vinci and Wilhelm Schickard, a German, designed calculating machines before Pascal, but Pascal receives the recognition because he produced fty models of his Pascaline machine, not just a prototype or description. In 1673, Gottfried von Leibniz, a German mathematician, improved on Pascals design to create a Stepped Reckoner that could do addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. A Frenchman, Thomas de Colmar, created an Arithmometer in 1820 that was produced in large numbers for the next century. A Swedish inventor, Willgodt T. Odhner improved on the Arithmometer, and his calculating mechanism was used by dozens of companies in the calculating machines they produced.
Pascaline machine: A calculating machine that could add and subtract, developed in 1642 by French mathematician Blaise Pascal.
Punched cards were used in the United States census of 1890, and a dataprocessing machine by Herman Hollerith tabulated the census results in only two and one-half yearsmuch less than the predicted ten years. Punched cards provided input, memory, and output on an unlimited scale for business calculating machines for the next 50 years. The company Hollerith founded to manufacture his card-operated data processors, which used electrical contacts to detect the pattern of holes in each card, eventually became IBM.
TASK 1A-1:
1.
Match the inventor on the left with his contribution on the right. d a John Napier Blaise Pascal a. b. Developed the rst digital calculating machine that could add and subtract. Designed a mechanical calculator that could add, subtract, multiply, and divide. Designed the Difference Engine and the Analytical Engine Developed a series of rods that let users do multiplication by adding numbers. Processed census data using punched cards.
b e
Gottfried von Leibniz Herman Hollerith
Charles Babbage
Electronic Computers
Development of Electronic Computers (2 slides)
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Mark I: A programmable, electromechanical calculator that combined 78 adding machines to perform three calculations per second. It was designed by Howard Aiken, built by IBM, and installed at Harvard in 1944.
With the beginning of World War II, electronic computers took on national importance. The accurate calculation of projectile trajectories became a life-anddeath concern for the military. The calculations needed to develop the atomic bomb also required more calculating power than was available before the war. Between 1939 and 1944, Howard H. Aiken developed the Harvard Mark Ialso known as the IBM automatic sequence-controlled calculator (ASCC). The Mark I was made out of mechanical switches, electrical relays, rotating shafts, and clutches totalling 750,000 components weighing 5 tons. Programming instructions were fed to the Mark I on paper tape, and data was fed in on paper punched cards. Grace Hopper worked at Harvard on the Mark I, II, and III, and discovered the rst computer bug when she removed a moth that had own into a mechanical relay, causing it to malfunction. Also, during the war, Konrad Zuse was working secretly on his Z3 computer in Germany. Because so little was known about the Z3 for so long, most people describe the Mark I as the rst modern (but not electronic) digital computer.
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c. d. e.
Identifying Contributions to the Development of Mechanical Computers
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Vacuum Tubes
Dr. John Vincent Atanasoff was an associate professor at Iowa State College when he designed an electronic digital computer (EDC) that would use base two (binary) numbers. In 1939, with his assistant Clifford Berry, he built the worlds rst electronic digital computer using vacuum tubes. After a lecture, Dr. John W. Mauchly asked to see Atanasoffs computer and later used so many of Atanasoffs ideas in the ENIAC that it took a lawsuit to declare that Atanasoff was the rst to use vacuum tubes in an electronic digital computer.
Vacuum Tubes
EV
Dr. Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert were at the University of Pennsylvania in 1942 when they built ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer) to aid the United States military during World War II. ENIAC used 18,000 vacuum tubes, had 500,000 hand-soldered connections, was 1,000 times faster than the Mark I, and had to be rewired to change its program. ENIAC was used from 1946 to 1955, and because of its reliability, is commonly accepted as the rst successful high-speed electronic digital computer. Eckert and Mauchly also designed the EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer), which contained 4,000 vacuum tubes and 10,000 crystal diodes. After their success with ENIAC, Eckert and Mauchly proposed to build a UNIVAC (Universal Automatic Computer) machine to help the Census Bureau handle all its data. After four years of delays and cost overruns, Remington Rand Inc. worked with the EckertMauchly Computer Corporation to develop UNIVAC, the rst commercially successful computer. The computer used magnetic tape to store data, a major change from IBMs punched cards, and introduced many other features that are common today. Starting in 1951, 46 UNIVAC I computers were made for the government and business, although some experts at the time thought that ve computers would be enough to handle all the computational needs of the world.
Figure 1-3: Vacuum tubes.
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T A L -D
ENIAC: Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer was developed for the U.S. Army by J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly at the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia. ENIAC was programmed by plugging in cords and setting thousands of switches to direct how 18,000 vacuum tubes would perform 5,000 calculations per second.
UNIVAC: The Universal Automatic Computer was completed in 1951 by Eckert and Mauchly for the U.S. Bureau of the Census. It was the rst commercial computer in the United States and could handle both numerical and alphabetical information.
Programming ENIAC
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vacuum tube: A sealed glass or metal container that controls a ow of electrons through a vacuum.
Figure 1-4: Programming ENIAC (U.S. Army photo).
EDVAC: The Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer was the rst computer to use stored programs.
EV
transistor: A device containing semiconductor material that can amplify a signal or open and close a circuit. In computers, transistors function as an electronic switch.
Transistors
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Transistors and Magnetic Memory

The progress of electronic computing was limited by technology. Vacuum tubes, which were used to control the ow of electricity in digital computer circuits, were large (several inches high), red-hot to touch, and unreliable. Dr. William Shockley worked at Bell Telephone Laboratories as co-head of a solid-state research group that developed the transistor. Transistors performed the same function but were the size of a pencil eraser, generated almost no heat, and were extremely reliable. The replacement of vacuum tubes with transistors opened up new possibilities.
EDSAC: The Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Computer was a well-engineered machine built by Maurice Wilkes and colleagues at the University of Cambridge Mathematics Lab in 1949 and was a productive tool for mathematicians.
John von Neumann did not design the electronics in computers, but he is credited with the theoretical work that all modern computers are based on. Von Neumann recommended that a computer program should be able to stop under certain conditions and start again at another point. He also recommended storing both the data and instructions in memory so both could be changed as needed. He realized that physically rewiring a computer to change the program, or feeding in another paper tape to meet different conditions, was not practical for successful highspeed computing. The EDSAC (Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Computer) at Cambridge University, England, and Eckert and Mauchlys EDVAC were among the rst to use von Neumanns ideas. Combining von Neumanns stored program concept with a 1,000-word main memory, magnetic tape for secondary memory, printer and typewriter output, and a 2.25 MHz clock rate, UNIVAC set the standard for computers in the 1950s.
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Figure 1-5: Transistors.
EV
Transistors were great, but combining several transistors and the resistors needed to connect them on a single semiconductor chip in an integrated circuit was even better. In 1958, Jack Kilby at Texas Instruments made several components on a single-piece semiconductor. By 1961, Fairchild and Texas Instruments were massproducing integrated circuits on a single chip. In 1967, Fairchild introduced the Micromosaic, which contained a few hundred transistors. The transistors could be connected into specic circuits for an application using computer-aided design. The Micromosaic was an application-specic integrated circuit (ASIC).
Integrated Circuits
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At this time, the United States and the Soviet Union were involved in a race to see who would be rst in space. The complex rockets demanded sophisticated computers to control them. The Soviet Union concentrated on designing bigger rockets to carry larger computers into space, while the United States worked on making smaller, more powerful computers that t into the smaller rockets they had. The millions spent on research to miniaturize computer components used in the space race produced the technology needed for current computers.
Another important innovation was magnetic core memory, which allowed information to be stored in the magnetic orientation of tiny magnetic rings strung together on ne wire. Using magnetic core memory, the huge mainframes increased their memory from 8,000 to 64,000 words. Combining the computational capability made available through transistors with expanded magnetic core memory gave computers so much power that they had to be used in new ways to justify the cost. Some mainframes used batch processing, where a series of programs and data was stored on magnetic drums and fed to the computer one after the other so no computing time was wasted. Other computers used time sharing, where the computing power was shifted among several different programs running at the same time so no power was wasted waiting for an individual programs results to print or for more input to arrive.
C
magnetic core memory: Memory that stores binary data (0 or 1) in the orientation of magnetic charges in ferrite cores about 1/16th-inch diameter.
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Integrated Circuit
integrated circuit: Now usually called just a chip, the rst integrated circuit was fabricated in 1958 by Texas Instruments inventor Jack Kilby.
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Figure 1-6: Integrated circuit.
microprocessor: A complete central processing unit on a single chip.
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8008: Introduced by Intel in 1972, the 8008 was the rst microprocessor to be supported by a high-level language compiler.
A major breakthrough occurred in 1974 when Intel presented the 8080, the rst general-purpose microprocessor. The 8080 microprocessor had a single chip that contained an entire programmable computing device on it. The 8080 was an 8-bit device which contained around 4,500 transistors and could perform 200,000 operations per second. Other companies besides Intel designed and produced microprocessors in the mid-1970s, including Motorola (6800), Rockwell (6502), and Zilog (Z80). As more chips appeared and the prices dropped, personal desktop computers became a possibility.
RAM: Random Access Memory integrated circuit is a chip that functions as the computers primary temporary storage place for data.
In 1970, Fairchild introduced the rst 256-bit static RAM, while Intel announced the rst 1024-bit dynamic RAM. Computers that could make use of this memory were still monsters to maintain. Hand-held calculators, on the other hand, appealed to everyone from scientists to school kids. Marcian Ted Hoff at Intel designed a general-purpose integrated circuit that could be used in calculators as well as other devices. Using ideas from this circuit, Intel introduced, in 1972, the 8008, which contained approximately 3,300 transistors and was the rst microprocessor to be supported by a high-level language compiler called PL/M. A microprocessor is the heart and brains of a personal computer.
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Personal Computers
About a dozen computers claim to be the rst PC (personal computer). Credit for the rst popular personal computer often goes to Ed Roberts whose company, MITS, designed a computer called the Altair 8800 and marketed a kit for about $400 in 1974. The Altair 8800 used Intels 8080 microprocessor, contained 256 bytes of RAM, and was programmed by means of a panel of toggle switches. In 1975, Bill Gates and Paul Allen founded Microsoft and wrote a BASIC interpreter for the Altair. More than 2,000 systems were sold in 1975.
An Early PC
Figure 1-7: An early PC.
EV
In 1975, MOS Technology announced its 6502-based KIM-1 microcomputer, and Sphere Corporation introduced its Sphere 1 kit. Both kits were strictly for computer fanatics. In 1976, Steve Wozniak and Steve Jobs formed the Apple Computer Inc. company and modied the Apple I to create the Apple II (with a 6502 microprocessor). In 1977, the Apple II cost $1,300, came with 16 KB of ROM, 4 KB of RAM, a keyboard, and color output. The Apple II is usually listed as the rst personal computer that was available for the general public. The Commodore PET (6502) and Radio Shacks TRS-80 (Z80) were also popular. In 1979, VisiCalc, a spreadsheet program for the Apple II, made microcomputers attractive to businesses. As more businesses bought Apples, demand appeared for wordprocessing applications, and the software development industry took off. In 1981, IBM joined the party with its rst PC. Dozens of other models and companies followed IBMs lead, but in 1984, Apple broke from the pack and produced the Macintosh computer with a mouse and graphical user interface that opened the computer world to artists and publishers. Of all the computers designed during this period, only the IBM PC and Apple Macintosh have withstood the test of time.
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PC: Personal computers are stand-alone, single-user desktop, or smaller, computers that can function independently. PC used to refer to any personal computer, but now refers to personal computers that follow the original design by IBM, use Intel or compatible chips, and usually have some version of Windows as an operating system. PCs are sometimes called IBM Compatibles.
PY
TASK 1A-2:
Identifying Key Technologies in the Development of Electronic Computers
1. For each technology shown in the following table, describe its contribution to the development of electronic computers. Technology
Vacuum Tubes Transistors Integrated Circuits Microprocessors
Contribution
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Counting Marbles in the Decimal System
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You have used the decimal number system all your life. You know 10 pennies are equal to one dime, 1000 grams are equal to one kilogram, one meter is the same length as 100 centimeters, and that $11.98 is a good price for a CD, but $98.11 is not. If you counted the number of marbles in a jar, you would write down 237, not CCXXXVII like an ancient Roman, and not ED or 1110 1101 like a modern computer. All four answers are right, but the last three do not use decimal notation. To learn more about other number systems, you will review what you already know about your own decimal number system. You will start by counting marbles. There are many correct ways to complete this task, but the following approach will introduce ideas helpful in understanding other number systems.
The Decimal Number System

Imagine this: You are given a large pail that will hold exactly 1000 marbles, a can that will hold exactly 100 marbles, and a small cup that holds only 10 marbles. You are asked to report how many pails, cans, and cups of marbles are stored in a large jar as quickly as possible. You could ll the cup over and over until you run out of marbles, but that takes too long. To save time, you put all the marbles in the pail, which is only partly lled. You pour the marbles from the pail into the can, which you can ll up only two times. You pour the remaining marbles into the cup, which you can ll three times. There are seven marbles left in the bottom of the pail. Your report on the number of marbles might be zero pails, two cans, three cups, and seven left over. This report will make little sense to people who do not know the number of marbles that can t into the pail, can, and cup. A table can make things clearer.
Numbering Systems
Topic 1B
Eliminated the need to manually wire a machine and set switches for each different program that was to be executed. Replaced vacuum tubes to make electronic computers faster, smaller, and more efcient. Allowed multiple transistors to exist on the same base material and connected transistors without using wires. Allowed an entire computing device to reside on a single chip whose function could be controlled by programmed instructions.
PY
Number In Container
Times Filled
1,000 (103)
0
100 (102)
2
10 (101)
3
1 (100)
7
Exponential notation is just an extension of this idea. The number 237 could be written as 2*102+3*101+7*100. Going from right to left, the place value of the digits are 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, and so on. The following table is a summary of base 10 information. Exponential Notation
0*100 1*100 2*100 3*100 4*100 5*100 6*100 7*100 8*100 9*100 1*101+ 0*100 1*101+ 1*100 1*101+ 2*100 1*101+ 3*100 1*101+ 4*100 1*101+ 5*100 1*101+ 6*100
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0=0 1=1 2=2 3=3 4=4 5=5 6=6 7=7 8=8 9=9 10+0=10 10+1=11 10+2=12 10+3=13 10+4=14 10+5=15 10+6=16
A computer would analyze your report this way: Base 10 tells the computer that the place value of each digit in your number is based on some power of 10. The digit in the rst place on the right tells how many individuals (ones) you had. Another way of expressing one using exponents is 100. The second place from the right tells how many tens or 101 you had. The third place tells how many hundreds or 102 or 10*10 you counted, and the fourth place tells how many thousands or 103 or 10*10*10 you had. Knowing you had 0*1000 plus 2*100 plus 3*10 plus 7 marbles, the computer could then translate the value into its own number system. The asterisk (*) is the computers way of saying times, and is much clearer to the computer than 2 X 100, for example.
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100equals 1. Why? Division in exponential notation involves subtracting exponents. Follow these examples if you are unsure. 1000/100=10 is the same as 103 /102=1032=101=10. Along the same line, 1000/ 1000=1 is the same as 103 /103=1033=100=1. Any number raised to the power of zero is one. n0=1
Items To Count
| || ||| |||| ||||| |||||| ||||||| |||||||| ||||||||| |||||||||| ||||||||||+| ||||||||||+|| ||||||||||+||| ||||||||||+|||| ||||||||||+||||| ||||||||||+||||||
Result
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Decimal Equivalent
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Using the number in a container as a place value, you could say that you counted no thousands, two hundreds, three tens, and seven individual marbles in the jar. This report leaves no room for misunderstanding, but it could be shorter. Stating that 237 marbles were in the jar is just as precise if everyone agrees that the 7 on the right tells how many individual marbles you had, the 3 in the second place from the right tells how many tens of marble you had, and the 2 in the third place from the right tells how many hundreds of marbles you had. If you only dealt with humans, 237 would be ne, but now you are also working with computers that use other number systems. For a computer, the answer must be 237 base 10.
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Items To Count
||||||||||+|||||| | ||||||||||+|||||| || ||||||||||+|||||| ||| ||||||||||+|||||| |||| ||||||||||+|||||| ||||+|
Result
17 18 19 20 21
Exponential Notation
1*10 + 7*10
1 0
Decimal Equivalent
10+7=17 10+8=18 10+9=19 20+0=20 20+1=21
1*101+ 8*100 1*101+ 9*100 2*101+ 0*100 2*101+ 1*100
TASK 1B-1:
1.
Understanding the Decimal Number System

Express each decimal number in exponential notation. Decimal Number
7 43 465 8,672
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Counting Marbles in the Binary System
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The Binary Number System

Computers are electronic devices that use electrical patterns to represent numbers. Modern digital computers recognize only two electrical statesON and OFF but their memories contain millions of transistors that can be either on or off. Working with numbers in computers is like making numbers out of a row of lights that can be switched on and off independently. Because there are only two ways to represent a number, computers use the binary number system (base 2). The same concepts that you know work for the decimal system also work for the binary system. Imagine this: You are given the same jar of 237 marbles to count, but this time you have a series of measuring cups that can hold 256, 128, 64, 32, 16, 8, 4, and 2 marbles. The largest cup holds 256 marbles, so it is not lled. The next cup is lled and takes 128 marbles from the total, leaving 109 marbles. You cant ll the 128 cup a second time, so you move down the row to the cup that holds 64, which you ll, leaving 45. This will not ll the 64 cup again, but it will ll the 32 cup, leaving you 13 marbles. You dont have enough to ll the 32 or the 16 cup, so you ll the 8 cup, leaving you 5 marbles. You ll the 4 cup, cannot ll the 2 cup, and have 1 marble left over. Because there are so many cups, it is easiest to report your results in a table.
7*100 4*101 + 3*100 4*102 + 6*101 + 5*100 8*103 + 6*102 + 7*101 + 2*100
PY
Number In Cup
Times Filled
256 (28)
0
128 (27)
1
64 (26)
1
32 (25)
1
16 (24)
0
8 (23)
1
4 2 (22) (21)
1 0
1 (20)
1
Items To Count
| || ||+| |||| ||||+| ||||+|| ||||+||+| |||||||| ||||||||+| ||||||||+|| ||||||||+||+| ||||||||+|||| ||||||||+||||+| ||||||||+||||+| | ||||||||+||||+| |+| |||||||||||||||| |||||||||||||||| +| |||||||||||||||| +|| |||||||||||||||| +||+| |||||||||||||||| +|||| |||||||||||||||| +||||+|
Result
0 1 10 11 100 101 110 111 1000 1001 1010 1011 1100 1101 1110 1111 1 0000
Decimal Value
0*1=0 1*1=1 1*2+0*1=2 1*2+1*1=3 1*4+0*2+0*1=4 1*4+0*2+1*1=5 1*4+1*2+0*1=6 1*4+1*2+1*1=7 1*8+0*4+0*2+0*1=8 1*8+0*4+0*2+1*1=9 1*8+0*4+1*2+0*1=10 1*8+0*4+1*2+1*1=11 1*8+1*4+0*2+0*1=12 1*8+1*4+0*2+1*1=13 1*8+1*4+1*2+0*1=14 1*8+1*4+1*2+1*1=15 1*16+0*8+0*4+0*2+0*1=16 1*16+0*8+0*4+0*2+1*1=17 1*16+0*8+0*4+1*2+0*1=18 1*16+0*8+0*4+1*2+1*1=19 1*16+0*8+1*4+0*2+0*1=20 1*16+0*8+1*4+0*2+1*1=21
1 0001 1 0010 1 0011 1 0100 1 0101
0*2 1*20 1*21 + 0*20 1*21+ 1*20 1*22 + 0*21 + 0*20 1*22 + 0*21 + 1*20 1*22 + 1*21 + 0*20 1*22 + 1*21+ 1*20 1*23 + 0*22 + 0*21 + 0*20 1*23 + 0*22 + 0*21 + 1*20 1*23 + 0*22 + 1*21 + 0*20 1*23 + 0*22 + 1*21 + 1*20 1*23 + 1*22 + 0*21 + 0*20 1*23 + 1*22 + 0*21 + 1*20 1*23 + 1*22 + 1*21 + 0*20 1*23 + 1*22 + 1*21 + 1*20 1*24 + 0*23 + 0*22 + 0*21 + 0*20 1*24 + 0*23 + 0*22 + 0*21 + 1*20 1*24 + 0*23 + 0*22 + 1*21 + 0*20 1*24 + 0*23 + 0*22 + 1*21 + 1*20 1*24 + 0*23 + 1*22 + 0*21 + 0*20 1*24 + 0*23 + 1*22 + 0*21 + 1*10
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20 equals 1. This is an important idea, so follow along. 256/32=8 is the same as 28 /25=28-5=23=8. Along the same line, 128/128=1 is the same as 27 /27=27-7 =20=1. Any number raised to the power of zero is one.
PY
A report that you counted 1110 1101 (base 2) marbles would make little sense to most humans, but would be crystal clear to a computer. A human would have to look at the table and gure you counted 1*128 + 1*64 + 1*32 + 1*8 + 1*4 + 1*1 marbles or 237 (base 10) marbles. Using exponential notation, the same result would be: 1*27 + 1*26 + 1*25 + 1*23 + 1*22 + 1*20 marbles or 237 (base 10) marbles.
Binary Number Decimal Value
1 128
1 32
O
0 0
Place Value
128
64
32
16
Converting decimal to binary uses a similar table. In the top row, enter the place values for the binary number system(1, 2, 4, 8...) going from right to left until you reach a power of 2 that is bigger than the decimal number. In the second row, enter the decimal number in the left-most column. Working from left to right, try to subtract the place value for a column from the decimal number. If the result is positive, put a 1 in the third row of that column, and place the remainder of the subtraction in the second row of the next column. If the result is negative, put a 0 in the third row of that column and copy the same number over into the second row of the next column. Keep subtracting binary place values from the decimal number until there is no remainder. For example, to convert 213 (base 10) into a binary number (base 2), look at the example in this table, where 213 (base 10) is equal to 1101 0101 (base 2). Place Value
128
64
O
32
2132<1 0 1
T
16
2116=5
C
8
58<1
4
54=1
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Decimal 213 Number/ 128=85 Decimal Remainder Binary 1 Number
85 64=21
To check your work, convert the binary number 1101 0101 back to decimal. The values you subtracted from the decimal number until you had nothing left should add up to equal the original decimal number. Place Value
Binary Number Decimal Value
EV
128
1 128
64
1 64
32
0 0
16
1 16
8
0 0
4
1 4
The binary number 1101 0101 (base 2) is equal to 128 + 64 + 16 + 4 + 1 = 213 (base 10). Your answer checks. Notice that to convert from binary to decimal, we are adding values, and to convert from decimal to binary, we subtract values. Other techniques for converting numbers work just as well, but this one is the most direct.
PY
2 1
1 2 0
The process of converting binary (base 2) numbers you get from the computer into decimal (base 10) numbers for yourself is much easier if you make a table. In the top right-most column, put in 20 or 1. In the second column from the right, place 21 or 2. In the third column, place 22 or 4, fourth column 23 or 8, and continue until you have a column for every digit in the binary number. Place the binary number in the second row. In the third row, if the binary digit in the column is 1, copy the decimal number (place value) above it into the third row. If the binary number is 0, leave that cell in the third row blank. Add up all the numbers in the third row and you will have the decimal equivalent of the binary number. For example, to convert 1010 0010 (base 2) to its decimal value (base 10), look at the following table where 1010 0010 (base 2) is equal to 128 + 32 + 2 = 162 (base 10).
2
12<1
1
11=0
2
0 0
1
1 1
TASK 1B-2:
Understanding the Binary Number System
1. Express each binary number in exponential notation and compute its decimal value. Binary Number
1 10 101 1101
1*2 1*21 + 0*20 1*22 + 0*21 + 1*20 1*23 + 1*22 + 0*21 + 1*20
0
Decimal Value
1*1=1 1*2 + 0*1 = 2 1*4 + 0*2 + 1*1 = 5 1*8 + 1*4 + 0*2 + 1*1 = 13
2.
Convert each decimal number to its binary equivalent and check your work. Decimal Number
5 72 283 4,096
Imagine this: You are given the same jar of 237 marbles to count, but this time you have a large pail that will hold exactly 256 marbles and a can that will hold exactly 16 marbles. You dont have enough marbles to ll the pail, but you can ll the can 14 times and have 13 marbles left in the bottom of the pail. Your report on the number of marbles might be zero pails, 14 cans, and 13 left over. This report will make little sense to people who do not know the number of marbles that can t into the pail and can. A table can make things clearer.
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The hexadecimal system is a compromise by the computer world for humans. Binary numbers tend to be very long and, with only 0s and 1s, tend to all look alike. Humans need a way to communicate with the computer in a number system related to the binary system, but easier to read and understand. The hexadecimal system (base 16) is the solution.
The Hexadecimal Number System
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Counting Marbles in the Hexadecimal System
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Number In Container
Times Filled
256 (162)
0
16 (161)
14
Now the trouble starts. Reporting 1413 (base16) is too confusing. Did you ll the pail one time, the can 41 times, and have three left over? Computers do not like any doubt in the numbers they are given, so another way of writing hexadecimal values greater than 9 was agreed on. The letter A (base 16) is equal to 10 (base 10), the letter B (base 16) is equal to 11 (base 10), C (base 16) = 12 (base 10), D (base 16) = 13 (base 10), E (base 16) = 14 (base10) and F (base 16) = 15 (base 10). Using this notation, you could report you counted ED (base 16) marbles.
O
1 (160)
13
101 = 4 + 1 = 5 0100 1000 = 64 + 8 = 72 1 0001 1011 = 256 + 16 + 8 + 2 + 1 = 283 1 0000 0000 0000 = 212 = 4096
Binary Equivalent
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Using exponential notation, the same result would be: E*161 + D*160 = 14* 16 + 13 = 224 + 13 marbles or 237 (base 10) marbles. Items To Count
| || ||| |||| ||||| |||||| ||||||| |||||||| ||||||||| |||||||||| ||||||||||| |||||||||||| ||||||||||||| |||||||||||||| ||||||||||||||| |||||||||||||||| |||||||||||||||| +| |||||||||||||||| +|| |||||||||||||||| +||| |||||||||||||||| +|||| |||||||||||||||| +|||||
Result
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F 10 11 12 13 14 15
0*16 1*160 2*160 3*160 4*160 5*160 6*160 7*160 8*160 9*160 A*160 B*160 C*160 D*160 E*160 F*160 1*161 + 0*160 1*161 + 1*160 1*161 + 2*160 1*161 + 3*160 1*161 + 4*160 1*161 + 5*160
0
Decimal Value
0 1=1 2=2 3=3 4=4 5=5 6=6 7=7 8=8 9=9 A=10 B=11 C=12 D=13 E=14 F=15 16+0=16 16+1=17 16+2=18 16+3=19 16+4=20 16+5=21
EV
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The process of converting hexadecimal (base 16) numbers from the computer into decimal (base 10) numbers for yourself is much easier if you make a table. In the top right-most column, put in 160 or 1. In the second column from the right, put 161 or 16. In the third column, place 162 or 256, fourth column 163 or 4,096, and continue until you have a column for every digit in the hexadecimal number. These numbers are the place values for the hexadecimal digits. Place the hexadecimal number in the second row. In the third row, multiply the hexadecimal digit in the second row times the place value of the column in the rst row, and write the product in the third row. Add all the numbers in the third row, and you will have the decimal equivalent of the hexadecimal number. For example, to convert A4 B6 (base 16) to its decimal value (base 10), take a look at the illustration in the following table. A4 B6 (base 16) is equal to 40,960 + 1,024 + 176 + 6 = 42,166 (base 10). Place Value
Hexadecimal Number Decimal Value
N
4,096
O
A 10*4096=40,960
T
256
4 4*256=1,024
C
16
O
1
6 6*1=6 B 11*16=176
PY
Place Value
Decimal Number/Decimal Remainder Hexadecimal Number
4096
59,660/4,096=E (14) rem. 2,316 E
256
2,316/256=9 rem. 12 9
16
12/16<1 0
1
12/1=C (12) C
To check your work, convert the hexadecimal number E90C back to decimal. This is shown in the following table. Place Value
Hexadecimal Number Decimal Value
4096
E 14*4096=57,344
256
9 9*256=2,304
16
TASK 1B-3:
1.
Hexadecimal Number
Express each hexadecimal number in exponential notation and calculate the decimal value. Exponential Notation
12*160 = 12 1*161 + 10*160 = 16 + 10 = 26 3*162 + 13*161 + 15*160 = 768 + 208 + 15 = 991 14*163 + 9*162 + 11*161 + 2*160=57,344 + 2,304 +176 + 2 = 59,826
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C 1A 3DF E9B2
Understanding the Hexadecimal Number System
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The hexadecimal number E90C (base 16) is equal to 57,344 + 2,304 + 0 + 12 = 59,660 (base 10). Your answer checks. Notice that to convert from hexadecimal to decimal, you are multiplying values, and to convert from decimal to hexadecimal, you divide values. Other techniques for converting numbers work just as well, but this one is the most direct.
0 0*16=0
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C 12*1=12
Converting decimal to hexadecimal uses a similar table. In the top row, enter the place values for the hexadecimal number system(1, 16, 256, 4,096...) going from right to left until you reach a power of 16 that is bigger than the decimal number. In the second row, enter the decimal number in the left-most column. Working from left to right, try to divide the place value for a column into the decimal number. If the result is greater than 1, put the number of times the place value went into the decimal number in row three of that column, and place the remainder of the division into row two of the next column to the right. If the result is less than 1, put a 0 in the row three of the column and copy the same number over into row two of the next column to the right. Keep dividing hexadecimal place values into the remaining decimal number until the remainder is less than 16. Place that remainder into the 1s column. For example, to convert 59,660 (base 10) into a hexadecimal number (base 16), look at the example in the following table where 59,660 (base 10) is equal to E90C (base 16).
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2.
Convert each decimal number to its hexadecimal equivalent and check your answer. Decimal Number
8 57 166 3,416
Hexadecimal Equivalent
8 39 = 3*16 + 9 = 48 + 9 = 57 A6 = 10*16 + 6 = 160 + 6 = 166 D58 = 13*256 + 5*16 + 8 = 3,328 + 80 + 8 = 3,416
Bits and Bytes and Nibbles
bit: A single binary digit having a value of 0 or 1.
Understanding Kilobytes, Megabytes, and Gigabytes

nibble: A group of 4 bits. An 8-bit byte is written as 2 nibbles to make it easier to read.
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kilobyte: A means of measuring le or disk size, equivalent to 1,024 bytes. Abbreviated as KB.
megabyte: A means of measuring le or disk size, equivalent to 1,024 KB. Abbreviated as MB.
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A kilobyte is often referred to as 1,000 bytes, but this is not totally accurate. In computer terms, a kilobyte is 1,024 bytes. K is used as shorthand for 210, which equals 1,024. A le listed as having a size of 67 KB may show a more accurate size of 66.5 KB in the Properties dialog box, or 68,096 bytes. The le hasnt changed size (66.5 KB = 66.5 * 1024 bytes = 68,096 bytes). A megabyte is not exactly 1,000,000 bytes, but 220 bytes, or 1,024 KB, or 1,048,576 bytes. A 200 MB drive can store 204,800 KB or 209,715,200 bytes.
Figure 1-8: Examples of disk capacities.
byte: A group of 8 bits.
One byte may hold binary numbers ranging in value from 0000 0000 (base 2) to 1111 1111 (base 2), or from 0 (base 10) to 255 (base 10). Counting 0 as a value, one byte can contain 256 values. For many computer variables, the maximum value is 255 because the computer wants to store the value in a single byte, or you are limited to 256 choices.
A bit is a single binary digit. A bit may have a value of 0 or 1. In a computer, a switch or transistor that is off represents a 0, and a switch or transistor that is on represents a 1. Most computers work with groups of 8 bits, which is called a byte. To make it easier to read, the 8 binary digits in a byte are divided into two groups of four, called nibbles, when they are written.
Many of the values you see on your computer screen are based on numbers converted from the binary number system to decimal or hexadecimal numbers. Those numbers may have seemed rather odd before, but with your new knowledge of number theory, you will be able to explain where the numbers came from.
Exploring Computer Values
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A gigabyte is not 1 billion bytes, but 230 bytes or 1,073,741,824 bytes. One drive maker even promoted his drive as much better than other 3 gigabyte drives because on his drive you had room to store 3 billion bytes, plus room for another 221,225,472 bytes thrown in for free. A quick check of the math shows the drive maker was misleading but numerically accurate. 3 GB is the same as 3,221,225,472 bytes.
gigabyte: A means of measuring le or disk size, equivalent to 1,024 MB. Abbreviated as GB.
TASK 1B-4:
Applying Number Skills
1. You try to save a 1.4 MB le on a disk with 1,400 KB of free space, but the computer states you dont have enough room. What is going on? 1.4 MB is really 1.4*1024 KB or 1433 KB. Your le is 33 KB larger than the disk can handle. 2. Open the Windows calculator in the Accessories program group. Select Scientic from the View menu if you need to. Enter 4095 as a decimal number.
Topic 1C
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Computers are made up of thousands of electronic chips, resistors, capacitors, diodes, and other pieces that all work together to run your computer programs. To make it easier to grasp how a computer works, the pieces are grouped together into components. The components are the major building blocks of your PC.
System Components
Every make and model of PC has a slightly different layout for its components. Rather than trying to memorize details of one system, concentrate on the big picture of general computer organization so you can adapt to different situations with a variety of computers.
Computer Interior
Microcomputer System Components and Their Functions
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Sixteen bits can range from 0000 0000 0000 0000 to 1111 1111 1111 1111 or from 0 (base 10) to 65,535 (base 10) for a total of 65,536 different values.
3.
How many different values can you store in a binary number that is 16 bits long? What is the maximum value you can store?
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Binary (base 2)? Hexadecimal (base 16)? Octal (base 8)?
1111 1111 1111 F FF 7 777
What is the value of 4,095 (base 10) in:
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Figure 1-9: Computer interior.
System Board
The system board is the main circuit board in a microcomputer. The system board is the principal printed circuit board in a computer. It is a very thin plate which has chips and other electrical components on it that make up the CPU (Central Processing Unit), the computer memory, and basic controllers for the system. Sometimes called the motherboard, the system board has some electrical components soldered directly to it, and slots and sockets where components can be added and removed easily. The wires that connect the soldered components, the slots, and the sockets are all permanently built into the system board. Usually the microprocessor, or CPU, is on a large chip that is held in a socket on the motherboard so you can upgrade the chip when a compatible, new chip comes out. The chips that control the ow of information to and from the CPU are usually soldered to the system board and are not replaceable. The jacks where you plug in the mouse and keyboard are usually soldered to the system board, but the network and modem connections are usually on interface cards that are easily inserted and removed from slots on the system board. Because features that are built into the design of the system board cannot be changed without replacing the whole system board, most system boards include only the standard features that most users want; that will not change much in the near future. By leaving off features that many users do not use, like SCSI and network connections, the cost of the board is kept down. By allowing the users to buy the modem with the speed and features they want, and letting the users attach the card to the motherboard, the designers build in exibility that most users appreciate. Sometimes computer makers who sell complete systems nd it is cheaper to build a system board with the modem, sound card, video, and all other features built-in, rather than add interface cards to a standard system board. The buyers of these complete systems get a low price but give up the freedom of easily upgrading and customizing the computer.
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Another way to classify system boards is by the set of chips on the board that support the CPU, or its chipset. When buying or working on a computer, you must know the general design of the system board, the make and model of the processor on the board, and the kind of chip set that is on the board.
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chipset: The set of chips on the system board that support the CPU and other basic functions.
System boards are often described by their general physical characteristics. The original motherboard design was the AT, which was 12 inches wide. A smaller Baby AT board, 9 inches wide by 10 inches long, became popular after 1989 when the demand for small computers increased. New processor chips required a redesigned system board, and in 1996 the ATX design was introduced. This system board was 12 inches wide by 9.6 inches long, while the Baby ATX was about an inch shorter in both width and length. The ATX board design took into account the need to cool the CPU and memory chips, and the need to move highspeed components as close together as possible to reduce errors as the extremely high-speed signals move across the system board. The CPU must be mounted on a card which is inserted into a special slot on the ATX board, rather than inserted into a socket on the system board.
Processor
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The microprocessor, sometimes called just the processor or the CPU (Central Processing Unit) is the real brains of the computer where most of the calculations take place. On very large computers, the CPU may consist of many chips mounted on a series of printed circuit boards, but on personal computers, the CPU is housed in a single microprocessor chip. The microprocessor is divided into areas, the rst of which retrieves programmed instructions from the computers memory, decodes, and executes the instructions. The second area is the Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) that does the math operations when needed. The third area sends the results back out to the rest of the computer.
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Microprocessor in Zero Insertion Force Socket
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Figure 1-10: Microprocessor in Zero Insertion Force socket.
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Because system boards must be replaceable, they all come with certain standard features. Unfortunately, the standards for these features change over time. For example, the system board usually has slots that hold cards full of memory chips, rather than having the chips soldered directly to the board. You can increase the memory of your computer by replacing the memory cards with cards with more capacity. Every few years, though, a completely new style of memory card will appear that will not t into the old-style slots. At that point, you either need to buy a new system board or miss out on the advantages of the new-style memory cards.
Many companies make microprocessors for IBM-compatible personal computers (PCs), but Intel CPUs are the ones against which the other companies CPUs are compared and rated. The original IBM PCs were based on Intels 8086 CPU. Other models followed over the years, including 80286 (commonly called the 286), the 386, and the 486. Each of these processors came in a variety of congurations. Because Intel couldnt own the name 486 for a processor, it used a name it could trademark, Pentium, for its 586 processor and Pentium Pro for its 686 equivalent processor. Many of the microprocessors come in different varieties that run at various clock rates. New Intel chips can run all the programs written for earlier models, but old processors cannot run programs that make use of the special features found only in the newer processors. Cyrix and AMD are two of the companies that make Intel-compatible chips that are often less expensive than Intel and sometimes offer better performance. Intel Inside, however, is a selling point used by many computer manufacturers. Because Intel microprocessors and the Windows operating system are found together on so many machines, some people refer to those PCs as Wintel. Even though other operating systems can run on Intel processors, and some Windows operating systems run on non-Intel chips, the popularity of the combination is overwhelming.
Memory
memory: Internal storage areas of the computer.
Memory refers to the internal storage areas in the computer. In common usage, memory refers to actual chips that keep track of computer data, and not the information stored on tape or hard drives. Memory chips contain millions of transistors etched on one sliver of a semiconductor. These transistors either conduct electricity and represent the binary number 1, or dont conduct electricity and represent the binary number 0.
Typical RAM Chip
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Figure 1-11: Typical RAM chip.
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CMOS RAM is special memory that has its own battery to help it keep track of its data even when the power is turned off. CMOS memory stores information about the computer setup that the computer refers to each time it is turned on. Because you can write new information to CMOS RAM, you can store information about new disk drives that you add to your system. The computer will remember to look for the drive each time it is turned on.
In the early personal computers, you added more memory by lling empty sockets on the motherboard with more memory chips. A SIMM (Single In-line Memory Module) made adding memory easier because all the chips were soldered to a single, small, printed circuit board that you inserted into a slot on the system board of your computer. SIMMs transfer information 32 bits at a time, while DIMMs (Dual In-line Memory Modules) transfer data 64 bits at a time. Pentium processors require a 64-bit path, so you must add either two SIMMs at a time or one DIMM to a Pentium computer.
Interfaces
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An interface on a computer is a place where you can connect another device like a disk drive, keyboard, modem, or mouse. Sometimes the interface connection is built into the system board, like the mouse port and keyboard port. Sometimes the actual connector is on a printed circuit card that adapts the signals to and from the attached device so it can communicate with the computer. Modems, which are constantly improving, are generally on an interface card.
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Figure 1-12: Interface card.
ROM (Read-Only Memory) refers to special permanent memory used to store programs that boot the computer and perform diagnostics. ROM also allows the computer random access to data in its memory. More importantly, the computer cannot change any of the data stored on the ROM, so ROM is read-only memory.
SRAM: Short for Static RAM. A type of RAM that doesnt need to be refreshed.
ROM: A special type of memory that is permanent. It stores programs necessary to boot the computer and to diagnose problems.
SIMM: Short for Single In-line Memory Module. A group of memory chips that transfer information 32 bits at a time.
DIMM: Short for Dual In-line Memory Module. A group of memory chips that transfer information 64 bits at a time.
CMOS RAM: A special type of memory that stores information about the computers setup.
interface card: A means of connecting devices to the system board so that they can communicate with the microprocessor.
Interface Card
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RAM (Random Access Memory) is the main memory. The computer can both read the data stored in RAM memory and write different data into the same RAM memory. Any byte of data can be accessed without disturbing other data, so the computer has random access to the data in RAM memory. RAM memory requires a constant source of electricity to keep track of the data it is storing. If the electricity is cut off, RAM forgets everything. Because of this, RAM memory is described as volatile memory. DRAM (Dynamic RAM) is the most common type of RAM. DRAM must be refreshed thousands of times per second. SRAM (Static RAM) does not need to be refreshed. SRAM is faster, but more expensive, than DRAM, but both forms of RAM are volatile.
DRAM: Short for Dynamic RAM. A type of RAM that needs to be refreshed.
Primary System Components
Identifying System Components

1. Expansion Slots d Processor b System Board a Built-in Ports e Memory c
Identify the system components in the following illustration:
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TASK 1C-1:
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bus: The collection of wires that connect an interface card and the microprocessor, and the rules that describe how data should be transferred through the connection. Examples include ISA, EISA, and PCI.
Interface cards are inserted into a slot on the system board that connects to the microprocessor. The collection of wires that make the connection, and the rules that describe how the data should ow through the wires, is called a bus. The ISA (Industry Standard Architecture) bus connects to ISA slots that accept only ISA cards. The ISA slots were used on early IBM computers and became the industry standard. As computers became faster, they needed buses that could transfer more data, more quickly, than the ISA bus could handle. The PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect) local bus solved this problem, although only new PCI cards could be used in the PCI slots on the system board. Most computers have a combination of ISA and PCI slots on the system board.
Topic 1D
Software and Firmware
software: A set of electronic instructions for processing data.
Figure 1-13: Floppy disks.
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Software is divided into two categories that sometimes overlapsystem software and application software. As usual, experts will disagree on the details, but the following sections give you a good way to think about software.
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When you buy a program like MS Office, the disks it comes on are considered hardware, but the program code stored on the disk is software. Software is written in computer languages like Visual BASIC, C++, Cobol, assembler, and machine language. Unless the program is written in a machine language that the microprocessor can understand, the program must be translated into machine language before it can be used. This translation is also done by software in the machine.
Software
Floppy Disks
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Software is a set of electronic instructions for the computer that tell the hardware how to process data. Software that performs a particular task is called a program. The line between software and hardware is fuzzy when a computer program, which is software, is permanently stored in the electronic circuits of a computer chip, which is hardware. As a compromise, programs on chips are called rmware.
System Software
System software is the low-level program that interacts with the computer at a very basic level. An OS (operating system) is a type of system software found on every personal computer. The operating system is the most important software that runs on the computer, because it is the master control program that determines what the computer will do and how it will do it. Examples of popular operating systems include Windows 2000, Windows NT, UNIX, Macintosh OS, IBM OS/2, DOS, and Linux. A computers OS performs many functions. For example, it recognizes input from the keyboard and mouse, sends output to the display screen, keeps track of les and directories on the disk, and controls peripheral devices such as disk drives, CD-ROM drives, and printers. Some operating systems allow more than one user to use the computer at a time, and more than one application to run on the computer at a time. Multi-user operating systems keep users from interfering with each other, and provide security for their work. Multi-user operating systems can also keep track of who uses the computer and determine which programs they can run and which data they can access.
GUI: A graphical user interface is a means of communicating with an operating system by using a mouse or other device to work with pictorial screen elements, instead of typing text commands at the keyboard.
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Application Software
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Application Software
Application software is a program designed to help the end-user accomplish a task. An application sits on top of the operating system and uses the operating system to communicate with the computer hardware. The following list shows some of the categories of application software and example applications: Database management systemsMicrosoft Access, dBASE, FileMaker Pro, Paradox Word processingMicrosoft Word, Corel WordPerfect SpreadsheetMicrosoft Excel, Lotus 1-2-3, Quattro Pro Presentation graphicsAstound, Harvard Graphics, Microsoft Powerpoint Communications and emailMicrosoft Outlook, Eudora Desktop publishingPageMaker, Quark, Publisher Project managementMicrosoft Project, Milestones, Delegator GraphicsPhotoShop, CorelDraw, Illustrator Contact managerACT Authoring programsMacromedia Director, Visual Basic Games and educationFlight Simulator, Reader Rabbit
application software: High-level programs that are written to run on specic operating systems and that provide specic functionality such as word processing, graphics creation, or database management.
Operating systems have one to two types of interfaces for interacting with users. Operating systems like DOS and UNIX are command-driven interfaces where users type commands in by hand from the keyboard. Operating systems like Windows and the Mac OS are GUIs (graphical user interfaces). In a GUI, the user uses a mouse to point, click, and drag graphics on the screen. The early Windows programs were DOS programs that translated clicks into DOS commands that were sent to DOS, which actually still had complete control of the computer. Newer versions of Windows are complete operating systems that bypass DOS.
Operating Systems
Operating systems are a common base for application software. Applications like word processing and graphics programs are written for specic operating systems, not make and model of each computer. The applications communicate with the computer through the operating system. For this reason, Macintosh programs cannot be run on a straight Windows machine, and Windows programs will not run on a pure Linux machine. The operating system does all the hardware communication for the application.
OS: An operating system is a type of system software that provides the basic interface between the user and the computer components.
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system software: Low-level programs that provide the most basic functionality, such as operating systems.
Web browserNetscape Navigator, Internet Explorer Anti-virus softwareNorton, McAfee Accounting and business managementPeachtree, Quicken, QuickBooks, Microsoft Money Flow charts and diagramsVisio, Corel Flow Speech recognitionIBM ViaVoice, Dragon NaturallySpeaking, Voice Xpress, FreeSpeech
Driver Software
Updating drivers is the solution to many computer problems. Old drivers may not work correctly with new versions of the operating system. Sometimes drivers contain bugs that dont affect performance until the right combination of events occurs, and then the peripheral stops working. Sometimes a new driver will add features and improve performance. Updated drivers can be downloaded from the peripheral vendors site on the Internet, or from sites that are dedicated to making drivers available. Driver updates are free and usually come with installation instructions or programs that automatically install them.
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Driver software is often called a device driver or just a driver. A driver is considered part of the system software by some experts. A driver is a program that lets the operating system and a peripheral device talk to each other. The driver takes generalized commands from the system software or applicationlike Print This Pageand translates them into unique programming commands that the device can understand. When you install a new CD-ROM drive, printer, disk drive, or any other peripheral, part of the installation process is setting up a driver and letting the operating system know to use the driver to make the peripheral function as needed. New operating systems include thousands of drivers that let them work with all current, popular devices. Peripherals that are designed after the operating system comes out have to supply their own drivers on a CD-ROM or oppy disk, or else the device will not function with that operating system.
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driver: Software that enables the operating system and a peripheral device to communicate with each other. Also referred to as device driver. Internet sources for updated drivers include www.drivershq.com/.
Sometimes several programs are bundled together and sold as a suite. Examples of bundled programs are Microsoft Office and Corel WordPerfect Suite. When several applications are combined into a single program, like Microsoft Works or ClarisWorks, the package is called integrated software. Utilities that perform a function for the computer, like disk compression or virus protection, are sometimes listed separately from applications. Computer languages may also be given their own software category. There is no right or wrong way to categorize software.
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Identifying the Role of Software

1. What role does application software play in the function of a microcomputer? Application software enables users to complete specic kinds of tasksfor example, writing a memo, developing a budget, or maintaining a mailing list.
TASK 1D-1:
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What role does operating system software play in the function of a microcomputer? Operating systems perform basic tasks, such as recognizing input from the keyboard, sending output to the display screen, keeping track of les and directories on the disk, and controlling peripheral devices, such as disk drives and printers.
Driver software enables the operating system and applications software to communicate with the hardware; for example, a printer driver enables you to print your word-processing document.
Firmware
Typical ROM Chip
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Figure 1-14: Typical ROM chip.
ROM
As you learned earlier, ROM is memory that can be read but not changed. ROM is non-volatile because its contents stay unchanged even when the power is turned off. ROMs store the rmware that is essential for a computer to have access to when the power is rst turned on. The rmware in ROM is usually specic for the hardware on the system board, which will not change. The program in the ROM chip is manufactured into the chip, not added later, so ROM chips are usually mass produced. Other types of chips are non-volatile like ROMs, but use a slightly different technology to make them more economical to use if the rmware is needed in small quantities.
rmware: Software stored in memory chips that retain data whether or not power to the computer is on.
Firmware is software that is stored in memory chips that retain their data even when the power is turned off. Firmware can be stored in ROM (Read-Only Memory) chips, as well as several other types of chips. Programs stored on a ROM chip cannot be changed, so if they become outdated, the whole chip must be replaced. Usually the only programs stored in ROM are those that will not become outdated as long as you use the same system board. Firmware is usually a small program that knows how to read a small part of the hard drive into memory. The program that the rmware reads into memory from the hard drive then instructs the computer on how to load the operating system.
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What role does driver software play in the function of a microcomputer?
PROM
PROM (Programmable Read-Only Memory) is a memory chip that can be programmed only once by a user who has access to the right equipment. Once it is programmed, the PROM chip behaves just like a ROM chip. The difference is that the ROM chips have the program etched into the silicon chip by the manufacturer, while the PROM chip can have a program added later. A PROM chip is programmed by applying high voltages that permanently alter the circuits so they store the desired program. The voltages are higher than those used in the computer, so the program remains on the chip. PROMs are used to test programs before the nal ROM chip is designed and manufactured.
EPROM
EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory) is a re-usable memory chip that can be programmed electrically and erased by exposure to ultraviolet light. Once the EPROM is programmed, it behaves just like a ROM chip. However, if ultraviolet light is shined through a crystal window over the silicon chip on the integrated circuit package, it will erase the program; the user can then store a different program on the same chip. When the chip is in use, the crystal window is always covered to prevent unwanted ultraviolet light from destroying the program on it.
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Figure 1-15: An EPROM memory chip.
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EEPROM
EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory) is a memory chip that can be recorded or erased electrically, but that does not lose its content when electrical power is removed. Once it is programmed, the EEPROM behaves just like a ROM chip. Instead of using ultraviolet light like the EPROM, the EEPROM is erased by using an electrical charge.
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EPROM: Stands for Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory. A re-usable memory chip that is programmed electrically and erased by exposure to ultraviolet light. When the EPROM is programmed, it acts like a regular ROM chip.
An EPROM Memory Chip
EEPROM: Stands for Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory. A memory chip that is programmed and erased electrically. When the EEPROM is programmed, it acts like a regular ROM chip.
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PROM: Stands for Programmable Read-Only Memory. A memory chip that can be programmed once. After its programmed, it acts like a regular ROM chip.
TASK 1D-2:
Defining Terms Related to Read-only Memory
1. Provide a concise denition for each of the following terms: Type of Read-Only Memory
ROM PROM EPROM
Denition
2.
What is the purpose of the crystal window in the EPROM chip? High-intensity ultraviolet that is shined through the window clears the memory of the chip so that it may be programmed again.
Topic 1E
Tools of the Trade
Having the right tool will save you time, trouble, and expense, but you wont usually know what you need until you get to the site. A good collection of software and hardware tools (kept ready to use) will make your life much easier.
Hardware Tools
Hardware Tools
Basic Toolkit
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The hardware tools you need depend on the type of repairs you will perform. You can install a hard drive using just a screwdriver. Installing a network, on the other hand, requires a set of specialized tools, while replacing a chip or broken contact on a circuit board requires a different set of tools. No matter what you need to repair, you must make sure you do not inict other damage to the computer during the process.
Basic Toolkit
You can purchase toolkits that contain the basic items you need for most computer work. Most kits will contain the following items and cost under $20: Straight-head screwdriver (large and small) Phillips-head screwdriver (large and small) Tweezers Chip extractor Torque driver Nut driver (large and small) Three-claw component holder Tube to hold screws and small parts Digital multimeter
A memory chip whose contents can only be read, not written. A memory chip that can be programmed only once. A memory chip that can be programmed, erased, and then programmed again.
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The tools in a kit like this will help you get the cover off the computer, replace interface cards, install disk drives, upgrade memory, and most other common chores. The following tools prove useful in many situations: Flashlight Small mirror Small dust brush Long-nosed pliers Wire cutters Chip inserter/pin straightener Cable ties Paper and pencil for notes Utility knife Scissors Hex wrench set Mini-vacuum cleaner Mini-hammer Adjustable wrench Sealable baggies Compressed air
Additional Tools
Network Toolkit
Specialized tools, in addition to those listed previously, are needed to make and install network cables. Kits containing these tools are available, but the prices vary widely depending on the quality of the tools. Cable crimper with dies for a variety of cable styles Wire stripper for at and coax cable Precision wire cutters Curved forceps Multi-network LAN cable tester Digital multimeter
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Static electricity on your body, that you cannot see or feel, can permanently destroy computer chips. To discharge static electricity from your body, you should wear a grounded wrist strap so the electricity ows safely from your body to the earth, instead of through the computer. A large, at, ground mat is needed if you remove parts from the computer and need to place them down somewhere. The ground mat discharges any static from the parts and prevents static from outside sources from hurting the parts. If you repair a broken network card, but zap the microprocessor into oblivion during the process, no one will be pleased.
Many technicians survive very happily without all these tools, but these tools can make your life much easier if they are available when you really need them.
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ESD Kit Network Tools A Typical Technicians Toolkit.
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Figure 1-16: A typical technicians toolkit.
Circuit Board Repair Kit
Circuit Board Repair Kit
Usually circuit boards are replaced, not repaired. Sometimes an obviously loose connection can be xed, or a jack with a broken pin can be replaced. Work in this area requires these tools: 30w ceramic solder iron Desoldering pump Solder iron stand with sponge Solder Miniature pliers and wire cutters Heat sink
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Before you spend hundreds of dollars on tools, wait until you know the type of work you will be expected to do and see what tools will be made available to you.
Desoldering braid
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TASK 1E-1:
Identifying Tools Needed for Servicing Microcomputers
1. Develop a list of hardware tools you and your lab partners feel are needed for basic computer maintenance. Name of Tool
Answers will vary. Answers will vary. Answers will vary. Answers will vary.
Purpose of Tool
Answers will vary. Answers will vary. Answers will vary. Answers will vary.
2.
Search the Internet for sources of computer repair tools and kits. Compare the prices and quality of the tools you nd.
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All of these programs make the huge assumption that your computer is working well enough to run the software. If the computer will not start up or read from the hard drive, all the diagnostic software on the hard drive, CD-ROMs, and the Internet is useless. The solution is to have a bootable oppy disk that will start the computer independently of the hard drive. The disk must have the basic system les to get the computer up and running. Again, the assumption is that the computer is working enough to boot from a oppy disk. The oppy disk can hold a basic set of diagnostic programs to help detect where the problem is.
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The McAfee.com Clinic offers most of the same features over the Internet, so you dont need to load up your computer with resident software. Windows comes with its own set of diagnostic tools which may detect problems. Utilities will be covered in detail in later lessons.
Norton SystemWorks includes software that detects, repairs, and prevents hardware and software problems. Other programs in the system detect and remove viruses, detect and remove un-needed programs and les, protect your computer against system crashes and screen freezes, and even back up or clone entire systems.
Many companies produce software to diagnose and, if possible, repair software problems and optimize software settings. Most computer stores will have an aisle dedicated to utility software.
Software Tools
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If you prefer to send students directly to a site, www.elexp.com/ and www.tecratools.com/ provide a variety of tools and information. Software Tools
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TASK 1E-2:
Creating a Windows 98 Startup Disk
Setup: Windows 98 SE is already installed, and a blank 1.44 MB oppy disk is available.
2.
Windows 2000 provides a wizard for creating an Emergency Repair Disk (ERD) in the Backup System Tools in the Accessory folder.
Select the Startup Disk tab. Click Create Disk.
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When prompted, insert a blank 1.44 MB oppy disk into Drive A. If youre prompted for the Windows 98 CD-ROM, insert the CD-ROM, or locate the Windows 98 setup les on your C drive. Click OK. Windows 98 starts creating the Startup Disk. This process may take a few minutes. 4. Click OK and close the Control Panel.
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In Control Panel, double-click on Add/Remove Programs.
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Use Windows Explorer or My Computer to view the les on the oppy disk. 6. Restart your computer, leaving the oppy disk in the disk drive. What happens rst during the boot-up process?
You are presented with a menu that offers you a series of choices.
Multi-cong start menu, real-mode CD-ROM drivers, EBD.CAB le, RAM drive, Windows 98 startup problems list, and using the tools available on the startup disk section are new. 9. Remove the oppy disk and use [Ctrl][Alt][Delete] to reboot the system. What happens during the boot process?
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The computer starts up using les from the hard disk, and the machine boots into Windows.
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What are some of the options found on the Windows 98 startup disk?
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When the A:\> prompt appears, type HELP and press [Enter] as directed. Review the README.TXT le that appears.
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Use the Down Arrow on the keyboard to highlight the second option to start the computer without CD-ROM support and press the [Enter] key. Read the text that appears on the screen.
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Summary
In this lesson, you identied key persons and key technologies that contributed to the development of the modern-day personal computer. You also reviewed the mathematical basis for number systems and converted values between decimal, binary, and hexadecimal systems. You identied the basic system components and described the function of each. You studied the function of software and rmware as they relate to hardware. Finally, you identied the hardware and software tools needed to service and maintain a microcomputer.
Lesson Review
1A How did the following individuals or inventions contribute to the development of computers? 1. Pascal 2. Babbage 3. ENIAC 4. Transistor 5. Microprocessor 1. Pascal constructed one of the rst mechanical adding machines in France during the 1600s. 2. Babbage was an English inventor who, in the 1800s, rst designed a Difference Engine to produce mathematical tables, and later designed the Analytical Engine as an all-purpose mechanical calculator. 3. ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer) was the rst all-purpose electronic digital computer. It used 18,000 vacuum tubes and was completed in 1946 at the University of Pennsylvania. 4. Transistor is a semiconductor device that controls the ow of electric current. Microprocessors contain tens of millions of microscopic transistors. 5. Microprocessor is a silicon chip that contains a CPU (Central Processing Unit) that is the heart of all personal computers. 1B Convert the decimal number 221 to binary and check your answer.
221 (base 10) = 1*128 + 1*64 + 0*32 + 1*16 + 1*8 + 1*4 + 0*2 + 1 = 1101 1101 binary. As a check, 1101 1101 binary = 1*128 + 1*64 + 0*32 + 1*16 + 1*8 + 1*4 + 0*2 + 1 = 221 (base 10).
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1C What are the relationships among the system board, microprocessor, memory, and interfaces?
Answers will vary, but might include: The system board contains a socket or a slot for the microprocessor and slots for memory and interfaces. The system board provides the electrical connections for these components. Interfaces extend the capabilities of the computer system beyond those built into the system board.
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1D Several years ago, a manufacturer made a computer that had the operating system and applications on a ROM on the system board. It was ready to use the second it was turned on, and you had no extra expense for software. What disadvantages can you see in this approach?
Answers will vary but might include: It was impossible to upgrade the operating system and diffcult to add peripherals. The built-in software could not be upgraded.
1E Why must a computer repair technician be aware of changes to computer design and updates to software?
New computer designs might require special tools for removing components, so you need to obtain the right tools for the job. New operating systems might require updated debugging software and rescue disks.
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Safety
Overview
Being a computer technician is a safe and rewarding job, but you must learn and follow safety guidelines to protect yourself and the equipment from avoidable damage. While many workplace rules and policies may seem arbitrary and pointless, the following suggestions are made with the intent of keeping you alive and safe, and preventing you from doing more damage to the equipment you are trying to learn about and repair. In your profession, you will encounter computer users who have established some unhealthy work habits. You will be able to suggest healthy modications to work practices and environments.
LESSON
2
Data Files none
Because safe and healthy work habits play such an import role in your work, you will: 2A Discuss the fundamentals of electricity, how to perform electrical measurements using a multimeter, and how to create an environment free of electrostatic discharge. First, you will learn the basics of electrical current circuits and how to measure them. Then you will explore static electricity and learn how to protect computer equipment from electrostatic discharges. 2B Identify safety issues related to servicing microcomputers and using them for extended periods of time. The health and safety of you and those around you are your rst priority and your responsibility. You will learn the potential hazards of servicing PCs and then the potential hazards of using them. 2C Identify re prevention practices, re extinguisher classications, and re emergency procedures. You will discuss re prevention. Next, you will investigate types of re extinguishers and their extinguishing agents. Then you will review some re emergency procedures. Identify computer equipment disposal procedures that comply with environmental guidelines. Disposal of obsolete computer components must follow state and federal environmental regulations. In this topic, you will deal with the disposal, reclamation, re-use, and recycling of computer equipment.
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Objectives
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Lesson 2: Safety 39
Lesson Time 2 hours
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Topic 2A
Basics of Electricity and Electronics
Electrical Terms
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current: The amount of electricity moving through a conductive material such as a wire. Current is measured in amperes (amps).
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Voltage is usually determined by the power supply and is not something under your control. You can detect if a wire is connected to a +12 V or -5 V source, but you cannot bring the ve volts down to three volts easily.
Current
Amperes measure the electric current in a circuit; the more electrons that ow past a given point in a second, the higher the current. The electronics in the computer usually have electric current in the milli-ampere (1/1,000 of an ampere) or micro-ampere (1/1,000,000 of an ampere) range. A bright light bulb has a current of one ampere, and an electric room heater might have a current of 10 amperes. Electrons carry energy, so an increase in current means an increase in available energy. There are two major types of electric current: The current in computers is direct current (DC). The voltage output from a power supply remains constant at -12 V, for example, so electrons always ow away from the output, never toward it.
voltage: Electric potential or potential difference, expressed in volts.
The power supply in the computer converts the 120 volts from the electric outlet down to 12 volts or less for the computer. A standard computer power supply puts out several voltages in this range, including, +12 volts, -12 volts, +5 volts, -5 volts, and zero volts. A negative voltage means the power supply is pushing electrons out, while a positive voltage means the supply is drawing electrons in. Zero volts is referred to as neutral or ground, and is used as a basis for measuring the other voltages.
electrons: Negatively charged subatomic particles that carry energy with them when they move from one place to another.
Voltage
Voltage works like the push or force behind the ow of electricity. A group of electrons from a high-voltage source has more energy and can do more work (and damage) than a similarly sized group of electrons from a low-voltage source. Computers work with voltages in the range of 12 volts (V) and lower. This voltage level is usually harmless for humans. Household electricity is enough to kill humans and completely destroy computers.
electricity: The ow of electrons through a material or through a vacuum.
Electricity is the ow of electrons through a material or through a vacuum. Electrons are negatively charged sub-atomic particles that carry energy with them when they move from one place to another, so the ow of electricity is really the movement of energy. Computer systems use electric energy to turn the cooling fan on and control the microprocessors, memory chips, disk drives, LED lights, video monitors, printers, speakers, and just about everything else. Computer hardware is designed to distribute the correct electricity to exactly the right place at the right time. You must understand electricity to understand how computers work and why they sometimes fail.
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Computers depend on electricity to function, but this same electricity can pose a threat to your safety, as well as cause damage to the components in the computer. Learning to handle electricity safely will make your computer work less stressful and more productive.
The current in a wall outlet is alternating current (AC). The voltage in the wall outlet varies from +120 V to -120 V and back to +120 V sixty times a second. Electrons zoom back and forth through the wires, changing direction 120 times a second.
The power supply in a computer not only reduces the voltage of the electricity it receives from the wall outlet, but also changes it from alternating current to direct current.
Electric Energy
The total amount of electric energy that a ow of electrons delivers depends on both voltage pushing the electrons and the total number of electrons that move by a point. A high voltage pushing a high number of electrons supplies a great deal of energy. A low voltage pushing a small number of electrons delivers a small amount of total energy. The total energy delivered can be spread over a long or short period of time.
Electrical Power
Resistance
If resistance remains the same in a material, higher voltages will produce higher currents, and the power will go up. If the resistance remains the same, lower voltages will produce a lower current and the power goes down. If the voltage source remains constant, which is the case in most computer circuits, higher resistances decrease current, and lower resistances increase current. A volume control on a radio is a variable resistor that decreases in resistance as you turn the volume up so more current carrying more energy can get to the speaker and make more noise. A switch is a variable resistor that has zero resistance in the ON position, and innite resistance in the OFF position.
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Resistance is the opposition to the ow of electric current through a material. Insulators like rubber and plastic have a very high resistance. Conductors like copper and silver have very low resistance. Resistance is measured in ohms. Electricians use the Greek letter Omega () as a symbol for ohms. Ohms Law states that you can compute resistance (R) in a circuit by dividing the voltage (V) by the current in amperes (I). Ohms law may be written three ways: R=V/I, V=I*R, and I=V/R. All three equations are the same law, but rewritten to make it easier to calculate one of the values.
Electrical power describes the energy delivered by a ow of electrons in one second. You can calculate the power delivered by a ow of electrons by multiplying the voltage times the current. The product is power and is measured in watts (W). A light bulb connected to 120 V that has 0.5 amps owing through it uses 60 watts of power. An LED connected to a 2 V source with a current of 10 milliampere uses 20 milli-watts of power. A power supply rated at 500 W can deliver twice the electrical energy per second as a 250 W power supply.
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electrical power: The energy delivered by a ow of electrons. Power is the mathematical product of voltage and current and is measured in watts. resistance: The opposition to the ow of electric current through a material. Resistance is calculated by dividing the voltage by the current and is measured in ohms ().
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Lesson 2: Safety 41
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Voltage
Volt
Current
Ampere
Applying Ohms Law

Summary of Electrical Terms
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If voltage is increased and resistance remains the same, will the current increase, decrease, or remain the same? Current will increase.
2.
If voltage remains the same and resistance is increased, will the current increase, decrease, or remain the same? Current will decrease. If voltage is doubled and resistance is doubled, will the current increase, decrease, or remain the same? Current will remain the same.
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semiconductor: A solid-state substance that can be electrically altered. Certain elements in nature, such as silicon, perform like semiconductors when chemically combined with other elements. A semiconductor is halfway between a conductor and an insulator.
Resistance Power
Ohm Watt
TASK 2A-1:
Push behind electrons; indicates the energy of the electrons. Indication of the number of electrons per second owing past a point. Opposition to the ow of electrons. Energy per second delivered by electric current.
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transistor: A device used to amplify a signal or open and close a circuit. In a computer, it functions as an electronic switch, or bridge. The transistor contains a semiconductor material that can change its electrical state when pulsed.
A transistor is an electrically controlled switch that either conducts electricity or does not conduct electricity, depending on a weak electrical signal sent to control it. Because the transistor can switch from a conductor to an insulator, it is called a semiconductor. Millions of microscopic transistors with connecting conductors and resistors are made on a single silicon chip that is used in RAM and other integrated circuits found in the computer. Term Symbol Unit Measures
Measuring Electricity
A multimeter is an electronic instrument used to measure voltage, current, and resistance. It usually has two wires, one red and one black, that are plugged into two sockets on the meter. Which socket you use will be determined by what you want to measure. Older meters have a thin needle that swings in an arc and points to a number that indicates the value of what you are measuring. Newer digital meters have a little screen that displays the numeric value of what you are measuring.
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Figure 2-1: Digital multimeter.
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Analog Multimeter
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Figure 2-2: Analog multimeter.
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Lesson 2: Safety 43
multimeter: Electronic test equipment that can perform multiple tasks. Typically one capable of measuring voltage, current, and resistance. More sophisticated modern digital multimeters also measure capacitance, inductance, current gain of transistors, and anything else that can be measured electronically.
Digital Multimeter
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Measuring Voltage
Voltage measurement indicates the difference in energy that electrons have between two places. Electrons on a grounded material have zero voltage because there are no forces trying to push them off or pull them onto the grounded item. The black wire from the multimeter is usually connected to a ground. In a computer, the metal case is an electric ground. Before you touch the red probe to anything, you need to adjust the meter to the approximate voltage you expect to nd. This may be done by turning a large, rotary switch, or plugging the red probe into a special socket on the meter. If the meter is expecting to measure 2 V, and you touch a 120 V source, the extra voltage can damage the components in the meter. It is better to overestimate the voltage and reduce the settings later than underestimate the voltage and destroy the meter. Higher-end digital meters automatically detect the range for you.
Measuring Resistance
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A multimeter measures resistance by applying a small voltage to a material and seeing how much current ows through material. A material with a high resistance will let very little current ow, while a material with low resistance will let more current ow. The voltage the meter applies is small, but even a small voltage can damage electronic chips. You measure the resistances of cables and wires and connections, not the resistances between pins on a chip. If you try to measure the resistance of a component in a live circuit, the voltage in the circuit may be enough to damage the multimeter. A good conductor will have close to 0 resistance, while a wire with a break in it will have more than 100,000 resistance. Resistance is measured most often to determine if the ends of a cable are making a good connection through the wire, and if a switch is really turning on and off.
Measuring Current
Current is rarely measured because you have to break the circuit and place the meter between the two ends of the break. This step is usually more destructive than the results are useful.
What to Measure
The most common things to measure include the output voltage of the power supply. If the computer is not receiving the correct voltages from the power supply, the components will not work correctly. Another place where voltage measurements are important is at the connectors that plug into disk and CD-ROM drives. These drives need the proper voltage to function. Resistance measurements tell if a wire has a break in it, or if a connection between a socket and the system board is good. Many network problems are the result of poorly installed plugs on the ends of network cables, and resistance measurements determine if plugs are properly installed.
If you are measuring direct current voltages, the black wire goes to the source of the electrons in the current, and the red wire goes to the destination for the electrons. If a wire has a +5 V applied to it, you would touch the red probe to the wire, and the black probe to ground (which has 0 V) because a positive voltage means the wire is drawing in electrons from the ground. If a wire has -5 V applied to it, you would touch the black probe to the wire because it is the source of the electrons, and the red wire to the ground because the ground is absorbing the electrons. Some digital multimeters automatically make this adjustment for you.
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TASK 2A-2:
Testing a Wall Outlet
Setup: The voltage in a wall outlet is enough to kill you under certain conditions. Part of this task is to learn what those conditions are, and then avoid them. You will use a multimeter with two insulated probes to measure the voltage in a wall outlet.
If you dont feel comfortable performing this task, simply review the steps. If you do perform the task, make sure you follow all of the steps carefully to avoid injury.
1.
If needed, set the meter to read alternating current voltage (VAC) with a maximum reading above 120 V. Trying to measure voltage this high with the wrong settings can permanently damage your meter.
Wall Outlet Wiring
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Being very careful to touch only the insulated handles on the probes, measure the voltage between the center round contact and the shorter slit in the outlet. Place the black probe in the center round contact and the red probe in the shorter, thin slit. Record your result and compare it to your lab partners. The expected result is 120 VAC, but local conditions may cause variations. Being very careful to touch only the insulated handles on the probes, measure the voltage between the shorter slit and the longer slit in the outlet. Place the black probe in the longer, thin slit and the red probe in the shorter, thin slit.
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Being very careful to touch only the insulated handles on the probes, measure the voltage between the center round contact and the contact behind the longer slit in the outlet. Place the black probe in the center round contact and the red probe in the longer, thin slit. If the reading is not 0 V, stop the task and consult with your instructor.
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Being very careful to touch only the insulated handles on the probes, measure the voltage between the screw that holds the plate covering the electric outlet in place and the center round contact. Place the black probe in the center round contact and the red probe on the cover plate screw. If the reading is not 0 V, stop the task and consult with your instructor.
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In the wall outlet wiring diagram, the black wire (load) that connects to the short slit is hot (120 VAC). The white wire (neutral) that connects to the long slit and the bare copper wire (ground) that connects to the round contact go back and join to a common ground in the circuit breaker box. The cover screw is in direct electrical contact with the bare copper wire if the outlet is wired properly.
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Lesson 2: Safety 45
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Record your result and compare it to your lab partners. The expected result is 120 VAC, but local conditions may cause variations. The shorter, thin slit is the only hot (120 VAC) contact in the outlet. 6. Being very careful to touch only the insulated handles on the probes, measure the resistance when the two probes are in solid contact with each other. If needed, adjust the reading to zero ohms on the most sensitive scale. Being very careful to touch only the insulated handles on the probes, measure the resistance between the screw that holds the plate covering the electric outlet in place and the center round contact. Place the black probe in the center round contact and the red probe on the screw. Record your result and compare it to your lab partners.
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8.
Record your results and compare it to your lab partners.
9.
Wet two ngers on one hand and place one of the probes on each nger so you are measuring the resistance between the two nger tips. Record your results and compare it to your lab partners.
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ESD: Electrostatic discharge is sparks (electrons) that jump from an electrically charged object to an approaching conductive object.
static electricity: A stationary electrical charge that is the result of intentional charging or of friction in low-humidity environments.
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Results will vary with body chemistry, but a measurable resistance should be detected. This shows that the human body is an electrical conductor.
Understanding Static Electricity

To control the damage done by an ESD (electrostatic discharge), you need to know what static electricity is, how it is created, how it causes damage, and how to eliminate it from the workplace. Lightning is the most visible form of ESD, but static events on a smaller scale occur constantly. These include static cling in your clothes, dust build-up on monitor screens, Styrofoam packing peanuts that stick to objects, and shocks when you touch a doorknob or groom a pet.
Static Electricity
Static electricity causes terrible damage to computer parts. Air is an excellent insulator, and electricity will not ow through air unless there is a very high voltage in the 10,000 V range. This high voltage commonly occurs when you walk across a rug and gather a huge number of electrons on your body that repel each other. When the electrons on your ngertip have enough other electrons repelling them, they will jump, or arc, through the air to another object that doesnt repel them as much. The jumping electrons are the static electric spark you feel on dry winter days when you touch a doorknob.
The expected result is an innite resistance for all measurements. Air has a higher resistance than normal multimeters can detect.
Being very careful to touch only the insulated handles on the probes, measure the resistance between one inch of air, one-half inch of air, and the smallest distance you can hold the probes without having them make contact.
The expected result is close to zero ohms, and less sensitive meters may not detect any resistance.
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Creating Static Electricity
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The number of electrons transferred when triboelectric generation occurs depends on the type of materials that are rubbed together, or even pulled apart to separate them, how big their surfaces are, the humidity of the air, and the texture of the materials. Anti-static materials naturally generate little static electricity, or are specially manufactured to avoid the creation of static electricity. Once the electrons are transferred from one object to another, they remain on the negatively charged object until they discover a path to escape from it. Because they remain still, the electrons form static electricity, or electricity that does not move.
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Electrons have a negative charge, protons have a positive charge, and usually the number of protons and electrons in a material is equal, and the electric charges balance. Rubbing two surfaces together can transfer electrons from one material to another, creating a negative charge on the object with extra electrons, and a positive charge on the object that is missing electrons. Electrons repel each other because they have the same charge, and are attracted to the positively charged material. If they can possibly move from a negatively charged object to a positively charged object, or even to a less negatively charged object, they will do so. This imbalance of electrons is an electrostatic charge, and the process of using friction to create the charge is triboelectric generation. People intentionally use triboelectric generation to create an ESD event when they rub a balloon on their hair and then use the static charge to stick the balloon on the ceiling, or when they shuffle their feet across a thick rug and touch a friend to surprise them with a shock.
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triboelectric generation: The use of friction between different materials to generate an electrostatic charge on the materials.
A transistor on an integrated circuit chip is microscopic in size. Static electricity, even though it wont kill you, has enough energy to destroy the transistor. Because transistors dont grow back once they are destroyed by static electricity, they stay destroyed, and all the circuits that depended on them are useless. Even small amounts of static electricity that humans are insensitive to have enough energy to destroy chips in a computer. To prevent the build-up of potentially damaging static electricity on their bodies, computer technicians usually wear a conducting band around their wrist with a wire that goes from the band to a ground. A ground connection is a location that can easily absorb all the extra electrons that may be gathering on your body. Usually a ground connection is connected to the earth, which has plenty of room for all the extra electrons you could ever scrape off a rug. A ground connection provides a safe, harmless path for the static electricity that tries to build up on your body.
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Lesson 2: Safety 47
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If 120 V can kill you, why does a spark of 20,000 V just startle you? The total energy carried by electricity depends on both the voltage and the number of electrons. Compared to the electric current in the wires in your home, a tiny number of electrons is involved in a static electric spark. All the energy of all the electrons in a spark added together cannot hurt you, even though it may surprise you. Each electron in a static discharge has extremely high energy, but the human body is just too big for the very small number of electrons involved in the spark to cause widespread damage. A few cells in your ngertip may be wiped out, but they easily grow back.
A conductor is a material like copper that lets electrons move freely through it. An insulator is a material like rubber that does not allow the ow of electrons through it. Almost any material can conduct some electricity if the voltage is high enough, so the division between conductors and insulators is not razor-sharp. Electrons ow from high voltage to low voltage following the path of least resistance, and conductors have the least resistance. An object grounded to the earth has zero volts, so the path of least resistance to a low voltage would be a path through a conductor to a ground. Electrons can move off the negatively charged object all at once in a spark through the air. Air has a very high resistance to electron ow, and sparks only occur when voltages are very high and no other path to the ground with lower resistance is available. If the spark is above 6,000 V, you can see it, and if it is more than 3,000 V, you can still feel it. Below 3,000 V, humans cannot see or feel the discharge, but voltages as low as 10 V can destroy some chips. ESD is an invisible, almost undetectable, enemy of integrated circuits.
Using the same reasoning, an insulator can build up an electrostatic charge. If there is no path for the excess electrons to escape from the insulator, they will remain on the insulator. Air will be a path only if the voltage is in the thousands of volts range. If the charged insulator is connected to a ground, the extra electrons cannot ow off the charged insulator. The electrons cannot move through the insulator to get to the connection that leads to the ground. Electrically charged insulators can lose their extra electrons if they are absorbed by electrically charged ion molecules and atoms that move naturally through the air. To speed up the discharge of insulators, you can use a device that generates extra ions in the air. A dissipative material falls between a good conductor and a good insulator. A dissipative material allows electrons to ow through it, but has enough resistance to electric current ow to keep the current low. A grounded dissipative object will lose its charge over a period of time, rather than all at oncethe way a conductor would. Dissipative materials are better to use near electrostatic-sensitive parts because they get rid of static charge using currents too small to damage chips. For example, walking across a oor and touching a grounded conductor will give you a shock because all the extra electrons ow off your body in a fraction of a second. Touching a grounded dissipative object will discharge the extra electrons from your body slowly so the electron ow is spread over time and you dont feel any shock. Studies estimate that the cost of ESD damage in the electronics industry is $5 billion a year. This includes the cost of repairing or replacing the ESD-damaged equipment. Many companies have an ESD safety program to cut down on the losses and damage associated with ESD. The programs try to reduce the initial
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A conductor can build up an electrostatic charge. If there is no path for the excess electrons to escape from the conductor, they will remain on the conductor. Air will be a path only if the voltage is in the thousands of volts range. If the charged conductor is connected to a ground, the extra electrons can quickly ow off the charged conductor and be absorbed by the ground. The earth can absorb an unlimited number of electrons. If the conductor is connected through an integrated circuit to the ground, all the extra electrons will immediately ow through the circuit. These extra electrons may have enough energy to damage the microscopic electronics on the chip. Often the damage only weakens the chip. The weakened chip will function for a while, but can experience a latent failure after it has passed the initial quality control tests.
Preventing ESD
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Designing an ESD-safe Workstation

Carts rolling across the oor and people walking from one computer repair workstation to another create electric charge through tribocharging. To avoid the build-up of charges, the oor can be of anti-static material that does not contribute to the build-up of electric charges. The oor can be made of a conductive material connected to a ground that will carry any charge safely away from sensitive parts. If workers wear a foot-grounder on each foot, any electric charge they start to build up on their body will be conducted through the foot grounder to the grounded oor and carried safely away. Movable carts may drag a small chain that connects them to the grounded oor. Wood, plastic, vinyl, and nylon should not be present in an ESD-safe workstation because they create static electricity more easily than other materials.
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ESD-safe Work Area
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Figure 2-3: Grounded work surface and oor mat with details of ground connection. Work surfaces in a workstation should be made of a dissipative material connected to a ground. Conductors in the workstation area should be covered with a dissipative material to prevent shocks and large currents. Many companies manufacture special mats for this purpose. Keep a supply of dissipative anti-static bags available so you have a safe place to store parts while you are working on the
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creation of static charges by eliminating unnecessary activities that create static charges, removing unnecessary materials that are known charge generators, and using anti-static materials. In spite of efforts to avoid creating static charges, some build-up is unavoidable. The charges on conducting materials can be removed by connecting the conductor to a ground. Humans are conductors, so grounding them will remove their electric charges. Sensitive parts may be stored in bags that conduct electricity safely away from the part and shield it from ESD damage. Insulators will not lose their charge when grounded, so ion generators are set up to ood the air with charged particles that will neutralize the charge on insulators.
computer. Individual memory chips are usually sold in anti-static tubes that are good to keep around in case you need a safe place to store chips. Compressed air is an ESD-safe method for clearing dust and small debris from static-sensitive equipment because it avoids rubbing materials together, which can generate static electricity.
Anti-static Wrist Strap and Foot Strap
Human beings are constantly moving and generating static electricity. Workers who handle static-sensitive equipment should wear wrist straps connected to a ground. Any extra electrons ow safely through the strap. Because clothing can generate static electricity, special dissipative smocks can be worn over street clothes to reduce static build-up. Foot straps that ground the user are also recommended as a way to discharge static electricity when the user is moving and cannot be connected to a permanent ground through the wrist strap. Contacts that are often used as grounds are a water pipe and the screw that holds the cover onto an electrical wall outlet. If you are not working on the power supply, you should turn the computer off, but leave it plugged into a wall outlet. The power cord contains a wire that grounds the computer case and adds another safe path for electrostatic discharges.
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While leaving the computer plugged into the wall outlet is the preferred method, you can also touch the power supply or chassis to discharge your body.
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TASK 2A-3:
Identifying the Components of an ESD-free Environment
1. A conductor, an insulator, and a dissipative material are connected to the terminals of identical batteries. Which material would have the highest current, and which would have the lowest current? The conductor would have the highest current, while the insulator would have the lowest current. An ideal insulator would have no current. The dissipative material would have a small current.
Figure 2-4: Anti-static wrist strap and foot strap.
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What purpose does an anti-static wrist strap serve when worn by a computer repair technician? The wrist strap conducts static electric charges off the body and carries them safely to a ground so it will not harm electrostatic-sensitive devices.
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Some computer repair shops have an air ionizer. What purpose does it serve? The air ionizer emits charged atoms and molecules that can oat through the air to insulated materials and absorb the static charge that is on the insulator.
Your responsibilityto yourself, your employer, your co-workers, and your customersis to be informed of potential hazards and to always use safe practices.
Electrical Hazards
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Contact with electrical energy can cause electrical injuries including: Electrocution (fatal) Electric shock Burns Collateral injuries
collateral injuries: Injury caused by involuntary muscle movement.
The previous introduction to electricity and electrostatic discharge (ESD) focused on the damage that electricity can do to the computer. This section deals with the damage that electricity can do to you.
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Communicationin the form of labeling, material safety data sheets (MSDS), and training about hazardous materials.
Personal protective equipment designed to protect employees from certain hazards.
Your employer is obligated to comply with OSHA. (Occupational Safety and Health Administration) and/or state standards regarding employee safety. Employers must provide: A workplace that is free from recognized hazards that could cause serious physical harm.
Potential Hazards of Servicing PCs
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Potential Hazards of Servicing PCs
Safety rst, always safety rst. The health and safety of you and those around you are your rst priority and your responsibility. You will learn the potential hazards of servicing PCs and then the potential hazards of using them.
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Lesson 2: Safety 51
General Safety Guidelines
Topic 2B
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Figure 2-5: Typical warning signs.
Electrocution results when the body is exposed to a lethal amount of electrical energy. For death to occur, the body must become part of an active electrical circuit with a current capable of overstimulating the nervous system or damaging internal organs. The extent of injuries received depends on the currents magnitude (measured in Amperes), the pathway through the body, and the duration of ow. The resulting damage to the human body and the emergency medical treatment determine the outcome.
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Air is a good resistor, and the more air between you and an electrical contact, the more resistance there is. If you come close to a very high-voltage source, the electrons may form an arc or steady spark though the air and ow into your body. When you touch the source of lower electrical voltage directly, or touch it with a conductor like a metal screwdriver, you have decreased the resistance to a point where low-voltage current can start to ow through you. Water is a better conductor than air or dry skin, so touching an electrical contact with wet hands reduces resistance and increases current ow even more. Electricity will ow through you only if your body completes a path to a ground or lower-voltage point. Standing on a totally insulated rubber mat increases the resistance of the path to ground and provides some protection. In some cases, workstations are located in areas with grounded oors and workbenches, so static electricity has a lowresistance, non-destructive path to ground. An anti-static wrist band is specically designed to provide a low-resistance path for electricity to a ground. All the precautions used to prevent ESD increase your danger when you work near high voltages. Contact with a source of electrical energy can cause external as well as internal burns. It is possible to have a low-voltage electrocution without visible marks to the body. For example, you are standing in a puddle of water to cool off on a hot summer day and decide now is the time to work with the car battery. A 12 V car battery is generally safe unless the path to ground has such low resistance that a large current can ow. Standing in a puddle and touching the battery with wet hands provides that low-resistance path, and a large electric current will ow through your body. If a tiny pacemaker can control a heartbeat, imagine what the
Ohms Law can help you understand how lethal shocks occur. Electric current ows from a high voltage to a low voltage through the path of least resistance. The lower the resistance, the greater the current will be that ows along the path. The higher the voltage, the greater the current will be that ows along the path. It is the total electric energy carried by the electric current that overwhelms your bodys nerves and organs and causes damage (or kills you). To reduce the current, and reduce the possible damage from a shock, you need to decrease the voltage, increase the resistance, or both.
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current from a car battery could do to your heartbeat. People around you wont see tremendous sparks and ames during your electrocution, but you will be just as dead. Exposure to higher voltages will normally result in burns at the sites where the electrical current entered and exited the body. High voltage contact burns may display only small supercial injury; however, the danger of these deep burns is destruction of internal tissues.
Dont attempt repair work when you are tired; you may make careless mistakes, and your primary diagnostic tool, deductive reasoning, will not be operating at full capacity. Dont assume anything without checking it out for yourself. Dont wear jewelry or other articles that could accidentally contact circuitry and conduct current. Dont handle electrical equipment when your hands or feet are wet or when you are standing on a wet surface. Perform as many tests as possible with the power off. When removing circuit boards, place them on a dissipative ground mat or put them in an anti-static bag. Use an anti-static wrist strap when handling static-sensitive components like system boards, sound cards, and memory chips, but remove the strap if you are working on any part of a computer monitor. After cleaning the keyboard, be very sure it is dry before powering it up.
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Suspend work during an electrical storm.
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People go swimming every day, and even though the threat of drowning exists, common sense precautions keep swimming a safe and enjoyable activity. Working on a computer can also be safe and enjoyable if you protect yourself from electrical hazards by taking appropriate precautions: Perform only the work for which you have sufficient training.
Most internal circuits on a computer use voltages in the range of 12 V or less from the power supply and so do not present a great threat to your personal safety. The power supply in the computer monitor is there to increase the voltage. Computer monitors contain circuits that require 35,000 V with a high current. The voltage and current are stored on capacitors that do not discharge when the monitor is turned off or unplugged. Even after months of inactivity, the capacitors may have enough stored electrical energy to kill you. For this reason, leave the internal workings of the monitor to specialists who have the extra training and special equipment that are required to safely remove a monitor cover and make repairs.
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Collateral injuries occur when involuntary muscle contractions caused by the shock cause the body to fall or come in contact with sharp edges or electrically live parts. You instinctively pull your hand back from the doorknob when you get a static shock. Electricity owing through your body can also cause your muscles to twitch uncontrollably. These motions can cause you to hurt yourself on objects around you.
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Electricity can hurt you even if you are careful and avoid becoming part of an electrical ground circuit. The heat generated by an electric arc or electrical equipment can burn your skin or set your clothes on re. Anyone who has tried to unscrew a hot light bulb has direct experience with electricity-related thermal burns.
Label wires and connectors as you detach them, and make sure you plug them back into the proper sockets in the proper order. When you replace the computers case, make sure all the wires are inside. The case may have sharp edges that can cut through exposed cables. Power supplies have a high voltage in them any time the computer is plugged in, even if the computer power is turned off. Disconnect the power cord before you start work on a power supply and leave it off until you are done. Turn off the computer but leave the cord plugged in to maintain a good ground connection if you are not working on the power supply. Never stick anything into the power supply fan to get it to rotate. This approach doesnt work, and its dangerous.
Chemical Hazards
MSDS: Material safety data sheets are technical bulletins designed to give users and emergency personnel information about the proper procedures of storage and handling of a hazardous substance.
You will work with some hazardous chemicals. You will need to handle and dispose of them safely for your own protection, as well as the safety of people around you. Your workplace is required by OSHA to make MSDS (material safety data sheet) information available to exposed employees. An MSDS is a technical bulletin designed to give users and emergency personnel information about the proper procedures of storage and handling of a hazardous substance. This applies to any situation in which an employee may be exposed to a chemical under normal use conditions, or in the event of an emergency. For example, MSDS may be kept in a le folder accessible to exposed employees, or may be entered into and kept in a computer le. Manufacturers supply MSDSs with the rst shipment to a new customer, and with any shipment after the MSDS is updated with signicant and new information about safety hazards. You can get MSDSs online; the Internet has a wide range of free resources. OSHA doesnt require the use of their MSDS (Form 174), but any MSDS must contain the required information. Information in an MSDS may include: Physical data Toxicity Health effects First aid Reactivity Storage Safe-handling and use precautions
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You will nd a wealth of information at www.MSDSonline.com/, as well as at www.osha.gov.
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Following these precautions will help you avoid accidents and prevent personal injury. If you see others working under potentially hazardous conditions, share your knowledge with them to help prevent accidents and injury in your workplace.
To clean the monitor, turn it off and unplug it; do not wear an anti-static wrist strap. Use isopropyl alcohol rather than a general-purpose cleaner; it doesnt create a safety hazard if dripped inside the case. Use an anti-static cleaner to clean the glass on the monitor; never wash the glass with the power on.
Dont bang on the monitor screen with your tools; an implosion will propel shards of glass in every direction.
Do not take the case off a monitor. The risk to your life is not worth any repairs you might make.
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Disposal Protective equipment Spill/leak procedures
Batteries are used to maintain the data in CMOS chips and to supply power to remote controls and portable computers. These batteries may contain mercury, cadmium, and lithium, as well as other dangerous chemicals. Used batteries should not be tossed into the trash, but disposed of following your companys guidelines.
Lasers
Laser is an acronym for Light Amplication by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. It produces an intense, directional beam of light by stimulating electronic or molecular transitions to lower energy levels. This powerful beam can cause damage to the human eye or skin. Lasers have many uses andlike other toolsare capable of causing injury if improperly used. The most likely injury is a thermal burn which will destroy retinal tissue in the eye. Since retinal tissue does not regenerate, the injury is permanent. To provide a basis for laser safety, standards are established for maximum permissible exposure (MPE). Lasers and laser systems and devices are grouped into classes:
Lesson 2: Safety 55
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Lasers are used in printers and CD-ROM drives. You should be aware of the dangers and basic safety precautions.
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The electrolytes in capacitors are very caustic; treat them as you would any hazardous chemical. Thoroughly wash your hands after handling capacitors.
Laser printers produce ozone gas, usually when the corona wire produces an electrical discharge during printing. Depending on the levels, ozone can be a mild-tosevere irritant. Regulatory agencies have established limits regarding the amount of ozone that employees are exposed to. Be sure the printer operates in a wellventilated area. The laser printer may have a lter to control ozone emissions; follow the manufacturers recommendations for replacement and disposal of the lter.
Laser printer tonermade of ne particles of iron and plasticpresents its own set of problems due to its reactions with heat. If you spill toner, dont clean it up with a regular vacuum; the particles will get into the motor and melt. Dont use warm water to wash toner off your hands or arms; the toner could fuse to your skin. Instead, brush off as much as you can with a dry paper towel, rinse with cold water, and then wash with cold water and soap. In addition, do not use ammonia-based cleaners on or around laser printers, as the ammonia may react chemically with the toner. Empty cartridges should not be tossed into the trash because of the damage the residual chemicals can do to the environment. Used toner cartridges should be relled or returned to the manufacturer for recycling and/or disposal. Follow your companys guidelines for disposal procedures.
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You use liquid cleaning materials to clean or condition the equipment you service, including the computers case, contacts and connections of adapter cards, and glass surfaces. These compounds may present safety or environmental problems. Be sure to read labels and follow instructions. Follow your companys guidelines for disposing of these materials and their containers. Each municipality has its own regulations that you must learn and practice. You can nd out about these ordinances by contacting your local governments environmental office or department for trash disposal and recycling.
Class 1 lasers do not emit harmful levels of radiation and are exempt from control measures. Class 2 lasers are capable of creating eye damage through chronic, continuous exposure; this class includes barcode readers. Class 3 lasers pose severe eye hazards when viewed through optical instruments (for example, microscopes) or with the naked eye.
Never point a laser beam in someones eyes. Never look directly at a laser beam.
Identifying Hazards of Servicing Microcomputers

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Computer System Component

Enclosure Memory chip Monitor Circuit board Power supply Laser printer toner Capacitor Laser printer CD-ROM drive
For each of the following computer system components, identify a type of safety hazard or an example of a hazard.
TASK 2B-1:
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Type of Hazard
Electrical Electrical Electrical Electrical Electrical Chemical Chemical Chemical Laser
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Electrical injuries include electrocution, shock, and collateral injury. Can you be injured if you are not part of the electrical ground circuit? Yes, you can receive a thermal burn from the heat of an electric arc or electric equipment. Your clothes can catch on re or your skin can be burned.
Never disable safety mechanisms when servicing a device with an embedded laser.
Safety Hazard
Sharp edges cut through cables ESD damage Electrocution ESD damage Electrocution Burn or melt when exposed to heat; environmental damage Caustic electrolytes Ozone production Burn eye tissue
Learn the precautions associated with computer equipment and peripherals:
Frequently, lasers are embedded in laser products or systems with a lower hazard rating. For example, laser printers and CD-ROM drives are Class 1 laser products; however, they contain Class 3 or Class 4 lasers. When the printer or drive is used as intended, the controls for the devices class (Class 1) apply. When the system is openedfor example, for serviceand the embedded laser beam is accessible, precautions must be based on the classication of the embedded laser (Class 3 or 4).
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Class 4 lasers pose danger to eyes and skin, as well as being re hazards.
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Consider this scenario: A technician is called in to repair a sound card and doesnt have your expertise with safe practices. What would you do differently? Hazardous Practice
Customer assures technician that power is off. Anti-static wrist strap gets in the way, so technician doesnt connect it. Technician carefully places sound card on top of metal ling cabinet. Customer helps technician clean up by spraying window cleaner on monitor screen. Technician assures customer that ozone odor from laser printer is normal.
Safe Practice
Never assume anything; check for yourself.
Ergonomics is the study of people in their working environments, especially of their physical interaction with machines. Studies show that the problems which computer users have developedincluding discomfort in the wrist, arm, shoulders and neckare ergonomic in nature. While many people have mild and passing symptoms, some individuals develop more severe and chronic symptoms, which may be labeled Repetitive Strain (or Stress) Injury (RSI) or Cumulative Trauma Disorder (CTD).
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Research shows that repetitive strain injuries account for the largest number of new workers compensation claims, affecting insurance and healthcare costs, as well as productivity and morale. Employers are obligated, by regulation and by economic necessity, to consider the importance of ergonomics in their workplaces.
Ergonomics
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Example
Repetitive Strain Injury
You take responsibility for your own health by practicing safety when you use a computer as well as when you service one. This information will also be important when you are working with your customers.
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Ergonomics: The study of people in their working environments. repetitive strain injury: Involves damage to muscles, tendons, and nerves caused by overuse or misuse.
Potential Hazards of Using PCs
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Factor
Repetitive strain injuries involve damage to muscles, tendons, and nerves caused by overuse or misuse. Any combination of the following factors can lead to this condition: Description
Small, rapid movements that are repeated over and over Working in an awkward position or holding the same position for a long time Using force to complete tasks Not taking time to relax
Repetitive tasks
Clicking mouse Turning head to see monitor placed to one side Excessive pressure when keying Sitting at computer for two hours
Awkward or xed postures Forceful movements Insufcient rest time
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Lesson 2: Safety 57
Store sensitive parts in anti-static bags or on dissipative mat. Turn off power; do not wear anti-static wrist strap; apply cleaner to cloth instead of directly on monitor. Check that printer is in ventilated area; ozone lter may need to be replaced.
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Connect wrist strap to a ground.
Computer users suffer mostly from repetitive strain injuries to the hand, wrist, and arm. Unlike strains and sprains, which usually result from a single incident called acute traumarepetitive strain injuries develop slowly over time. The type of injury depends on whether the muscle, tendon, tendon sheath, or nerve tissue has been irritated or damaged. Symptoms may appear in any order and at any stage in the development of an injury of RSI and can include: Aching, tenderness, swelling Numbness, loss of strength Loss of joint movement, decreased coordination
Proper Chair and Posture
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If an individual has even mild symptoms, action should be taken. If symptoms are allowed to progress, a person with RSI can develop chronic symptoms. The key to RSI management is to remove an individual from the exposure that causes injury. A period of time away from the keyboard and mouse is followed by a gradual return to keying in an ergonomically correct work setting. Occasionally, a physician will prescribe a medication to help reduce symptomatic inammation and pain. People with more severe forms of RSI may be referred by their medical provider to an occupational therapist who can do further evaluation and recommend a program of localized treatments, stretches, and exercises. Referral to an orthopedic hand specialist may be needed to determine treatment options. If the individual displays symptoms even at rest, splints may be recommended; while these are useful in the rst stages of recovery, they are not the long-term solution. The best treatment for RSI, of course, is prevention by proper arrangement of computer workstations and reasonable project design. The following sections examine ergonomic points to consider and give suggestions for modifying equipment placement or use.
Chair
Ergonomic checklist: Adjustable seat height. Correct chair height for user. Backrest for rm support to lower back. Casters that roll easily on oor. Footrest, if needed. Padded arm rests (optional).
Symptoms may not appear immediately after the activity that is causing the problem and are not necessarily experienced in the body part where the actual stress is occurring. For instance, if an individual wakes up in the middle of the night with elbow or shoulder pain, that may be a sign of RSI resulting from keying or mousing at a computer. In general, the more intense the symptoms, the more often the symptoms will be experienced, and the longer symptoms last, the more serious the injury is likely to be. A serious injury can develop only weeks after symptoms appear, or it may take years. Older workers may be at more at risk because the bodys ability to repair from constant wear and tear decreases with age.
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Pain, crackling, tingling
Figure 2-6: Proper chair and posture.
Ergonomic checklist: Feet resting fully and rmly on oor or footrest. Knees bent at approximately right angles. Thighs parallel to the oor.
Upper body straight, with lower back rmly supported by chair backrest. Upper arms hanging straight down at sides. Elbows against sides and bent at right angles. Forearms parallel to the oor. Head looking forward with a slight downward tilt. Wrists straight, neither bent up or down nor to the left or right.
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To check your posture, raise or lower your computer and/or chair to achieve this position. Sit up straight and verify that your keyboard and mouse are close enough so that you dont have to reach for them. Back stretch tips: Take regular breaks. Forearms: Put palms together with ngers pointing toward the ceiling, then slowly lower hands toward the oor behind your back until you feel the stretch.
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Posture
To avoid uncomfortable strains, you should have a good chair that is comfortable and makes you sit with your back straight. The chair should provide good lumbar (lower back) support. If not, a lumbar cushion may help. Sit back in the chair and use the backrest; dont perch. Chair height should be adjusted so that the feet rest at on the oor with the thighs parallel to the oor. If the work surface is too high, the chair should be raised to an appropriate height and a footrest used. Arm rests must be recessed so that the user can easily pull up to the work surface and work with elbows at approximately right angles. Clearance for the legs should be provided at seated computer workstations.
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Wrists: Put arms straight in front of you and move hands up and down so ngers point to the ceiling and then to the oor, and repeat. Hands: Make a st, then spread out ngers as far as you can, and repeat. Shoulders: Shrug, then relax, and roll shoulders forward and back. Back: Bend forward in chair. To stretch the upper back, grasp hands behind head and press elbows back.
Ergonomic checklist: Keyboard detached from the monitor. Adjustable keyboard height.
Keyboard at right height so elbows are at sides, forearms parallel to oor, and wrists straight. Keyboard on foam pad to soften impact of ngers on keys. Keys give feedback to stop from pressing too hard: tactile (feel key pressure decrease when the character is registered) or audible (hear a click when character is registered). Fingers reach shift and function keys without awkward straining. Mouse located at same height as the keyboard and as close to it as possible. Wrist rests, if used, well padded and proper thickness.
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Elbows should be at sides with shoulders relaxed. Keyboard should be pulled close to the body. Keyboard support surfaces should be wide enough (minimum approximately 30 inches) to accommodate the keyboard and the mouse. An alternative is to use two separate surfacesfor example, a keyboard and a mouse tray which are the same height. Wrists should be at over the keyboard. Use the wrist rest only when not typing so that you move your hands when reaching for keys; your wrists should not bend or rest on anything as you type. Lowering the back legs on the underside of the keyboard may also help keep wrists neutral while typing. Arms and wrists should not rest against a hard and/or sharp surface. Move the whole hand to reach distant keys; dont stretch the hand. Studies show that banging on the keyboard increases the risk of developing RSI. Researchers point out that banging the keys does not translate into faster typing speed. Overall, the vast majority of computer users were found to use excessive forceup to ve times too muchwhen striking the keys. Use a light touch; relax and take a break if you nd yourself becoming tense. Repetitive mouse clicking and movingas well as the double-click, with its rapid motion of the ngerscan be a major source of RSI. Many new and popular options to the standard mouse have appeared on the market, including the trackball, scroll wheel, cordless (using radio waves), ergonomic (to t hand shape), optical sensor, three to ve buttons with various functions, and so on. Left-handed people have more choices than before. Mice may be adaptable for either hand, or software may be able to swap the functions of buttons on a standard mouse. Many RSI sufferers report that they feel less pain when typing than when using a mouse; they prefer to use keyboard shortcuts (for example, [Ctrl]S for Save) instead of the mouse. Ergonomic keyboards are designed to encourage a more natural hand and wrist position. They feature a split, gently sloped keyboard with a built-in palm rest.
Keyboard thin and level with oor.
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Keyboard and Mouse Placement
Monitor Placement
Ergonomic checklist: Adjustable monitor height. If screen is small, top of screen opposite eye level. If screen is large, center of screen opposite eye level. Monitor at proper viewing distance, usually one and one-half to two feet from eyes. Monitor directly in front, rather than off to the side. Copy stand or document holder. Copy stand and computer screen at the same height and at same distance from eyes. Monitor positioned to avoid glare.
Proper Monitor Placement
Figure 2-7: Proper monitor placement.
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The top of the screen should be at eye level or below so the user looks slightly down at the screen without having to tilt back to look at any parts of the screen. People with bifocals have particular trouble with this. Position the monitor directly in front of the user, not to the side, to avoid neck strain. The depth of the computer work surface must be deep enough (minimum 30 inches, depending on the size of the monitor) to allow this setup. The user should keep an arms length away from the front of the monitor and also from the backs and sides of other monitors.
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reective glare: Created by a monitor screens mirror-like surface.
direct glare: Results when a light source is exposed directly to the eye.
Position the monitor screen in relation to light sources to avoid a direct lineof-sight. Do not place the monitor back to or directly facing windows. Cover windows with drapes or blinds to limit the penetration of direct sunlight. Consider attaching a glare screen and/or screen hood. Install recessed overhead lighting.
Work Environment

footcandle: A unit of measure of the intensity of light falling on a surface.
Enough space to put the equipment and other materials at the proper distance without crowding.
Standing counters available, if appropriate, to alternate sitting and standing while doing computer work. Lighting levels for combined monitor screen and hard-copy reading are 30 to 40 footcandles. Lighting levels for monitor screen without hard-copy reading are 20 to 40 footcandles. Task lighting used if more light is needed at certain work areas. Indirect lighting preferred; parabolic lenses with uorescent xtures are also good.
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Project Design
Ergonomic checklist: Take short, frequent breaks from computer work; short rests taken often provide better protection than longer breaks after longer periods of work. Take a break before feeling any muscle fatigue in upper body. Get up and move around whenever any symptoms are felt. Pause periodically to do relaxation exercises. Adjust workstation furniture. Use the same workstation all day so that adjustments are minimized. Give input when department is purchasing computer equipment and furniture.
Phone can be used without having to squeeze the receiver with shoulder while typing.
Enough room for legs under desk.
Ergonomic checklist: Desk with lower surface for the keyboard and higher surface for the monitor.
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Glare on the monitor can be a major source of irritation when it obscures the image on a screen, requiring a greater visual effort to see it. Monitor screens are particularly susceptible to two types of glare, reective and direct. Reective glare is created by a monitor screens mirror-like surface, which may reect an operators bright clothing. Direct glare results when a light source is exposed directly to the eye, for example, by brightness from uncovered windows directly behind the terminal. To control screen glare: Maintain proper illumination levels.
The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) requires employers to make reasonable accommodations to protect the rights of individuals with disabilities. Possible changes may include restructuring jobs, altering the layout of workstations, or modifying equipment. The Job Accommodation Network (JAN) was founded by the Presidents Committee on Employment of People with Disabilities. JAN provides free technical support and assistance both to people with disabilities and to businesses on how to fashion job-site accommodations. It can perform individualized searches for workplace accommodations, based on the jobs functional requirements and the functional limitations of the individual.
You can access the ADA at www.usdoj.gov/crt/ada/ adahom1.htm.
You can access JAN at http:// janweb.icdi.wvu.edu/.
Vision
Many computer tasks are done at a close working distance, requiring the eyes to maintain active focusing. This can cause stress and strain on the eyes and the muscles that control them. A very common health problem reported by users of computer monitors is eyestrainincluding symptoms of: Blurred vision Difficulty focusing Double vision Tiredness Headaches Burning, sore, or itchy eyes
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Recognize that visual breaks are necessary. Rest the eyes periodically by turning them away from the screen and looking at something 25 to 30 feet away. Change to another task, or close the eyes for a few moments. Screen magniers reduce the need for near focusing; however, their resolution may be grainy or diffused. Enlarge font size.
For visual health: Images on the screen should not icker or appear blurred. A monitor refresh rate of 70 Hz or greater is recommended to reduce noticeable icker.
Dry eyes can be a concern for computer operators. The eye surface becomes dry because computer users tend to blink less and tears evaporate faster during monitor use. Symptoms associated with dry eyes are redness, burning, and excess tearing. Articial tearsused to supplement the eyes natural tear lm and lubricate the dry surfacealleviate symptoms for some computer users.
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A vision examination is recommended. A specic eyeglass prescription for computer use may help compensate for the strain involved in looking at a close and xed point for periods of time.
Scientic research offers no evidence that regular use of computer monitors threatens eye health or results in permanent vision damage. However, because of the increased demands on the visual system as a result of monitor use, computer users frequently report visual symptoms. These symptoms may result from a preexisting condition made worse by monitor use, or they may be a direct result of factors that are unique to the computer workstation.
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Other Considerations
Radiation is a broad term used to describe energy in the form of waves or particles. Electromagnetic radiation comes from both natural and manufactured sources, including computer monitors. Circuits within the monitor are responsible for the horizontal and vertical movements of the electron beam. This movement occurs tens of thousands of times each second (very low frequency, or VLF) for the horizontal scan, and 50 to 60 times each second (extremely low frequency, or ELF) for the vertical scan. The VLF and ELF eld intensities have been extensively evaluated in many different models of monitors for possible biological effects. Computer monitor users have expressed concerns about the possible health effectsincluding adverse pregnancy outcomesfrom the electromagnetic radiation that monitors produce. While the research continues, current scientic information does not identify a health risk from exposure to these electromagnetic elds. Noise levels produced by computers and printers are well below those that cause adverse health effects. The equipment has minor noise sources such as the hum of cooling fans and the clicking of keys. Excessive noise from the computer may indicate an internal malfunction. Printers can be noisy and should be located in rooms away from operators, where possible. Noise reduction hoods are recommended.
TASK 2B-2:
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For each of the following ergonomic factors, describe a safe computing practice. Ergonomic Factor
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Chair
Posture
Keyboard and mouse placement Monitor placement Work environment
Project design
Identifying Safe Computing Practices
Preventative Measure
Adjustable seat height, correct chair height, backrest, footrest, padded armrests. Feet on oor, knees at right angles, upper body straight, arms straight at sides, wrists straight, head forward with slight downward tilt. Adjustable keyboard height, keyboard on foam pad, elbows at sides, forearms parallel to oor, wrists straight, mouse same height as keyboard, mouse close to keyboard. Adjustable monitor height, monitor 1 1/2-2 feet from eyes, directly in front of user, copy stand, control glare. Keyboard lower than monitor, room for legs under desk, phone not squeezed with shoulder, appropriate lighting levels, standing computer station. Short, frequent breaks; move around before feeling fatigued; relaxation exercises; adjust furniture.
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If possible, move monitor directly in front of customer; raise monitor above keyboard height; move paperwork close to monitor and at eye level; enlarge font size; use rolling chair with adjustable height; and install task lighting closer to work area without causing glare on screen.
Fire Safety
Fire prevention is everyones responsibility. Safe practices include: Turn off monitors; they generate high voltage internally and can start an electrical re or an explosion in a combustible atmosphere.
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Fire Prevention Practices Types of Fire Extinguishers
Keep beverages and other liquids away from electronic equipment.
Ensure that facilities meet local re safety codes.
Fire Extinguishers
Types of Fire Extinguishers
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Fire extinguishers are classied according to the type of re for which they are suitable. There are four classesA, B, C, and D. Class D is highly specialized and will not be discussed here. Note that Class C reswhich include computer equipmentrequire extinguishing agents which will not serve as conductors of the electrical current. Fire Class
A B
Fire extinguishers are the rst line of defense against unfriendly res and should be installed in all homes and businesses. Selecting the correct extinguisher is important both to insure suitability for the type of re and to reduce damage from the extinguishing agents. Using the wrong type of extinguisher can needlessly ruin an expensive computer which gets blasted with spray.
Description
Ordinary combustibles such as wood, paper, cloth, rags and most plastics. Flammable liquids and gases such as gasoline, oils, paint, greases, and solvents.
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Make sure the equipment is properly grounded and has sufficient power rating to handle the components connected to it.
Dont operate a computer, monitor, or printer with the protective dust cover in place; this could cause excessive heat build-up and trigger a failure, resulting in an electrical re.
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Topic 2C
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Consider this scenario: You are called in to repair a network connection. You notice that the customers monitor sits on a two-drawer ling cabinet to the right of the desk, the keyboard is on the desk, and paperwork is at on the desk to the left of the keyboard. In addition, the customer uses an 8-point font and sits in a cafeteria chair. The only light is an overhead incandescent xture behind your customer. What ergonomic changes could you suggest?
Fire Class
C
Description
Electrical re and energized electrical equipment where non-conductivity of the extinguishing agent is important.
Extinguishing Agents
Extinguishing Agents
Dry chemical, standard type
B and C
Dry chemical, multipurpose type Carbon Dioxide Water-based
A, B, and C
B and C A
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CAUTION: Halon re extinguishers work by eliminating oxygen so the re goes out; unfortunately, they also eliminate oxygen for people in the area. In the past, halon extinguishers were considered excellent for delicate computers and electrical equipment because they were very clean and left no residue. However, halon is the most destructive of all the ozone-depleting gases, so a worldwide phase-out of the production and use of halons has been established. The Environmental Protection Agency has passed strict regulations concerning the use and disposal of equipment containing halon. Environmentally friendly alternatives to the halon device have been developed for areas that contain sensitive or irreplaceable equipment. These itemswhich could be damaged or destroyed by water, foam, dry chemical, or carbon dioxideare found in computer centers, data storage centers, and communications facilities, as well as in control rooms, electronics manufacturing plants, museums, art galleries, and laboratories.
Leaves mildly corrosive residue which must be cleaned up immediately to prevent damage to electrical equipment. Best uses are automotive, grease res, and ammable liquids. Versatile and effective on most common types of res. Highly corrosive and leaves a sticky residue. Not for use around delicate electrical appliances or computers. Very clean, no residue. Short range, must be applied close to re. Inexpensive to rell and maintain.
Extinguishing Agent
Fire Class
Description
The extinguishing agent must handle the correct class of re while keeping damage to a minimum. The common groups of agents and their uses are as follows.
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Extinguishers also have numerical ratings which denote the amount of re the extinguisher will handle. The minimum rating for a Class A extinguisher on light hazards is 2A. For Class B or C hazards, a minimum rating of 10 is recommended. Extinguishers which can handle several types of res have combined ratings such as 2A:10BC.
TASK 2C-1:
Fire Safety
1. List three safe practices to prevent a re in computer equipment. Answers may include: Turn off monitor, dont operate with protective cover on, keep liquids away from equipment, equipment is properly grounded, and facilities meet re codes. 2. Mark the type(s) of re classication each type of extinguishing agent is suitable for. Classication Classication Classication A B C
X X X X X X X X
Extinguishing Agent
Dry chemical, standard Dry chemical, multipurpose Carbon dioxide Water-based
Fire Emergency Procedures
How should you respond if you see a computer smoking or on re? When a computer or printer burns or electrical components melt, the device will normally give off clouds of foul-smelling black smoke. Your rst thought should be safety. Do not take any actions that would put you or anyone else at personal risk. Data can be recovered from seriously damaged equipment; a lost human life can never be recovered. Each situation will have its own circumstances which you will have to assess quickly. If you have any doubt about your personal safety or whether you can extinguish the re, leave immediately and close off the area. The following is a mental checklist for a ght-or-ight decision: Is the building being evacuated?
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Carbon dioxide is best suited because it is very clean and leaves no residue. A disadvantage is that the extinguisher has a short range and must be used close to the re.
3.
You should not use a water-based re extinguisher around an electrical re. Which type of extinguishing agent is best suited for computer res? Why? Are there any disadvantages?
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Fight or Flight?
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Are toxic gases being produced by the re? Has the re department been called? Is the re small and contained? Can I unplug the computer or the power strip to eliminate the source of ignition? Is the exit clear? Can I ght the re with my back to the exit? Can I stay low and avoid smoke?
Lesson 2: Safety 67
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Is a Class C extinguisher available? Do I know how to use it? Is someone else available to back me up?
When handling a re extinguisher, use the memory device of P.A.S.S.: 1. P: Pull the pin from the handle. 2.
3. 4.
S: Squeeze the handle to activate the extinguisher.
Figure 2-8: Proper use of a re extinguisher. Once you exit the building, do not re-enter. Even if you extinguish the re, call the re department to make sure the re is completely out. A small re that appears to be out may still be burning inside a wall and can turn into a blazing inferno with surprising speed. The reghters can help remove any damaged equipment from the building. If necessary, they will remove the smoke and toxic gases before people are allowed to re-enter. Recharge any discharged extinguisher immediately after use. After the re, do not attempt to restart the computer or restore electrical power to it. This is a job for a specialist. Do not attempt to retrieve data from a damaged computer. Data recovery is a specialized skill requiring specialized tools and techniques to prevent further damage to the drive and/or le system. Computer equipment can be salvaged from res, and data can be recovered by specialists. In one structural blaze, the monitor was the source of the re, which probably started in the high-voltage yback circuit at the rear of the monitor. When the equipment was inspected, card guides were lying in solidied puddles at the bottom of the case. Circuit boards were charred, wires were melted or burned, and metal parts were warped or twisted. The hard disks I/O connectors were melted and its circuit board charred. Melted solder had dripped across the surface of the board. The printer was the least recognizable component; it was described as two rods and a dot-matrix printhead embedded in a pile of charred plastic. The keyboards plastic was melted by hot gases. No trace of the mouse
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Proper Use of a Fire Extinguisher
S: Sweep the base of the re from side to side and proceed upward until the re is out.
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A: Aim the nozzle at the base of the re. Hold the nozzle rmly and stand eight to 10 feet from the re; movement closer may be necessary for complete coverage.
was found; however, its serial port connector and several inches of wire veried its existence. No information is available about the damage to the rest of the building. Howeveras bleak as this situation appearedby using special techniques, all of the data from this computer was recovered with no losses.
TASK 2C-2:
Identifying Steps in Using a Fire Extinguisher
1. Fill in the following table to identify steps in the memory device P.A.S.S. for using a re extinguisher: Memory Device
P A S S
Steps
Pull pin from handle. Aim nozzle at base of re. Squeeze handle. Sweep base of re from side to side.
2.
List ve considerations in making a ght-or-ight decision in a re.
Building evacuated, re department called, size of re, unplug equipment, clear exit, avoid smoke, Class C extinguisher, and backup help. 3. Consider this scenario: You go on a call to repair a printer. The customer has just put out a small re in the monitor with a re extinguisher. The customer assures you that the re is out and urges you to start work on the printer. What should you do? Suggest that the customer call the re department to make sure the re is out and that it is safe to stay in the building. Tell the customer that you would need to use the monitor to check the printer, but it is not safe to restart the equipment; that is a job for an expert.
Topic 2D
Computer Equipment Disposal

Companies throw away over 10 million PCs annually. Computer systems are replaced, on average, every three years. Studies estimate that by the year 2004, more than 315 million computers will become obsolete. Programs for proper PC recycling and disposal must be established to ensure compliance with regulations and to avoid liability. The 4 Rs stand for environmentally friendly procedures to: Reduce waste Reclaim materials Re-use equipment Recycle equipment
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Disposing of Electronic Equipment
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Lesson 2: Safety 69
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When a company tries to conduct its own equipment retirement program, costs can exceed $300 per computer in time and labor. An economical alternative is to work with a company which specializes in removal and disposal of this equipment. Services may include removal, transportation, idle inventory liquidation, technical evaluation, refurbishment, hard drive erasure, reclaiming, remarketing, and disposal. A technical recycling company can supply certied documentation of the services performed.
Leadthe average monitor contains about eight pounds of lead; can also be found on circuit boards Mercuryin batteries Lithiumin batteries Cadmiumin batteries PCBsin capacitors
Obviously, the equipment can no longer be tossed in the dumpster. A company must comply with municipal ordinances concerning the disposal of toxic materials. It can contact the local office of environmental services or department for trash collection and recycling for disposal information. Alternately, the company can contract with a technical disposal/recycling company.
Reclaiming
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Computer components that are not destined for refurbishing may be dismantled by technical recycling companies for reclamation of their materials. Approximately 55 percent of a standard desktop PC is made of recoverable materials, including plastic, aluminum, steel, gold, silver, lead, cadmium, mercury, copper, and platinum.
Re-using
Components can be re-used within a company by departments which do not require state-of-the-art equipment. Hardware is refurbished by erasing hard drives, upgrading outdated systems, and combining useful parts from various machines. Equipment or individual peripheralssuch as hard drives, system boards, disk drives, keyboards, cabling, and printerscan be sold to repair facilities or technical recycling companies.
Recycling
Computer equipment which is still usable can be sold through an employee purchase program. Tax breaks may be available to companies donating older equipment to a school or charitable organization. There are groups which facilitate donations of used computer hardware for schools, community groups, and homebound individuals. It may be advisable to go through an agency which coordinates these donations, instead of randomly donating equipment. Why? Because as much as 60 percent of electronics donations are discarded within six weeks.
Due to regulations laid out by the Environmental Protection Agency, as well as state and local municipalities, the landll is no longer an option for disposal. It would take several thousand years for a monitor to decompose in a landll. Ceramic chips from computers are not biodegradable and would sit there forever. Chemicals from the components would leak out, mixing and forming a toxic mess, and then seep into the groundwater. These chemicals, which are toxic at high levels, include:
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Disposal
This happens for two major reasons: the equipment does not function with existing systems or software programs, or the equipment needs repairs which are not budgeted for. An alternative is to sell the equipment to a technical recycling company and donate any proceeds to the charitable organization.
TASK 2D-1:
Identifying Proper Disposal Procedures
1. Fill in the table by listing examples of items involved in each disposal procedure. Procedure
Safe Disposal Reclaiming Re-using/Recycling
Type of Material
Toxic Materials Recoverable Materials Equipment and Peripherals
Examples
Lead, mercury, lithium, cadmium, PCBs Plastic, aluminum, steel, gold, silver, lead, cadmium, mercury, copper, platinum Monitor, hard drive, system board, disk drive, keyboard, cabling, printer
3.
Item
Lithium batteries Extra cables Anti-static bags Laser toner cartridges Paper from printer trials
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Summary
Safety contributes to your well-being as a person and to your productivity as an employee. To be a successful repair technician, you must employ safe practices on a daily basis. Your understanding of ergonomically sound practices will contribute to the health and satisfaction of your customers.
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Disposal Procedure
Safe disposal according to your companys procedure Re-use with other components Re-use Return to manufacturer for relling/recycling; safe disposal according to your companys procedure Recycle
Consider the following scenario: During your busy day, you have come across several items that your customers told you to toss in the trash. What are better ways to dispose of them?
Disposal of toxic materials, hard drive erasure, reclaiming component materials, re-using/recycling equipment and peripherals, removal, transportation, supply certied documentation.
2.
Computer disposal can be costly and time-consuming for a company. What services can a technical recycling and disposal company provide?
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Lesson 2: Safety 71
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Lesson Review
2A Why is the high voltage in static electricity deadly to electrical components but only annoying to humans?
The high voltage is enough to cause a spark that sends over enough electrons to trigger the nerve endings in a nger and make someone jump. The same number of high-voltage electrons has enough energy to destroy the microscopic transistors found in memory chips and microprocessors.
2C What is your rst concern in a computer equipment re? Why?

Safety of people. Equipment and data can be replaced; people cannot.
2D What are the 4 Rs, or environmentally friendly considerations in a computer retirement program?
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Reduce waste, reclaim materials, re-use equipment, recycle equipment.
2B Consider the following scenario: You are on a service call to x a laser printer. As you change the toner, you spill some on the carpet. Your customer asks you to x the monitor because the display size keeps changing. You hear thunder in the distance. You also notice that your customers chair is too low for his workstation and that he keeps his coffee cup between the mouse and the keyboard. Which safety issue should you address rst? Rank the other issues in terms of safety (most important to least important). Discuss differences with your lab partner. 1. Cease work during an electrical storm. Work on non-electrical projects, if possible. 2. Refer monitor repair to a technician with specialized skills. 3. Move coffee cup away from electrical components. 4. Clean up the laser toner, but dont use a regular vacuum. 5. Offer to help customer raise seat height.
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System Components
Overview
In this lesson, you will examine the major components found inside a computer, including the power supply, system board, Central Processing Unit, RAM, and the ROM BIOS. You will learn to identify their characteristics, recognize problems associated with them, and how to service them.
LESSON
3
Data Files none
Objectives
3A
3C
Identify the characteristics of PC processors and how to replace a processor.
3D
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3E
Identify the characteristics of system boards and how to replace a system board. In this topic, you will learn to identify the form factor of a system board and its major components. Next, you learn the phases a system board goes through during a Power On Self Test. Lastly, you will learn how to remove a defective system board and how to install a new system board. Identify the characteristics of RAM types and how to replace RAM. In this topic, you will learn to describe the characteristics of different types of RAM and its packaging format. Next, you will learn how to remove defective memory and install new memory.
Lesson 3: System Components 73
In this topic, you will identify the distinguishing characteristics of processors in the Intel family, the difference between a data bus and an address bus, and how to replace a defective processor.
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In this topic, you will describe the function of the ROM BIOS and identify the kinds of congurations youll make to the BIOS. Next, you will learn how the CMOS interoperates with the ROM BIOS, and how to upgrade the ROM BIOS.
3B
Describe the role of the ROM BIOS and how to perform a BIOS upgrade.
In this topic, you will examine the basic operation of a power supply, and then measure the power supplied to an internal device. You will also investigate typical problems that affect efficient operation. Lastly, you will learn how to remove a defective power supply and install a replacement.
Identify the characteristics of a power supply, the types of power supply problems you will encounter, and how to replace a power supply.
To identify the characteristics of internal system components and develop procedures for servicing them, you will:
Lesson Time 4 hours, 30 minutes
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Topic 3A
Power Supplies
The power supply, while not actually a component of the system board, is required in order for system components to receive power. The power supply is attached to the computer case. It is also connected to the system board with either a single connector or two connectors. If a single connector is used, it is keyed. Keyed connectors are designed so that the plug and socket have notches which must line up in order for the plug to t into the socket. Many machines still use the two connectors, which are often labeled P8 and P9. In either case, connectors are keyed so that the connector itself only plugs in one way. With dual connectors, it is possible to switch the two connectors (put the P8 cable in the P9 plug and vice versa). This can damage or destroy the system board if you reverse the connections. There is a movement to incorporate the two connectors into a single larger, keyed connector to prevent the possibility of reversing the connectors and thereby damaging the system board.
power supply: The component that supplies power to the computer and converts alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC).
keyed component: A component whose connector is designed such that connecting cables can only be attached in one way.
A Power Supply
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Figure 3-1: A power supply.
Converting AC Power to DC Power

The power supply is responsible for converting AC power to DC power. It is converted to the appropriate voltage required for various system components. The wires from the power supply have the following voltages. Color or Component
Yellow wire Blue wire Red wire White wire Motor Circuitry
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Voltage
+12 -12 +5 -5 +/-12 +/-5
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The power supply sends power to all system components except for components requiring a high current. These components include the fan and disk drives. Most power supplies are at least 200 watts. This is enough power to support most any system. Older systems had much smaller power supplies, often under 100 watts. These power supplies were unable to hold up to the demands added when you added components to the system.
The Berg connector is a small, at connector. This type of connector is typically used for connecting power to oppy drives, Zip drives, or SuperDisk drives. The Molex connector is the standard peripheral connector for powering internal hard drives, CD-ROM drives, and DVD drives.
Drive Power Connectors
Figure 3-2: Drive power connectors.
TASK 3A-1:
Measuring the Output of a Power Supply
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1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Shut down Windows and turn off the computer. Disconnect all cables externally connected to the chassis. Remove the computer enclosure. Reconnect the power cable. Turn on the power to the computer.
Whenever you open the computer to work with components, make sure you follow all ESD safety practices you learned earlier.
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Drive Power Connectors
6. 7. 8. 9.
Set your multimeter to measure DC voltage. Locate a free Molex connector. Insert the multimeters black probe into the black (GND) lead of the power connector. Insert the multimeters red probe into the red (+5) lead of the power connector.
10. Examine the voltage measured by the multimeter. The measurement should be about +5 V.
11. Insert the multimeters black probe into the black (GND) lead of the power connector.
13. Examine the voltage measured by the multimeter. The measurement should be about +12 V.
There are several symptoms of a problem power supply. These include the computer not booting, constantly rebooting itself, or the fan not working. Sometimes, you can try simply cleaning the power supply. The fan and openings around the power supply bring in air to cool system components, but they also allow dirt and dust to gather around the power supply. If this happens, it can short out the power supply, or prevent the fan from working. You can use compressed air to remove this debris from the system.
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Repair or Replace?
You should never attempt to repair a power supply. You should always replace it when it has a problem. This is referred to as swapping out components. Power supply voltage levels can be deadly. Even after being unplugged, computer-grade capacitors can hold a charge. If you need to service a power supply, be sure to unplug the system before beginning to work on it. Also, make sure it is cool before removing it.
Servicing Power Supplies
14. Power down the computer.
12. Insert the multimeters red probe into the yellow (+12) lead of the power connector.
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TASK 3A-2:
Replacing a Power Supply
Setup: The computer enclosure has already been removed and the computer is powered down.
2.
Disconnect the power supplys power connectors from all internal devices. To facilitate reconnecting the internal devices later, you should make note of which device each power connector services.
3.
Disconnect the power supplys system connector from the system board. The connector to the system board has a plastic tab that locks the connector in place. You can press the tab to release the lock, and then work the connector loose.
4. 5. 6.
Remove any screws that mount the power supply to the computer chassis. Slide the power supply out of the enclosure.
Can you determine the power supplys power rating?
8. 9.
Using the screws you removed earlier, mount the power supply to the computer chassis. Reconnect the power connectors to their respective internal devices.
10. Reconnect all external cables, including the power cable. 11. Turn on the computer and wait for the operating system to load. If you dont hear the oppy drive search for a disk or the operating system doesnt load, you may not have reconnected the power connectors correctly. If so, power down the computer, and check those connections.
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7.
To re-install the power supply, slide it back into the appropriate location on the computer chassis.
Answers will vary. You can usually nd the power supply rating (in Watts) on a label on the surface of the power supply.
Take a few minutes to examine the physical characteristics of the power supply.
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1.
Unplug the power cord from the computer.
Power Supply Problems and Their Prevention

Computer systems require a steady supply of electricity, often referred to as a clean power source. Interruptions (brownouts and failures), overvoltages (spikes), or undervoltages (sags) can cause your systems to fail. The most common of these power problems is power sags, or short-term undervoltages. Sags are usually caused by heavy loads placed on the electrical system. For example, a motorized device on the same circuit as your computer could cause a sag when the motor starts. If the power supply itself isnt working, the system wont turn on. It might be damaged from overheating, lightning, or short circuits.
Other components, especially drives, can also sometimes make a lot of noise. Make sure this isnt where the noise is coming from.
UPS: An uninterruptible power supply is a device intended to save computer components from damage due to power problems such as failures, spikes, and sags.
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standby UPS: SUPS are UPSs that supply power from a battery when power problems are detected. Sometimes referred to as standby power supply (SPS).
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Power problems can be cured, in most situations, by the use of a UPS (uninterruptible power supply). UPSs come in at least two varieties, standby and online.
Standby UPS
A standby UPS (SUPS) uses a battery to supply power when a power problem occurs. At times of normal power operation, power is supplied from the normal electrical system. This method places minimal burden on the batteries and power inverters in the UPS, leading to longer UPS life. Standby UPSs are rated on their switching timethe faster the UPS switches from wall voltage to the battery during a power anomaly, the better the UPS. A standby UPS shouldnt create power transients of its own during the switch from wall voltage to battery voltage. Standby systems often cant solve sag problems. Often the wall voltage must fail signicantly, or altogether, before the UPS battery will engage.
A whine or squeal from the power supply area is usually from the fan. An accumulation of dust and dirt can lead to fan failure. If this is the problem, clean it with a PC vacuum or compressed air. If the noise isnt from the fan, but from another power supply component, replace the power supply or take it out and send it for service.
If a power connection is incorrectly attached (such as to a drive), it will short-circuit the power supply. The power supply can detect this problem and disable itself. If you x the short (by putting the power cable onto the drive correctly), the power supply should start working again.
Check that the connections from the power supply to the system board are secure, especially on ATX systems. The power switch at the rear of an ATX system doesnt turn on power on ATX systems; it just sends a signal to the system board to turn the PC on. Once the rear power switch is turned on, you need to press the power button on the front of the computer.
Here are several things you can try when you suspect a problem with a power supply: Make sure that there is power to the outlet. You can do so by plugging in a lamp or other device that you know works. If that doesnt turn on, you know that you have a bad outlet and not necessarily a bad power supply.
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Online UPS
An online UPS supplies power to your systems from its batteries at all times. Power from the normal electrical system is used to constantly charge the batteries. Such a UPS system usually supplies cleaner power at the cost of quicker battery failure, because the constant charging of the battery can lead to premature failure. Online UPSs generally lter power to reduce or remove power spikes. Additionally, because the power is supplied from the battery at all times, online UPSs prevent power sags. After a power interruption of more than a few seconds, be sure to turn off the power. This is because a surge of electricity into all system components will occur when the power comes back on.
Line Conditioners
A line conditioner is used to reduce electromagnetic interference (EMI) and radio frequency interference (RFI). EMI usually occurs when the computers power supply is too close to another power source; RFI usually occurs when the computers power supply is too close to a device that generates radio waves. A line conditioner provides very pure protection from line noise. It also provides high protection from surges and good protection from lightning and sags. However, it provides no protection from blackouts.
Diagnosing Power Supplies

1.
2.
What can you do to minimize the effects of EMI and RFI on power supplies? Install a line conditioner.
3.
Describe the difference between a standby power supply (SPS) and an uninterruptible power supply (UPS). An SPS switches to battery power during an outage, but there are a few milli-seconds when the computer isnt receiving any power. A UPS switches to battery power during an outage without delay and supplies power even when the power line is functioning properly.
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Computer doesnt boot at all, computer repeatedly restarts, or power supply is hot from a failed cooling fan.
What are some common, recognizable problems associated with power supplies?
TASK 3A-3:
A Web site that compares different power protection is at www.pcguide.com/ref/ power/ext/comp.htm.
line conditioner: A device that reduces noise and some power problems, mainly implemented because of its ability to reduce electromagnetic interference (EMI) and radio frequency interference (RFI).
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online UPS: A UPS that supplies power from a battery at all times. The battery is recharged from the regular electrical supply.
Topic 3B
ROM BIOS
BIOS: Stands for Basic Input/ Output System. Low-level software that acts as the interface between the hardware and the operating system in a computer.
The Boot Process
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POST: Stands for Power-On Self Test. A series of built-in diagnostics that are performed when the computer is rst started. Proprietary codes are generated (POST codes) that indicate test results.
Processor ROM BIOS
Component
DMA controller Interrupt controller Timing chip BASIC ROM Video card
Expansion boards RAM memory Keyboard Floppy drive Other resources
When your PC is powered on, the BIOS is loaded into memory. The BIOS then performs a subroutine typically known as POST (Power-On Self Test). If there are any fatal errors, the boot process stops. POST beep codes indicate the area of the boot problem. The BIOS, and often the POST, performs a system inventory to determine what sort of hardware is in the system. Each time the system is booted, the components are checked in the order found in the following table. Description of Test
If this test fails, the system halts without displaying any message. A series of checksums are computed and, if they dont match, the system halts. System halts if this test fails. If this test fails, you will hear a long beep followed by a short beep; the system then halts. System halts if this test fails. Only occurs on older PCs with built-in BASIC. If this test fails, you will hear a long beep followed by two short beeps; if the test succeeds, ROM BIOS gets copied into RAM memory. Boards are initialized and, if necessary, the expansion boards ROM gets copied to upper memory. Counts and tests RAM by writing a bit to each memory bit. Presence of keyboard and any stuck keys. Signal is sent to adapter to activate oppy drive motor. Parallel and serial ports are queried; system looks for an operating system to load.
One of the most important functions of the BIOS is booting up the system. When the PC is rst turned on, its main system memory is empty, and it needs to nd instructions to tell it what to do. These instructions are found within the BIOS program.
Although most people dont realize it, there are in fact several different BIOSs in your PC. When people say the BIOS, they are generally referring to the main system BIOS. However, there are also BIOSs to control PC peripherals. Typically, the PCs video card has its own BIOS that contains hardware-driving instructions for displaying video information. SCSI host adapters, hard drives, and other peripherals can also contain their own BIOS instructions.
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BIOS stands for Basic Input/Output System, although the full term is used infrequently. The system BIOS is the lowest-level software in the computer; it acts as an interface between the hardware (chip set and processor) and the operating system (DOS, Windows 95, and so on).
In newer PCs, the main BIOS looks for the video card BIOS and then other peripheral BIOSs and runs them. If the BIOS supports the Plug and Play standard, it will detect and congure Plug and Play devices at this time and display a message on the screen for each one it nds.
Power-On Self Test

As mentioned, the Power-On Self Test (POST) routine checks your system for hardware errors, including conguration errors. The POST routine might detect interrupt, I/O address, or Base Memory address conicts. If so, either an error code number or a series of beeps will tell you which error is present. Normally, pressing [F1] will enable you to acknowledge the error and continue booting. This might not be possible with the more serious error conditions. The following table lists common audio and video POST error codes and their meanings. Audio Error Code
One or more short beeps None None None One short, one long beep Two short beeps
Plug and Play is described in more detail in the Bus Architectures lesson.
C N O T
Video Output
DOS prompt None Cursor DOS prompt None
Problem
None (normal startup beep) Power Power None Display
Solution
None
Check power cords, wall voltage, PCs power supply. Check the PCs power supply; check for sufcient wall voltage. May be a defective speaker. Check for monitor power; check video cable; check display adapter. Check for monitor power; check video cable; check display adapter.
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One long, two short beeps One long, three short beeps
Probably none
Probably none
Two short beeps Repeating short beeps Continuous tone One long, one short beep
None or incorrect display (garbage) Error code number Probably none Probably none Probably none
Display
See the next table for a list of error codes and their interpretations.
The following table lists the error-code numbers and their meanings.
POST Error Codes
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Power
Power
System board
Display
Display
Check the PCs power supply; check for sufcient wall voltage. Check the PCs power supply; check for sufcient wall voltage. Check to see that all adapters, memory, and chips are seated rmly; check for proper power connections to the system board; use diagnostics software or hardware to further troubleshoot the system board. Check for monitor power; check video cable; check display adapter.
Check for monitor power; check video cable; check display adapter.
Plug and Play: Method to have the operating system automatically congure adapter settings. Also written as PnP.
POST Results
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POST Error Code

02# 01## 0104 0106 0151 0162 0163 164 or 0164 199 or 0199 02## 201 or 0201 0202 03## 0301 0302 06## 0601 0602 17## 1701 1704 1707 1714 1730-1732
Problem
Power System board Interrupt controller System board Real-time clock or CMOS RAM CMOS checksum error Time and date (clock not updating) System memory conguration incorrect User-indicated device list incorrect Memory Memory error (may give memory address) Memory address error Keyboard Stuck key (scan code of the key may be indicated) Keyboard locked Floppy-disk driver or controller Floppy-disk adapter failure Disk failure Hard disk or adapter Drive not ready or fails tests Hard-drive controller failure Track 0 failure Drive not ready Drive adapter failure
CMOS
CMOS: Stands for Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor and pronounced see-moss. The most widely used type of integrated circuit for digital processors and memories. Virtually everything is congured through CMOS today.
CMOS is a memory area with battery backup used to store system conguration settings. Prior to the use of CMOS, settings were congured with jumpers and switches. CMOS was introduced with the AT system boards. It allows for more conguration options than the switches and jumpers did. Also, you can congure CMOS without needing to pop the cover; you congure things from the keyboard. Some of the things you can congure through CMOS are: Password: You can specify whether a password is required following the POST. Drive order: The order that POST checks drives for the operating system. Memory: Some systems require you to specify in CMOS how much RAM is installed on the system. Drive type: Species the type of hard drive attached to the system. Display: Specify the monitor type.
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Conguring Through CMOS
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You can change the CMOS settings by accessing the menu and making the appropriate changes at the keyboard. If you cant access CMOS for whatever reason, you can remove the CMOS battery and it will lose all of its settings and return to factory defaults. You can then congure as appropriate. CMOS will display error messages through the POST.
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The messages Bad or missing command interpreter and Non-system disk or disk error are generated when the system cant access the operating system. The error Display Type Mismatch is displayed if the video settings dont match the monitor attached to the system. The error Memory Size Mismatch is displayed if the amount of RAM detected and the amount specied in CMOS dont match. This error is usually self-correcting, although you might need to reboot to x it. Other devices such as hard drives can also generate mismatch errors. This generally happens when the physical device is different than what is specied in CMOS. The error CMOS Checksum Failure is generated if the CMOS memory is corrupted. This can happen from a bad or dead battery, or a loose connection to the battery. Try replacing the battery and see if it clears up the problem. If it doesnt, the system board might be bad (or getting bad).
TASK 3B-1:
Identifying the Power-On Self-Test (POST) Sequence
1.
Indicate the order in which the following components are checked during a POST:
2 9 11 5 12 1 4 10 3 6 8
BIOS ROM RAM Floppy drives System timing Ports Processor
Interrupt controller Keyboard
DMA controller BASIC ROMs
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Configuring the ROM BIOS

In the ROM BIOS, you congure the basic settings for your hardware. For example, if you add a second hard drive, you need to tell the BIOS about the new hardware you just added. You can also set the date and time and specify a password for booting the system. The ROM BIOS also lets you congure ports
Expansion board initialization
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Video card
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and reserve system resources for specic cards. Lastly, you can use the BIOS to establish the boot order for devices. For example, you can congure the ROM BIOS to boot from a different hard drive controller or from a CD-ROM. Lastly, most modern BIOSs let you congure power management on your system. System board manufacturers periodically release BIOS upgrades. In the past, the most common way to upgrade your BIOS was to install a new BIOS chip on your system board. Today, most BIOSs can be ashed; that is, you can reprogram the BIOS with the lastest version provided by the manufacturer. In most cases, you can download BIOS upgrades from the system board manufacturers support site on the Internet.
Examining the BIOS Settings of a Computer

1. 2.
Shut down the operating system and restart the computer. Press the appropriate key to enter the BIOS setup utility. To nd out which key to press, you can carefully watch the initial text-based screen as the computer starts; a message on the screen indicates which key or keys to press.
3.
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4. 5.
Exit the BIOS without saving any changes. Restart the computer to load the operating system.
On some computers, the names of BIOS options may differ from those listed in this task.
BIOS Option
Diskette Primary Master Primary Slave Secondary Master Secondary Slave CPU Speed Level 1 Cache Level 2 Cache Boot Sequence
Using the keystrokes dened on the BIOS menu, navigate the BIOS screens to complete the information in the following table. Current Setting
Answers will vary. Answers will vary. Answers will vary. Answers will vary. Answers will vary. Answers will vary. Answers will vary. Answers will vary. Answers will vary.
TASK 3B-2:
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Topic 3C
Central Processing Units
CPU: Stands for Central Processing Unit. The main chip on the system board, the CPU performs software instructions, and mathematical and logical equations.
CISC and RISC Instruction Sets
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Intel makes the majority of CPUs. In more recent years, other companies have started making compatible chips. Among others, these include Advanced Micro Devices (AMD) and Cyrix.
Intel Family Processors

RISC: Stands for Reduced Instruction Set Computer. These are processors that require instructions to be of a xed length, making their instructions simpler, and fewer, than CISC, but more instructions are required to carry out a single function.
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Processors are either CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computer) processors or RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer) processors. CISC processors dont require instructions to be of a xed length, and allow for more complicated functions to be executed in one instruction. Most of the Intel x86 processors explained later in this topic fall into this category of processors. Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC) processors require instructions to be of a xed length, making RISC instructions simpler, and fewer, than CISC, but more instructions are required to carry out a single function. Macintosh computers use RISC processors, manufactured by Motorola and IBM.
As chips developed, they became faster and more features were integrated into the CPU that were previously carried out outside of the CPU.
Original CPUs were sometimes soldered onto the system board. Others used standard 169-pin screw machine sockets. You needed to use a special type of tool called a chip extractor to remove the chip. These look like big tweezers with bent over ends which go under the edge of the chip so you can pull it out. It takes around 100 pounds of force to install a chip in this type of socket. It was easy to damage the socket, the pins, or the chips.
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CPUs
The CPU is relatively easy to locate, since it is the biggest chip on the system board. Newer PCs make it even easier to nd because it is usually installed in a larger socket. These newer sockets are referred to as ZIF sockets (Zero Insertion Force), because they use a lever to tighten or loosen the pin connections between the processor chip and the socket, requiring no force to insert or remove a processor chip. Well look at sockets more closely later in this topic.
ZIF socket: A Zero Insertion Force socket is a type of processor socket that uses a lever to tighten or loosen the pin connections between the processor chip and the socket.
CISC: Stands for Complex Instruction Set Computer. These are processors that dont require instructions to be of a xed length, and that allow for more complicated functions to be executed in one instruction.
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The CPU (Central Processing Unit) is the brain of the computer. This is where software instructions are performed and math and logic equations are performed. This little component is the most costly of any system component.
Figure 3-3: CPUs.
Intel CPUs
8086 and 8088 CPUs
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The 8086 was a 16-bit chip. It used 16-bit internal and external buses. Since it was believed that people wouldnt pay the higher cost for this chip over the cost of the 8088, which had a 16-bit internal bus and an 8-bit external bus, the 8086 wasnt used in the original IBM PC. However, the Compaq Deskpro and the AT&T 6300 both used the 8086. IBM nally used it when they introduced their PS/2-25 and PS/2-30 systems. The 8086 is about 20 percent faster than the 8088 due to the 16-bit external bus. Both systems use about 12 cycles per instruction and run at about 4.77 MHz, although later this was improved to 8 MHz. A 20-bit address bus allows access to 1 MB of RAM.
286 CPU
The IBM AT systems introduced the 80286 CPU along with the new AT system board. The PS/2-50 and PS/2-60 also used the 286 chip. The 286 allows 16 MB of addressable memory. This was a major improvement over the 1 MB allowed by the 8086/8088 chips. Another improvement was running at 4.5 cycles per instruction. The 286 could run at 8, 10, 12, or 20 MHz. Two of the most important features introduced with the 286 chip were the real and protected modes.
Lets take a look at the various Intel CPU chips that have been used.
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Real mode refers to the CPU addressing the rst 1 MB of conventional memory by assigning real addresses to real memory locations. In real mode, the 286 CPU acts like it was an 8086/8088 CPU. Protected mode allows things in RAM to be swapped to disk to make room for other things to go into RAM. It also was designed to allow one program to fail without affecting other programs. (This didnt work too well, though.) In order for protected mode to work, the CPU and the operating system had to work together to swap information in and out of memory.
real mode: An operational state in Intel CPU chips (starting with the 286) in which the computer functions like the rst Intel CPU chip (8086/8088), which is limited to accessing 1 MB of memory. DOS applications run in real mode, unless they have been enhanced with a DOS extender that allows them to use more memory.
In protected mode, the 80286 can address up to 16 MB of memory, and supports multitasking by protecting memory regions. Problems in one region of memory cannot negatively affect programs running in other regions of memory. If one of the programs in the multitasking computer hangs up, you do not have to reboot the computer. Protected mode also supports virtual memory. Although the microprocessor can address only 16 MB of real memory, it can address up to 1 GB of total memory. Although MS-DOS (through version 6.2) does not directly support protected mode, UNIX and OS/2 do.
The 386 Family of CPUs
The ability to switch between protected and real mode without resetting the system. The ability to run several real mode sessions simultaneously through virtual machines.
Uses CMOS to reduce power requirements and allow the system to be congured through software.
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Some features of the 386 chip include: A 32-bit processor, both internally and externally.
With the introduction of programs such as Windows that required more and more memory, there needed to be a way to access more memory. People were now willing to pay a little extra to get more RAM for their systems. The 386 nally had a protected mode that worked more consistently than that introduced with the 286.
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The 386 protected mode used virtual real mode to simulate the 8086/8088 real mode. A true multitasking system could now load multiple copies of DOS. The CPU still thought it was just working with a single machine. The single physical machine could make each copy of DOS seem like it was running on its own machine; the resultthe idea of the virtual machine. Each of these virtual machines can address only 1 MB of RAM. By partitioning memory, each partition runs its own copy of DOS acting like each was a separate DOS machine. This idea is very important to all of the Windows-based operating systems.
In real mode, the 80286 operates similar to an 8086. It can run programs written for the 8086 without modication. Although real mode provides backward compatibility with the 8086, it prevents the use of the 80286s additional features, which are available in protected mode. When the 80286 is in real mode, it cannot return to protected mode unless you reset the computer.
conventional memory: In a PC, the rst 640 K of memory.
protected mode: In PCs, starting with the 286, an operational state that allows the computer to address all of its memory. It also prevents an errant program from entering into the memory boundary of another. In a 386 and higher machine, it provides access to 32-bit instructions and sophisticated memory management modes.
virtual machine: The ability of a CPU to perform as multiple 8086 CPUs. Under direction of a control program, each virtual machine runs as a standalone 8086 running its own operating system and applications; thus, DOS, UNIX, and other operating systems can be running simultaneously. All virtual machines are multitasked together.
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The 386 began the tradition of having several variations of a CPU on the market. Each of the variations offers different performance and features. This allows you to take advantage of a set of new features in the CPU, but also save money by not having all of the features implemented in some variations.
386DX
The 386DX chip implements all of the 386 features. These include: full 32-bit processing including internal registers, internal and external buses, and memory address bus; 16 to 33 MHz clock speeds; and 4 GB of physical memory can be addressed.
a 24-bit memory address bus that can only address 16 MB of RAM.
Even with these limitations, the 286 CPU was rendered obsolete. The 386SX still had better memory management and could use virtual real mode.
386SL
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The 386SL chip was introduced for laptops. It is a lower-power chip. It includes a cache controller which can control 16 to 64 K of external processor cache. It also introduced the system management interrupt for power management such as prolonging battery charge and sleep mode. It ran at 25 MHz. It also introduced the 82360SL subsystem which provided peripheral functions for serial and parallel ports, DMA and interrupt controllers, and power management logic. These features were later incorporated in all CPUs.
The differences between the DX and SX include: a 16-bit external bus; and
With the 386, Intel introduced lower price-point CPUs that werent as fully featured as the complete CPU (in this case, the 386 DX). The price of the 386SX was closer to that of the 286 CPUs.
386SX
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Math Coprocessors
Math coprocessors or oating point units were designed to be added to a system to help with math calculations. The coprocessor chip must match the CPU. These are 80x87 chips that match up with the 80x86 CPU, including being the same speed. For example, a 33 MHz 80386 chip must be paired with a 33 MHz 80387 if youre going to add a math coprocessor to the system.
486 CPU
The 486 CPU is about twice the speed of the 386. Other improvements include two cycles per instruction, incorporation of Level 1 internal cache, burst mode, a built-in math coprocessor, and the ability to upgrade the CPU. Lets examine just what this means. Cache is an area in memory reserved for storing data the CPU thinks will be needed again soon. The cache area can be in RAM, on disk, or in dedicated cache chips. If it is in dedicated chips, the speed can be the same or different from the system board clock speed. It is usually faster than main memory.
math coprocessor: A mathematical circuit that performs high-speed oating point operations. It is generally built into the CPU chip. In older PCs, such as the 386SX and 486SX, the math coprocessor was an optional and separate chip.
486 Variations
As with the 386, the 486 introduced several variations to allow more exibility in price and features. These included: The 486 DX, which included all the functionality described earlier.
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The 486 SL Enhanced chip for laptops included system management mode for power management and suspend and resume modes to bring the computer back up in a matter of seconds. The 486 DX2/Overdrive was a chip with the speed doubled. Originally, it was designed to work only on 486 SX systems, but it was soon designed to also work with the DX. The 486 DX4/Overdrive was a chip with the speed tripled.
The 486 SX was designed for budget-conscious consumers. It basically just disabled the internal math coprocessor. It also has fewer transistors than the DX version of the 486.
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Level 1 internal cache is built into the CPU and isnt limited to the system board clock speed. This is usually 8 or 16 K. To really boost system performance, you need to have Level 2 cache since the Level 1 cache is so small. Still, Level 1 cache does help with system performance since it is built into the processor and is faster than accessing RAM. Level 1 cache is also called L1 cache, and Level 2 cache is also called L2 cache.
Cache chips that have their own internal clock use synchronous burst mode. In this process, only one address is sent to the CPU for a stream of data; this is referred to as a burst. Pipeline burst uses a less expensive internal storage area called a register to hold data in place of the internal clock on a cache chip. This is like having a cache for the cache.
cache: Dedicated high-speed memory for storing recently used instructions and data.
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These math coprocessors were always available (since the 8086), but the marketing push came about with the 386 systems.
Pentium CPUs
Processor information changes constantly. For a wealth of detailed and updated processor specication information, go to http:// developer.intel.com, http://support.intel.com, and www.sandpile.org.
After Intel found that it couldnt trademark its chips named with numbers, they decided to use trademarkable names. Thus, instead of calling the processor the 586 (80586), the Pentium was born. The name is derived from the Latin word for the number 5. Pentiums use a 32-bit (earlier models) or 36-bit (later models) address bus, a 64-bit external data bus, and dual 32-bit internal registers. The original Pentium could access 4 GB of memory (the same as the 386/486 chips). Later Pentiums can access 64 GB of RAM. The original P60 (60 MHz) Pentium had 3.1 million transistors. Clock speeds for the original Pentium included 60 MHz, 66 MHz, 75 MHz, 90 MHz, 100 Mhz, 120 MHz, 133 MHz, 150 MHz, 166 MHz, 180 Mhz, and 200 MHz, and have two 8 KB Level 1 caches. The cache of a Pentium is congured through CMOS to improve performance. It is manufactured using Bipolar CMOS to increase performance at least 30 percent over regular CMOS. The Pentium also takes advantage of the SL features of power management, clocking, and internal memory cache. Intels major competitors in the processor market include AMD, and Cyrix. For detailed and updated information on processors from these manufacturers check out their websites at www.amd.com and www.cyrix.com. You can also nd information on AMD and Cyrix processors at www.sandpile.org.
The Pentium Manufacturing Process and Chip Voltages

The 60 and 66 MHz Pentiums were manufactured using the 0.8 micron process. This process enables drawing 16,000 lines per inch on the chip. The resulting chips use a fair amount of power, and generate a lot of heat, making the use of a heat sink (explained later in this topic) and fan a necessity. These processors used ve volts for operation. With the introduction of the Pentium 75 in 1994, Intel switched to manufacturing processors using the 0.6 micron process, which enables drawing 21,000 lines per inch on the chip. Over time, the manufacturing process evolved to using 0.35, 0.28, 0.25, and 0.18 micron process technology, with processors today most often using the 0.25 and 0.18 micron process technology. Chips manufactured using 0.18 to 0.6 micron processes need less power, and generate less heat, but heat sinks and fans are still necessary. They can run on 3.3 volts, which is the external voltage used by all Pentium processors introduced after the Pentium 66, with the exception of some mobile Pentium processors, which can use 2.5 V external voltage. Newer chips use a design called dual-voltage or split-rail. This design uses a higher external voltage (also called I/O voltage), at 3.3 or 2.5 volts, to provide compatibility with other chips on the system board, and a lower internal, or core, voltage, which runs between 1.35 volts and 2.9 volts, depending on the processor.
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dual-voltage: Design that enables use of a higher external voltage (also called I/O voltage), and a lower internal (also called core) voltage for processors. This design is also called split-rail.
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For detailed and updated information on AMDs and Cyrixs processors, go to www.amd.com, www.cyrix.com, and www.sandpile.org.
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Superscalar Technology
Pentium systems use a superscalar technology based on dual pipelines, called the U and V pipelines, so that the CPU can execute two instructions simultaneously and independently. A single instruction requires the processor to rst read the instruction, then decode it, next get operands, then execute the instruction, and nally write the results. The U pipeline can handle any Pentium instruction; the V pipeline can handle only certain, simple instructions. This can be written as two instructions per cycle or 0.5 MHz per instruction.
Superpipelining
Another method of improving processing speed is called superpipelining. This term refers to the ability of the CPU chip to overlap the execution steps (fetch, decode, execute, and write) of four instructions. This means that while the results of instruction number 1 are written, instruction number 2 is executed, instruction number 3 is decoded, and instruction number 4 is fetched. This can increase performance from four clock cycles per instruction to one clock cycle per instruction.
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Pentiums also use speculative execution and branch prediction. Speculative execution and branch prediction are necessary because of the Pentiums superscalar technology. Rather than waiting for each instruction to nish to obtain results and identify the next necessary instruction, the process both guesses at (speculative execution) and tries to predictbased on past history(branch prediction), which instruction will be executed next. With speculative execution, multiple instructions may be executed and the processor will discard the instruction that turned out to be unnecessary. With branch prediction, the processor decides on a specic instruction to execute, based on past history, hoping that this will be the next necessary instruction. Both of these features improve processor performance.
Speculative Execution and Branch Prediction
Register Renaming
Register renaming uses multiple sets of registers in the processor to provide multiple execution paths. This way, multiple instructions being executed at the same time dont have to ght for the same register.
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superpipelining: The ability of the CPU chip to overlap the execution steps (fetch, decode, execute, and write) of four instructions.
speculative execution: The process of the CPU trying to guess which instruction will be used next, and executing one or more instructions as a result of the guess.
branch prediction: The process of the CPU trying to anticipate which code will be used next, based on past history, and executing that code.
register renaming: Technology that uses multiple sets of registers in the processor to provide multiple execution paths.
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superscalar: Technology that enables the CPU to execute two instructions simultaneously, using the U and V pipelines.
Out-of-order Completion
Out-of-order completion enables superscalar processors to re-assemble the results of instructions that were nished out of order into the correct order, so that correct program execution is assured.
out-of-order completion: Technology that enables superscalar processors to re-assemble the results of instructions that were nished out of order into the correct order. This way, correct program execution is assured.
DIB (Dual Independent Bus) architecture in Pentium processors means that two buses are used: one from the processor to the main memory, and one from the processor to the L2 cache. Using DIB architecture, the processor is able to access both buses at the same time, thus increasing throughput.
Pentium Pro
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The Pentium Pro was the rst new generation Pentium chip, introduced in 1995. It featured a large increase in addressable RAM and the addition of Level 2 cache. It was introduced to satisfy the demands of 32-bit server operating systems, as well as high-end workstations running advanced applications, such as computer-aided design (CAD) programs. It has a 64-bit data bus, can address up to 64 GB of RAM, can have clock speeds of 150 MHz to 200 MHz, and has two 8 KB Level 1 caches, and a 256, 512, or 1 MB Level 2 cache. The total number of transistors on a Pentium Pro is 5.5 million. The external and internal voltage is 3.3 V. The Pentium Pro can support up to four CPUs. The Pentium Pros internal architecture is RISC, and it uses a CISC to RISC translator. It requires the use of a specialized ZIF socket. Some motherboards boast sockets for both a regular Pentium and a Pentium Pro chip, but typically, you have to choose one or the other. The Pentium Pro was packaged using a 2.46-inch by 2.66-inch 387-pin PGA design (explained later in this topic). The package includes both the processor core and the on-board Level 2 cache. The Pentium Pro is no longer sold today.
DIB: Dual Independent Bus is the architecture used in Pentium processors. This architecture uses two busesone from the processor to main memory, and one from the processor to L2 cache. This increases throughput.
Processors Beyond the Original Pentium
Pentium Pro, Pentium MMX, Pentium II, Celeron, Pentium III, and Xeon chips have been developed since the original Pentium was released to the market in early 1993, introducing higher clock speeds, larger caches, more addressable RAM, and newer instruction sets. Pentium, Pentium MMX, Pentium II, Celeron, and Pentium III chips support the Windows operating system. Pentium, Pentium Pro, Pentium III, and Pentium III Xeon chips are optimized for the Windows NT operating system (32-bit). The Pentium III Xeon chip also supports the UNIX operating system.
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Dual Independent Bus (DIB)
Pentium with MMX

The MMX (multimedia extensions) were added to the Pentium chip in 1996 to help handle sound, video, and graphics required of todays systems. MMX provides 57 additional new instructions to help with multimedia and communications applications. It also uses SIMD (Single Instruction Multiple Data) processing. This means that a single instruction can work on multiple pieces of data when an application performs a repetitive loop. The acceleration of calculations used in 2D and 3D graphics, video, speech synthesis, and voice recognition is in the range of eight times the speed of systems without MMX technology. Only software written specially to use MMX takes advantage of these improvements. The Pentium MMX has a 64-bit data bus, can address up to 4 GB of RAM, can have clock speeds of 133 to 300 MHz, and has two 16 KB Level 1 caches. It has 4.5 million transistors and uses 0.25 and 0.28 micron process technology. The external voltage is 3.3 V (0.28 micron) or 2.5 V (0.25 micron), and the internal voltage ranges from 1.8 V to 2.8 V, depending on the process technology and CPU packaging used.
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Pentium III
Next came the Pentium III chip, which was also introduced in 1999. It has 9.5 million transistors, a signicant increase over earlier Pentiums. It includes 70 new SIMD instructions, and was developed to signicantly improve the users Internet experience, particularly the performance of advanced imaging, 3D, streaming audio, video, and speech recognition. It has a 64-bit data bus, can address up to 64 GB of RAM, can have clock speeds of 450 MHz, 500 MHz, 600 MHz, and higher (up to 1000 MHz, or 1 GHz), has two 16 KB Level 1 caches and a 256 KB or 512 KB Level 2 cache. Earlier Pentium IIIs were produced with 0.25
Next in the development of Intel chips was the Celeron, which was introduced in 1999. This chip has a 64-bit data bus, can address up to 64 GB of RAM, can have clock speeds of 333 MHz, 350 MHz, 400 MHz, and higher (up to 700 MHz), and has two 16 KB Level 1 caches, and a 128 KB Level 2 cache on 300 MHz, 333 MHz, or higher chips. The Celeron is produced using 0.25 to 0.18 micron process technology, and has an internal voltage of between 1.30 and 2.0 V (external voltage is 3.3 V). It is a lower-cost chip aimed at the lower-end consumer market.
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Celeron
Introduced in 1997, the next generation Pentium chip was the Pentium II, which has 7.5 million transistors, and uses 0.25 to 0.28 micron process technology. Its external voltage is 3.3 V, and its internal voltage is 2.8 V for processors manufactured using the 0.28 micron process technology, and 2.0 V for processors manufactured using the 0.25 micron process technology. It has a 64-bit data bus, can address up to 64 GB of RAM, can have clock speeds of 233 MHz, 266 MHz, 300 MHz, 333 MHz, 350 MHz, 400 MHz, and 450 MHz, and has two 16 KB Level 1 caches and a 512 KB Level 2 cache. It integrates MMX technology. The Pentium II was replaced by the Pentium III, and is no longer sold today.
Pentium II
SIMD: Single Instruction Multiple Data is a processing technique that allows a single instruction to work on multiple pieces of data.
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MMX: A set of additional instructions to support multimedia functions and beyond.
micron process technology. Starting with some models of the 550 MHz Pentium III, they are produced with 0.18 micron process technology. Internal voltage for the Pentium III was 2.8 V for earlier models. Starting with some models of the 500 MHz Pentium, it is 2.0 V or lower. The Pentium III can support multiprocessing with up to two CPUs.
Pentium
Pentium Pro
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60 MHz, 66 MHz, 75 MHz, 90 MHz, 100 Mhz, 120 MHz, 133 MHz, 150 MHz, 166 MHz, 180 Mhz, 200 MHz 150 MHz, 166 MHz, 180 MHz, 200 MHz 133 MHz, 150 MHz, 166 MHz, 200 MHz, 233 MHz, 266 MHz, 300 MHz 233 MHz, 266 MHz, 300 MHz, 333 MHz, 350 MHz, 400 MHz, 450 MHz
64-bit
4 GB
Pentium Processor
Clock speeds
Data bus
Addressable RAM Caches
The Pentium III Xeon chip was the next chip brought to market in 1999. It features much larger and improved Level 2 cache. The Pentium III Xeon chip has a 64-bit data bus, can address up to 64 GB of RAM, can have clock speeds from 550 MHz to 1 GHz, and has two 16 KB Level 1 caches, and a 256 KB, 512 KB, 1 MB or 2 MB Level 2 cache. Its internal voltage is 2.8 V or 5/12 V (allowing operation at either 5 V or 12 V). The Xeon was designed for multiprocessor computers, such as new generation servers. It supports multiprocessing for up to eight CPUs.
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Internal/ external voltage
5 V/5 V (not split), or 3.3 V/ 3.3 V (not split) 3.3 V/3.3 V 2.0 V or 2.8 V/3.3 V
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64-bit 64 GB 64-bit 4 GB Two 16 KB L1, and one 256 KB, 512 KB, or 1 MB L2 Two 16 KB L1 Yes, up to four processors. 1.8 V to 3.3 V/2.5 V or 3.3 V Yes, up to two processors. 64-bit 64 GB Two 16 KB L1, and one 512 KB L2 Yes, up to two processors.
Pentium with MMX
Pentium II
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Two 8 KB L1
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Multiprocessor support
Yes, up to two processors.
Pentium III Xeon
Pentium Processor
Celeron
Clock speeds
266 MHz, 300 MHz, 333 MHz, 366 MHz, 400 MHz, 433 MHz, 466 MHz, 500 MHz, 533 MHz, 566 MHz, 600 MHz, 633 MHz, 667 MHz, 700 MHz 450 MHz, 500 MHz, 533 MHz, 550 MHz, 600 MHz, 650 MHz, 667 MHz, 700 MHz, 733 MHz, 750 MHz, 800 MHz, 850 MHz, 866 MHz, 933 MHz, 1000 MHz 600 MHz, 667 MHz, 700 MHz, 733 MHz, 800 MHz, 866 MHz, 933 MHz, 1000 MHz
Data bus
64-bit
Addressable RAM Caches

64 GB Two 16 KB L1, and one 128 KB L2 on models 300A and above
Internal/ external voltage

1.30 to 2.1 V/3.3 V
Multiprocessor support
No.
Intel Pentium III
64-bit
64 GB
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Intel Pentium III Xeon
64-bit
64 GB
Two 16 KB L1, and 256 KB, 512 KB, 1 MB, or 2 MB L2
N
2.8 V or 5/12 V/3.3 V Yes, up to eight processors.
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Two 16 KB L1, and one 256 or 512 KB L2
1.5 V to 2.05 V (earlier models 2.8 V)/3.3 V
Yes, up to two processors.
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The Next Generation of Processors

In the future, Intel wont be developing the x86 processor architecture further. To be able to satisfy future processing demands, Intel has been working to introduce a new generation of processors that arent CISC or RISC. Intel considers the new generation processors EPIC (Explicitly Parallel Instruction Computing). This design resembles VLIW (Very Long Instruction Word), which takes multiple simple instructions and combines them into a longer internal instruction word format. It uses execution units that can execute all instructions in an instruction word in parallel.
TASK 3C-1:
Reviewing Processors
1.
The 8086, 286, 386, 486, and Pentium.
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Pentium, Pentium Pro, Pentium MMX, Pentium II, Celeron, Pentium III, and Pentium III Xeon. What will Intels next generation processor chip be called? Merced.
3.
4.
What does the acronym EPIC stand for? Explicitly Parallel Instruction Computing.
5.
What is the most common external voltage, and the range for internal voltage, for Pentium processors? 3.3 or 2.5 V external voltage, and from 1.3 to 12 V internal voltage.
6.
Dene the term superscalar. Superscalar technology allows the use of dual pipelines, called the U and V pipelines. This enables simultaneous execution of two instructions.
2.
What are the names of the processors in Intels Pentium line of processors?
What are the major processors in Intels x86 line of processors?
Merced is the code name for the next generation of processors from Intel. It is a departure from the x86 processor architecture, featuring a completely new design and instruction set. x86 programs will be supported through hardware translation, providing backward compatibility with existing DOS and Windows applications. Clock speeds will be between 600 MHz and 1000 MHz.
EPIC: Stands for Explicitly Parallel Instruction Computing. A new processor design that resembles Very Long Instruction Word (VLIW), which takes multiple simple instructions and combines them into a longer internal instruction word format.
Merced
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7.
Explain the meaning of the term dual-voltage, and identify another term that describes this concept. A dual-voltage design uses a higher external, or I/O, voltage, to provide compatibility with other chips on the system board, and a lower internal, or core, voltage. Another term for dual-voltage is split-rail.
8.
What is the benet of branch prediction? The CPU can anticipate, based on past history, which instruction will be executed next by an application and automatically start execution of this instruction. This improves processor performance because the CPU doesnt have to wait for the results of the previous instruction.
One.
Mobile Processors
Comparing CPUs
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You learned earlier that clock speed refers to the number of processing cycles that a microprocessor can perform in a given second. MIPS (Millions of Instructions Per Second) refers to the number of instructions that a microprocessor can perform in a given second. These two measurements are related, but they are not identical. Some microprocessors require several cycles to assemble and perform a single instruction, whereas other microprocessors require fewer cycles. A microprocessor can have a slower clock speed than another microprocessor, and a higher MIPS rating if the slower microprocessor uses clock cycles more efficiently. Realistically, the MIPS rating doesnt provide an accurate measurement because no two chips use identical instructions, execution methods, and so on.
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Clock Speed and MIPS
There are many ways to compare microprocessors. Several of these are described in the following sections.
Mobile processors are processors used in portable computers. Common processors include the Intel Mobile Pentium MMX, the Mobile Celeron, the Mobile Pentium II and Pentium III, and the AMD K6-2. Mobile processors are presented in greater detail in Lesson 8.
T
MIPS: Millions of Instructions Per Second. The execution speed of a computer; for example, 0.7 MIPS is 700,000 instructions per second.
C
9.
How many clock cycles are required per instruction using a processor that uses superpipelining?
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Internal and External Bus Width

The data bus width refers to the number of bits the microprocessor can move at one time. The wider the bus, the faster the data can move. The internal bus width refers to the bus inside the microprocessor. The external bus width refers to the bus that the microprocessor uses to communicate with external devices in the computer. In many microprocessors, the internal and external data buses are not the same width.
Addressable Memory
Processor (Date)
8086 (1978) 8088 (1979) 80286 (1982) 80386DX (1985) 80386SX (1988) 80486DX (1989) 80386SL (1990) 80486SX (1991) Pentium (1993) Pentium Pro (1995) Pentium with MMX (1996) Pentium II (1997) Celeron (1999) Pentium III (1999) Pentium III Xeon (1999)
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5 to 10 5 6 to 12 16 to 40 16 to 33 25 to 66 20 to 25 20 to 25 60 to 200 150 to 200 133 to 300
Internal Bus
16 bits 16 bits 16 bits 32 bits 32 bits 32 bits 32 bits 32 bits 32 bits 32 bits 32 bits 32 bits 32 bits 32 bits 32 bits
External Bus
16 bits 8 bits 16 bits 32 bits 16 bits 32 bits 16 bits 32 bits 64 bits 64 bits 64 bits 64 bits 64 bits 64 bits 64 bits
Clock (MHz)
N
X
O
8-bit Data Bus
T
16-bit Data Bus
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233 to 450 333 to 700 450 to 1000 550 to 1000 (1 GHz)
TASK 3C-2:
Identifying the Processor Internal Bus Width
1. For each of the following CPUs, indicate the width of its data bus by placing an X in the appropriate column. 32-bit Data Bus 64-bit Data Bus
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8080
The microprocessor can also be described by the amount of memory it can address. The formula to calculate addressable memory is 2n, where n equals the address bus width. The following table compares popular microprocessors manufactured by Intel Corporation. Addressable Memory
1 MB 1 MB 16 MB 4 GB 16 MB 4 GB 32 MB 4 GB 4 GB 64 GB 4 GB 64 GB 64 GB 64 GB 64 GB
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Both the internal and external buses have a data and address component. The data bus refers to moving data, whereas the address bus refers to locating the data.
8-bit Data Bus

8086 8088 80286 386DX 386SX 486DX 486SX Pentium Pentium Pro Pentium with MMX Pentium II Celeron Pentium III Pentium III Xeon
16-bit Data Bus

X X X
32-bit Data Bus
64-bit Data Bus
2.
For each of the following CPUs, indicate the width of its address bus by placing an X in the appropriate column. 8-bit Address Bus
8080 8086 8088 80286 386DX 386SX 486DX 486SX Pentium Pentium Pro Pentium II Pentium III X X X
X X
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N
X X X X
20-bit Address Bus
24-bit Address Bus
32-bit Address Bus
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Heat Sinks and Fans

As processors became more and more powerful, they also generated more and more heat, introducing the possibility of damage to or failure of the chip due to overheating. Damage can cause unpredictable processor behavior, such as system lockups, sudden reboots, and the like. Failure obviously means that the chip is no
A Processor with Heat Sink and Fan
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X X X
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36-bit Address Bus
X X X X X X X
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X X X X
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100
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Figure 3-4: A processor with heat sink and fan.
Servicing Processors
Processors have no servicable parts. When a processor is defective, you need to install a new one. Processors come in a variety of packages. The two most general categories of packages include slot-based and socketed. Slot-based processors plug into a system board in much the same way as an expansion board; socketed processors plug into a system board using a grid array of pins. When you replace a processor, you must select a processor that is compatible with the type supported by the system board. Also, you must be careful to line up Pin 1 on the processor with Pin 1 on the socket. Otherwise, the processor wont work and might even be damaged. Also, with socketed processors, you must be careful not to bend the pins when removing or inserting the processor. Otherwise, you can ruin the processor, which is costly to replace.You can also purchase adapters that allow you to use a socketed processor in a slot-based system board. The most commonly used packages are Dual Inline Package (DIP), Pin Grid Array (PGA), and Single Edge Contact Cartridge (SECC). Each of these is described in more detail in the following section.
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heat sink: A device attached to a processor that addresses the problem of overheating processors. Cool air is blown by a fan onto the devices metal elements, keeping the air around the processor cool.
longer usable. Starting with the 486 processor, heat sinks with fans were added to address the problem of overheating processors. These devices are either glued to the CPU or attached with a clamp. To prevent overheating, cool air is blown onto the heat sink metal elements, keeping the air around the processor cool. It is imperative that the connection to the CPU is tight. In terms of troubleshooting, if a customer hears whining noises inside their computer, its likely the CPU fan is starting to go bad. As a preventative measure, its a good idea to periodically (every six months to a year) clean any dust from the fan. Before cleaning the fan, remove it from the chip (if its clamped on). You can use a computer vacuum to remove accumulated dust.
Dual Inline Package (DIP)

DIP (Dual Inline Package) packaging refers to a design of two rows of pins, one on each side of the CPU package. This older-style packaging, used for 8086, 8088, and some 80286 CPUs, is obsolete now because it isnt possible to t enough components onto a board. A DIP package has a notch on one end to identify the end that holds Pin 1. When you install a DIP-packaged processor, you can use this notch to line up the processor correctly.
Pin Grid Array (PGA)

PGA (Pin Grid Array) packaging refers to a packaging design on which the pins are distributed evenly in parallel rows on the entire bottom of a square or rectangular chip. PGA packaging was most commonly used for 386, 486, and early Pentium processors. Two forms exist, ceramic PGA (CPGA) packaging, and plastic PGA (PPGA) packaging. A commonly used processor today for lower-end systems, the Celeron, uses PPGA. Another form of packaging, called the Flip Chip Pin Grid Array (FC-PGA), is used by many of todays Pentium III processors. The difference between the PPGA packaging and FC-PGA packaging is that on the PPGA package, the silicon core faces toward the system board, and on the FC-PGA package, the silicon core faces upward, away from the system board. With the FC-PGA package, the silicon core makes direct contact with the heat sink for more efficient cooling. Both the PPGA package and the FC-PGA package connect to the PGA370 ZIF socket. To accommodate the larger number of connections used on todays processors, SPGA (Staggered Pin Grid Array) pin arrangement is used on todays chips. This design staggers pins so that more pins will t on the same amount of surface. This design is used by most Pentium chips. You can nd Pin 1 by locating the corner that doesnt have a 90 degree angle (but rather looks as though the corner has been cut off).
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Figure 3-5: Diagram of a PPGA processor using an SPGA pin arrangement.
PGA: A Pin Grid Array is a type of CPU packaging design on which pins are distributed evenly in parallel rows on the entire bottom of a square chip.
SPGA: Stands for Staggered Pin Grid Array. This CPU packaging design staggers pins so that more pins will t on the same amount of surface.
Diagram of a PPGA Processor Using an SPGA Pin Arrangement
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DIP: Dual Inline Packages are CPU packaging designs that feature two rows of pins, one down each side of the CPU package. Used with older CPUs, through the 80286.
Single Edge Contact Cartridge (SECC)

SECC (Single Edge Contact Cartridge) packaging refers to a design where the processor is located on a circuit board that is inserted into a slot on the system board, much in the fashion of adding an expansion board. This packaging is also called SEC Cartridge. The edge connector for this mount is proprietary. This type of packaging greatly reduces the possibility of damaging the processor during installation or removal. The Level 2 cache is also located on the circuit board, but external from the processor, and connected to the processor via a high-speed bus. SECC packaging is used with Pentium II processors. A newer design, SECC2, doesnt have an extended thermal plate, which reduces thermal resistance. Its used with Pentium III processors, and newer versions of the Pentium II processor.
Figure 3-6: An SECC package on a system board.
Socket and Slot Types
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A plethora of information about which processor in which packaging will t into which socket or slot is available at www.sandpile.org.
Several Examples of CPU Sockets
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In order to connect processors to the system board (for example to put together a system, replace a bad chip, or to upgrade a computer using an overdrive chip), you will have to insert the processor into a socket or slot located on the system board. Only certain processors will t into each socket or slot type. To see detailed information on which processor in which packaging will t into which socket or slot, you can go to www.sandpile.org, where this information is available for each processor. Each socket type supports a specic number of pins, and a specic type of CPU packaging. Two slot types are available, Slot 1 (also called SC242) and Slot 2, for processors using SECC and SECC2 packaging.
An SECC Package on a System Board
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SECC: Stands for Single Edge Contact Cartridge. Type of CPU packaging that refers to a design where the processor is located on a circuit board that is inserted into a slot on the system board.
Figure 3-7: Several examples of CPU sockets.
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Socket #/Slot #
1 2
Supported CPU Packaging

17 x 17 PGA 19 x 19 PGA
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# of Pins
Note that overdrive chips, which were designed to enable you to upgrade a computers performance simply by replacing the original processor with a new (overdrive) processor on the older system board (for example, replacing a 486 processor on a 486 system board with a Pentium overdrive processor), can be inserted into sockets that wouldnt be able to hold the regular equivalent of the overdrive chip. As an example, Pentium overdrive chips can t into sockets 2, 3, and 6, but regular Pentium chips t only into sockets 4, 5, or 7. Today, its typically cheaper to just buy a new computer with a new system board and processor rather than using overdrive chips to upgrade a system. Intel no longer manufactures overdrive processors today. The following table broadly summarizes socket and slot information for processor chips, starting with the 486 processor.
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overdrive chip: Chip that enables you to upgrade a computers performance simply by replacing the original processor with a new (overdrive) processor on the older system board.
Figure 3-8: Slot 1 (for SECC packaging).
169 238
4 5 6 7 8 PGA370 (ZIF socket) Slot 1, or SC242 Slot 2
19 x 19 PGA
237
21 x 21 PGA 37 x 37 SPGA 19 x 19 PGA 21 x 21 SPGA 21 x 24 SPGA PPGA or FC-PGA SECC and SECC2 SECC
273 320 235 321 387 370 242 330
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Processors Supported
80486 SX, 80486 SX2, 80486 DX, 80486 DX2 80486 SX, 80486 SX2, 80486 DX, 80486 DX2, 80486 DX4, Pentium overdrive 80486 SX, 80486 SX2, 80486 DX, 80486 DX2, 80486 DX4, Pentium overdrive Pentium 60, Pentium 66 Pentium 80486 DX4, Pentium overdrive Pentium Pentium Pro Celeron, Pentium III Pentium II, Celeron, Pentium III Xeon
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Slot 1 (For SECC Packaging)
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Because the majority of processors and sockets are square, its possible to insert them the wrong way. Always line up Pin 1 on the chip with Pin 1 on the socket to make sure the chip is inserted correctly. Typically, Pin 1 is marked on the chip in some way, either by a notched corner, a dot, or the number one printed in one corner. Newer chips, however, use an assymetrical pin layout, and thus wrong insertion isnt possible in that case.
TASK 3C-3:
1.
If youre removing a slot-based processor, open the clips on the retention mechanism, and then pull the processor straight up (away from the system board) until it clears the retention mechanism. If youre installing a slot-based processor, align the processor in the retention mechanism, then push straight down (toward the system board) until its seated properly.
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2.
If youre removing a socketed processor, release the locking lever and leave it in a vertical position. Next, gently pry the processor free from the ZIF socket. If youre installing a socketed processor, align Pin 1 on the microprocessor with Pin 1 on the ZIF socket. Push the processor into the socket, and
Depending on the type of microprocessors you have available, you will either perform step 1 or step 2, but not both.
Setup: Your instructor will inform you if you should perform step 1 or step 2.
Replacing a Microprocessor
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then push the locking lever down until it snaps into place.
Topic 3D
System Boards
Types of System Boards
The datapath refers to the width (in bits) of or the number of channels in the bus.
Before we delve any further into a discussion of these two board types, we need to dene some terms: A bus is one of the sets of conductors connecting the various functional units in a computer.
bus: A set of physical and logical interconnections between the computer and add-on boards.
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There are two main types of system boards: XT and AT. The XT (eXtended Technology) boards were used in the original IBM PCs or XT PCs, which used the 8088 processor. The AT boards were introduced with the 80286 processor. Since the introduction of AT boards, other system board types have been introduced, including Baby AT, LPX, ATX, NLX, and microATX. Each type of system board has a unique physical size and feature set.
As you know, the system board is the main printed circuit board. It contains the sockets needed to install additional boards. These additional boards are sometimes referred to as daughter boards.
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datapath: The number of bits wide or the number of channels in the bus.
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CMOS: Stands for Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor. A small memory bank backed up by a battery that stores system conguration settings.
The CMOS is a technology introduced with AT system boards for conguration (rather than using jumpers, switches, or both) to congure the system. RAM is volatile (non-permanent) memory used by applications to store data.
The following table compares the XT and AT system boards. XT

Datapath Addressable RAM Congured by Designed around the 8-bit bus 1 MB Jumpers/switches Intel 8088
AT
Clock Speed
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Enclosure Styles
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There are several styles of enclosures for PCs. The original style was the desktop model. This took up a good piece of real estate on your desk. So, the tower model was developed. This could sit vertically on the oor next to your desk, thus not robbing you of precious desk space. Since the tower proved to be popular, there are now several versions of the tower model: Full Towerusually used for servers or when you will be installing many drives and other components. Mid Towera slightly smaller version of the full-size tower. Micro Towerthis size replaces the original desktop case in most modern systems.
Enclosure Styles
The newer AT boards can be congured to run at different clock speeds. You should congure your system board to run at the highest speed the board is rated for.
The system board frequency needs to match the speed of the oscillator. This determines the speed at which the CPU runs. If the system board and CPU chip dont match speeds, the chip can overheat, produce random results, or be damaged or destroyed.
clock speed: The frequency at which the system board and CPU operate.
People often refer to their systems by the clock speed, rather than by the system board type. You will hear someone say they have a 233 MHz system. This refers to the number of cycles per second or frequency. This is determined by an oscillator or electronic clock on the system board that is congured for a specic frequency.
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16-bit bus 16 MB CMOS Intel 80286
Figure 3-9: Enclosure styles.
Full-size AT System Board
The AT system boards have been designed with different shapes and sizes. This is referred to as the form factor. Lets examine the various form factors and determine the various components on the system board based on their general outline, and their location on the board.
Form Factors
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Form Factors
form factor: The size and shape of AT system boards.
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The full-size AT system board is usually used in tower cases today. Originally, it was designed from the original XT motherboard. These original full-size systems took up a large amount of desktop space. By orienting tower systems vertically, they can stand on the oor and not take up desktop space, and can still use the full-size system board.
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Full-size AT System Board
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Figure 3-10: Full-size AT system board.
Baby AT System Board

In an effort to free up desk space, a smaller computer was needed. However, the AT system board had become very popular. The Baby AT system board was developed to meet this need. It ts into a smaller case, but is otherwise the same as the original system board. It works in any case except for those considered low prole or slimline. (Well get to the system board for those cases in a minute.) This board also used the 5-pin DIN keyboard connector. The exibility of this board has made it the most popular system board of all the ones well be discussing.
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Baby AT System Board
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DIN: Stands for Deutsche Industrie Norm. A type of connector with 5 pins.
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The main form factor of a full-size AT system board is the size: 12 inches by 13.8 inches. These system boards have 16-bit or better transfer buses, use CMOS for conguration settings, and have a 5-pin DIN keyboard connection.
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Figure 3-11: Baby AT system board.
LPX System Boards
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Slimline and low-prole cases were being developed about the same time as the Baby AT system board was introduced. However, these smaller cases couldnt use even the Baby AT board. The LPX and Mini-LPX system boards were developed for these cases. These are your typical desktop cases. A riser card is used to plug expansion cards into the system board. This riser cards enables the expansion cards to lie sideways (the same orientation as the system board). Thus, the case doesnt have to be as high as the card. Another difference in this system board is that it uses a PS/2-style keyboard connector rather than the 5-pin DIN connector used on the AT boards. Video, parallel, and two serial ports were placed at the rear of the board in standard locations on the LPX boards.
T
LPX System Board
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Figure 3-12: LPX system board.
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ATX System Boards

In 1995, Intel introduced the ATX system board. It is the standard for new system boards. All Pentium Pro systems use the ATX form factor. Older Pentium systems are usually built on AT system boards. Compared to AT system boards, the ATX boards provide better I/O support, lower cost, easier use, and better processor support.
ATX System Board
Figure 3-13: ATX system board.
Since Pentium chips tend to run hot, the placement of the CPU near the power supply cooling fan prevents you from needing a separate cooling fan for the CPU.
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NLX System Board
110
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The CPU is closer to the cooling fan on the power supply. Also, the cooling circulation blows air into the case instead of blowing air out of the case. I/O ports are integrated into the board along with PS/2 connectors (instead of 5-pin DIN connectors). You can access the entire board without reaching around drives. They did this by rotating the board 90 degrees. Cant be used in Baby AT or LPX cases.
NLX System Boards

Intels NLX system board replaces the LPX system board. Its a small form factor designed around the Pentium II processor. It supports DIMM technology and accelerated graphics port (AGP) technology.
Some of the features of the ATX board are: Power supply with a single, keyed 20-pin connector. 3.3 V DC is available directly from the power supply, rather than requiring voltage regulators to reduce voltage down from 5 V.
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Figure 3-14: NLX system board.
Identifying Computer Enclosures and System Board Form Factors

1. For each of the following computer enclosures, name a distinguishing characteristic.
Full Tower Mid Tower Micro Tower Desktop
Form Factor
2.
For each of the following form factors, indicate whether its representative of an older PC or a newer PC. Matching Enclosure
Older Newer Older Newer
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AT ATX LPX NLX
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Very expandable; multiple drive bays. Good expansion capabilities; vertical design for desktop or oor. Vertical enclosure with little expandability. Horizontal enclosure designed for setting a monitor on its top.
Enclosure
Distinguishing Characteristic
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TASK 3D-1:
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System Board Components

Figure 3-15 shows a generic system board. It identies the basic components of a system board. You will examine each of these components throughout the course in greater detail, but lets examine the purpose of each of these components briey now.
A Generic System Board
Figure 3-15: A generic ATX system board.
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Be sure to note that you can easily visually identify the difference between 25-pin serial and parallel ports because serial connectors are male and parallel connectors are female.
Component
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BIOS Processor slot Memory slots L2 cache PCI slots ISA slots Keyboard connector Mouse connector Serial port Parallel port USB port Chipset AGP slot Power supply connector Floppy drive connector
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System board components include: Description
Basic Input/Output System; used for conguring system hardware. Where the CPU is installed. Where system RAM memory is installed. Where the processor stores frequently used data and instructions. Slots for 32-bit PCI cards. Slots for 16-bit ISA cards. 5-pin DIN or PS/2 port. PS/2 port. DB9 or DB25 (9- or 25-pin D shaped) male connector. DB25 female connector. Peripheral connection designed to be Plug and Play compatible, and to eliminate the need to install expansion cards. Integrated circuit that provides the system boards core functionality. Dedicated video card adapter slot. Connects the power supply to the system board. Connects the oppy drive to the system.
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Component
IDE connector
Description
Connects xed hard drives and removable drives, such as a CD-ROMs to the system.
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N
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TASK 3D-2:
Identifying the System Boards Major Components
1. Using the following diagram, match each system board component to its corresponding name.
Parallel port 9 AGP slot 11 BIOS 3 Power supply connector 12 Processor slot 1 IDE connectors 13 ISA slots 6 Floppy drive connector 14 Keyboard Cconnector 7 Memory slots 2 Chipset 4
USB ports 10
Mouse connector 8
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PCI slots 5
Repairing System Boards

Todays system boards are highly integrated and generally not repairable. When you examine a system board, you will nd that there are very few components on the board that are actually repairable. For example, if a built-in port fails, you will have to install an expansion card that provides that ports functionality. If an integrated circuit fails, you will have to replace the system board. Even if youre highly skilled in the use of a soldering iron, in most cases, when a system board fails, youll replace it. Other than the battery, theres virtually nothing you can repair on a system board. When you replace a system board, you must ensure that its properly congured to match the processor that it will host. In essence, you must congure the system board so that the internal and external frequencies of the processor are compatible. You accomplish this by specifying a frequency multiple. Most system boards operate at either 66 MHz or 100 MHz. When you multiply the CPU bus frequency by its multiplier, you get the advertised internal frequency of the CPU. For example, if you want to run a 500 MHz processor on a 100 MHz system board, you would select a multiplier of 5.0, as shown in Figure 3-16. Additionally, if the system board has an AGP bus, you must set the frequency ratio between the AGP bus and the CPU bus.
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Figure 3-16: CPU internal frequencies, CPU external (bus) frequencies, and multipliers. System boards usually have a set of DIP switches that allow you to specify the multiplier and the CPU bus frequency. On some newer system boards, you can disable the DIP switches on the system board, so you can congure these values through the BIOS setup program.
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CPU Frequencies
DIP switch: Switches on a card used to congure hardware settings. These are usually rocker switches (like light switches) to turn on or off.
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N
The battery provides power to the CMOS, so the CMOS settings can be retained while the computer is turned off.
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TASK 3D-3:
Examining the System Board DIP Switch Settings
1. 2. 3. 4. Shut down the operating system and power down the computer. Using the system boards manual as a reference, locate the DIP switches on the system board that control CPU bus frequency. Record the DIP switch settings for the CPU bus frequency and multiplier.
ROM
You learned earlier that Read-Only Memory maintains information even after the computer is turned off. As the name implies, the contents of ROM can be read, but it is difficult or impossible to change. (You can write to certain types of ROM, but only by using special equipment.) Because the contents of ROM remain intact when the computer is turned off, ROM is ideal for storing basic instructions that the computer needs for startup purposes. The ROM in microcomputers is sometimes called BIOS (Basic Input/Output System). In certain microcomputers (usually small, portable computers that do not have built-in harddrive storage), ROM might also contain a specialized operating system or application software.
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Programmable ROM
There are four basic types of ROM that can be changed in varying degrees. The following table describes them. Type
PROM
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Flash ROM: Memory that stores data similarly to EEPROM, but uses a super-voltage charge to erase a block of data. Can only be erased and rewritten a few times.
EPROM
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Description
Programmable Read-Only Memory chips can only be written to once by a special burner. The blank chip you receive is burned with the instructions. After it has been burned, it cant be changed. Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory chips are burned the same way as PROMs; by using ultraviolet light, the entire chip is erased, and then new instructions burned in. This is a very popular ROM chip.
Next, we need to examine the physical memory installed in your system. Some of this memory is volatile and some is non-volatile. Non-volatile memory retains the information whether the PC is turned on or not. It is used in ROM chips. Volatile memory retains information only while the PC is turned on. It is used in RAM chips.
Memory
Topic 3E
Compare the DIP switch settings to the recommended values in the system board manual.
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Type
EEPROM
Description
Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory chips use a higher voltage than is normally used to erase information. Instructions are removed a byte at a time, rather than erasing the entire chip at once. These are often used in peripherals such as printers since the changes to the chip can be made without opening the case. Also known as Flash Memory. It stores data similarly to the EEPROM. It uses a super-voltage charge to erase a block of data, though. It can only be erased and rewritten to a few times (it cant be unlimitedly redone).
Flash ROM
RAM
A general-purpose memory area called Random Access Memory (RAM) enables the microcomputer to hold instructions and data. Data in RAM is processed by copying the data to the processors registers, where calculations are performed. The results are then copied to RAM. RAM is described as random access because any storage location in RAM can be accessed directly. You do not have to read through memory locations one by one sequentially. A continuous ow of electricity is necessary to keep Random Access Memory intact. If the computer loses power, the contents of RAM are lost. Also, new information replaces information currently in RAM when RAM becomes full. This is referred to as being volatile. A memory controller is placed between RAM and the CPU. It is responsible for supervising data movement out of memory. It also checks the data integrity checking used (if any). The following list describes some of the most common types of RAM available: DRAM (Dynamic RAM) is the most common type of RAM and holds a charge for short periods of time and must be refreshed often with power from the main power supply. The data in RAM is lost if it isnt refreshed. SRAM (Static RAM) gets its charge from the system board battery. Some systems use SRAM for main computer memory rather than DRAM. When SRAM is used for main memory, the power is supplied from the main power supply. SRAM is used in Level 2 (L2) cache, which is usually outside of the CPU. This type of RAM is very fast. Other uses for SRAM include CMOS, burst mode, and for credit-card memory cards from 128 K up to 4 MB with a very long battery life. SDRAM (Synchronous DRAM) has a clock that is coordinated with the system clock and is used to synchronize the memory chips input and output signals. SDRAM is faster than regular DRAM. It is often used in video cards so that graphics processing can be moved out of the main CPU.
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Types of RAM
SDRAM: Stands for Synchronous DRAM. Memory that has a clock that is coordinated with the system clock to synchronize the memory chips input and output signals.
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RDRAM: Stands for Rambus Dynamic Random Access Memory. A new memory architecture by Rambus, Inc. that supports speeds of up to 800 Mhz.
RDRAM (Rambus Dynamic Random Access Memory) is a new memory architecture developed by Rambus, Inc. to support speeds of up to 800 MHz. EDO RAM (Extended Data Output RAM) is a type of DRAM that enables a memory address to hold data for multiple reads. Instead of reading a data bit using discharge, EDO doesnt discharge a memory address until a new bit of data is written to that memory address. In other types of memory, a wait state (usually 10 nanoseconds) is required before an address is able to hold a new charge. EDO memory is no-wait state memory. This makes it faster than other types of memory. This results in at least a 15 percent improvement in performance.
parity bit: An extra bit attached to a byte, character, or word used to detect errors in transmission.
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ECC: An Error Correct Code is a type of memory that corrects errors on the y.
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WRAM: Stands for Window RAM. Developed by Samsung Electronics, this type of RAM is optimized for display adapters.
Each byte of memory contains 8 bits, or switches. In many computers, a ninth bit, or parity bit, is used to verify the integrity of the data stored in that byte. When data is stored, the computer counts the number of bits that contain a 1 value. Based on whether the sum of those bits is an odd or even number, the computer places a 0 or 1 in the parity bit. At any time after that, the bits can be added and compared to the parity bit to verify that the contents of memory are valid. There are two types of parity checking: odd and even. For odd parity, if the parity bit is 0, and there is an odd number of 1s, the data is considered valid and the parity bit is removed from the data, then the remaining bits are sent through. If the parity bit is 1, and there are an even number of 1s, the data is invalid, and a parity error is generated. For even parity, the meanings of the 1 or 0 parity bit is reversed. The main thing to remember is that parity checking uses an extra bit per each byte which is set to 1 or 0 based on whether the byte is made up of an even or odd number of 1s or 0s. On some lower-end systems, manufacturers use fake parity that sends a 1 or 0 to the parity circuit based on which state is expected; everything comes through as valid whether it is or not. Other systems disable parity checking completely. The SIMMs must have parity capabilities and the system board must be congured to enable parity.
ECC
ECC (Error Correct Code) uses an algorithm and works with the memory controller to add error correction code bits to each data bit sent to memory. The memory controller then decodes the error correction bits and decides whether the data bit is valid. The main difference between ECC and parity checking is that ECC can detect and correct one-bit errors (as opposed to whole bytes being checked with
VRAM: Stands for Video RAM. These chips have two access paths to a single memory address, to improve performance. One path is used for reads, the other for writes.
WRAM (Window RAM) is a type of RAM developed by Samsung Electronics that is optimized for display adapters. Although faster than VRAM, it uses the same type of dual-ported structure that simultaneously refreshes the screen while text and images are being drawn in the memory. It was developed specically as a video graphics accelerator for Windows 3.x.
Parity Checking
EDO RAM: Stands for Extended Data Output RAM. A type of DRAM that enables a memory address to hold data for multiple reads.
VRAM (Video RAM) chips have two access paths to a single memory address. Information is read on one path and written to memory by the CPU on the other path. These chips are larger than DRAM chips, are more expensive, but can improve performance in the range of 60 percent.
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parity). ECC is most often used on high-end servers. ECC can detect multiple-bit errors, but can only correct single-bit errors. Parity cant correct any errors. In general, high-end systems use ECC memory controllers, business-level systems use parity checking, and low-end home systems often use no parity checking or fake parity.
Identifying Types of Memory

1. Match the memory type on the right to its description on the left: c Uses transistors and doesnt require constant refreshing. Uses capacitors and requires constant refreshing. Increases performance by eliminating wait states. Operates at a clock speed that matches the CPU bus. Special type of memory used on accelerator cards. Type of memory that increases color depth and resolution. Supports speeds of up to 800 MHz. a. DRAM
b.
WRAM
f g
c. d.
SRAM VRAM
b d
e. f.
RDRAM EDO RAM
Memory Chip Packages
Memory is manufactured in different chip packages. The most common types of memory chip packages are SIMMs and DIMMs. Newer technology includes RIMMs.
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SIMMs are groups of DRAM chips on a printed circuit board which ts in a socket on the system board. The chips are placed in a line, hence the name. The modules have opposing pins on either side of the board connecting to form a single electrical contact. There are 72 pins on a SIMM. SIMMs must be installed in pairs.
SIMMs
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g.
SDRAM
N
Remember that DRAM refers to chips and SIMM refers to a module.
Dont mix different types of SIMMs within a memory bank. This prevents the CPU from determining how much memory it has, resulting in either a boot failure or not using some memory. If you use SIMMs with different speeds within a memory bank, you need to use the same or faster speed of module than what you are replacing or adding to. All of the memory banks together run at the speed of the slowest SIMM.
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TASK 3E-1:
DIMMs
There are also DIMMs, which are Dual In-line Memory Modules. These have opposing pins on either side of the board that are electronically isolated to form two separate contacts with the system board. DIMMs are often used in systems with 64-bit or wider memory buses. There are 168 pins on a DIMM. DIMMs can be installed individually as opposed to pairs.
RIMM: Stands for Rambus In-line Memory Module. A memory module for RDRAM. Supports from one to 16 direct RDRAM devices in Rambus channel. Used primarily as main memory on a system board.
TASK 3E-2:
Replacing Memory
1.
Refer to the following diagram as you complete the steps in this task:
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2. 3. 4. 5.
For each installed DIMM, unlock the DIMM by releasing the locking lever on either side of the DIMM until it pops out of its socket. Observe the pin groupings (88, 60, and 20). Compare the key on the DIMM to the matching key in the DIMM socket. Re-install the DIMM by inserting it into its socket (make sure the keys match). Push down on the DIMM until the locking lever snaps into place.
Setup: The computer enclosure has already been removed and the computer is unplugged.
RIMM (Rambus In-line Memory Module) is a 184-pin, 2.5 volt, 600 or 800 MHz, 16-bit and 18-bit memory module for Direct Rambus Dynamic Random Access Memory (Direct RDRAM). A RIMM memory module can support from one to 16 direct RDRAM devices in Rambus channel. Direct Rambus Channel provides support for up to three RIMMs. RIMMs primary use is as main memory installed on system boards.
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RIMMS
Summary
In this lesson, we identied the technical characteristics of the major system componentsthe power supply, ROM BIOS, processor, system board, and RAM memory. We described the boot process and the POST routine. Then, we discussed the evolution of the Intel processor family. Finally, we looked at conguring a system board to match the processor it will host and described the processes for installing RAM memory.
3A Describe the primary function of a power supply.

A power supply converts the alternating current from a wall outlet to the direct current required by the system board. Besides supplying power to the system board and its components, it also supplies power to internal devices, such as hard drives and expansion cards.
3B Describe the difference between the BIOS and CMOS.
3C Describe the observable, physical characteristic that distinguishes a Pentium and earlier processor from many Pentium II and later processors.
Early Pentium and earlier processors used PGA packaging, whereas many Pentium II and later processors use SECC packaging. However, todays Pentium III and Celeron processors also use FC-PGA and PPGA packaging, with an SPGA pin arrangement.
3D Describe the characteristics of a standard ATX system board.

ATX is an evolution of the popular Baby AT form factor. The processor has been relocated away from the expansion slots to allow for more full-length cards and the capability for hosting more on-board I/O connectors. A exible I/O panel allows ATX to support many different I/O requirements. The ATX power supply includes 3.3 VDC and an ATX power connector. The ATX system board typically provides two ISA slots and four PCI slots.
3E Describe the difference between a SIMM, DIMM, and RIMM.
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SIMMs have 72 pins and must be installed in pairs; DIMMs have 168 pins and can be installed individually, RIMMs have 184 pins and up to three RIMMs can be installed on a Direct Rambus Channel.
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The BIOS is software built into a ROM chip that allows you to congure hardware devices. The CMOS is a special type of memory that stores the conguration settings you make in the ROM BIOS.
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Lesson Review
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Bus Architectures
Overview
Since it would be cost-prohibitive to create a system containing every available option in a PC, designers developed various standards for the interfaces between the computers and the components to be installed later. This architecture is referred to as the bus.
LESSON
4
Data Files none
Objectives
To identify features of various bus architectures, you will: 4A Dene the purpose of a bus and how it works.
In this topic, you will examine the characteristics of the 8-bit expansion bus. You will learn how to recognize an 8-bit expansion card and how to install an 8-bit expansion card into a 16-bit ISA slot. 4C Identify the characteristics of the ISA expansion bus.
4D
Identify the characteristics of the EISA expansion bus. In this topic, you will examine the characteristics of the EISA expansion bus. You will also learn how to recognize an EISA expansion card.
4E
Identify the characteristics of the Micro Channel Architecture bus.
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4F
4G
In this topic, you will examine the technical specications for the Micro Channel Architecture bus. You will learn how to recognize a Micro Channel expansion card and how to congure it. Identify the characteristics of the PCI expansion bus. In this topic, you will examine the technical specications of the PCI expansion bus. You will also learn how to recognize a PCI expansion card and how to install a PCI expansion card. Examine the concept of Plug and Play, and determine the necessary components for Plug and Play to work properly.
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In this topic, you will examine the characteristics of the ISA expansion bus. You will learn how to recognize a 16-bit expansion card and how to install a 16-bit expansion card into an ISA slot.
4B
Identify the characteristics of the 8-bit expansion bus.
You will discuss the basics of computer bus architecture and how adapters work with the bus.
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Lesson 4: Bus Architectures 123
Lesson Time 2 hours
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In this topic, we will take a look at Plug and Play, and how it works to ease device installation and conguration. We will also examine the components that are necessary for Plug and Play to work properly. 4H Identify the characteristics of buses designed primarily for increasing video performance. In this topic, you will examine the characteristics of buses that have been specically designed to increase video performance. They include the VESA Local-Bus (VL-Bus), and the Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP).
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Topic 4A
What is a Bus?
adapter card: Add-on boards, or cards, that provide special functions for customizing or extending a computers capability.
Bus designs usually specify the placement of connections, the electrical signals that are allowable on each connector, and what those signals mean. Most bus interface designs even specify the size of the adapter card that can be inserted and the power that the card can consume. Different computer systems use different bus designs. Computers based on the Intel chips generally use one or more of the ISA, EISA, Local Bus, PCI, PCMCIA, or Micro Channel buses.
Interacting with the Host System
Interrupts
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Interrupts signal the system processor that the adapter card, system hardware, or application software needs attention. When signaled, the processor puts its current task on hold and responds, or services, the interrupt. The Intel family of computer chips and compatible chips supports hardware, exception, and software interrupts.
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In general, a device gains the attention of the host processor, and then transfers data. A number of techniques can be used to gain the attention of the processor, such as periodic polling of adapters, but the most common is the use of interrupts.
Adapters, as well as other hardware and applications, must communicate with the host system in an orderly and established way. Communication must be orderly to avoid setting conicts when conguring adapters to gain the attention of the host processor. Conicts are a main cause of problems in communication between adapter and host systems. Its important to keep this in mind for any changes you may make to your system.
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adapter: A device that allows one system to connect to and work with another. An adapter is often a simple circuit that converts one set of signals to another; however, the term often refers to devices which are more accurately called controllers. For example, display adapters (video cards), network adapters (NICs), and SCSI host adapters perform extensive processing, but they are still called adapters. interrupt: A signal that gets the attention of the CPU and is usually generated when I/O is required.
C
Computer designers develop standard interfaces between their generic computers and the specic adapters that you install later. This interface is called a bus. Specically, an adapter bus is a set of physical and logical interconnections between the computer and add-on boards.
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Computer designers cant foresee every desired feature in a single computer. If such a computer were manufactured, it would be so expensive that few people would be able to afford it. For this reason, computers are designed in a modular fashion. You can customize or upgrade a computer by adding adapter cards that offer the special functions you need.

hardware interrupt: An interrupt caused by some action of a hardware device, such as a keystroke or mouse movement.
Hardware interrupts are those that come from the system hardware, such as the keyboard or the system clock, and from adapter cards. One such signal, interrupt 25, causes the processor to reset and the system to reboot. This is what happens when you press [Ctrl][Alt][Delete]. Exception interrupts are used mainly by the processor itself to handle error conditions. An exception interrupt will be issued, for example, when a process requests the processor to divide a number by zero.
exception interrupt: An interrupt used by the processor to handle errors.
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IRQ: Stands for Interrupt Request Line. A hardware interrupt on a PC.
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Interrupts
You cant emphasize enough the importance of avoiding conicts. You might choose to mention that there are many thirdparty utilities available to read systems hardware and software settings. Ask your students how many of them are aware of the MSD tool that comes with DOS.
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Just the act of conguring two boards with the same settings doesnt result in a conict. Only when both adapters are being used is there actually a problem. This explains the erratic behavior of the boards.
IRQ
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
8-bit Defaults
Should two or more adapters share an interrupt number, the processor will be unable to determine which adapter actually sent the interrupt. In such a situation, the processor might attempt to service either or neither of the adapters, usually resulting in erratic behavior. 16-bit Defaults
System Timer Keyboard Cascade to IRQ9 COM2 and COM4 COM1 and COM3 LPT2 Floppy drive controller LPT1 Real Time Clock (RTC) Cascade to IRQ2 Available Available Bus mouse port Math coprocessor Hard disk controller Available
System Timer Keyboard Available COM2 COM1 Hard disk controller Floppy drive controller LPT1
software interrupt: An interrupt caused by an instruction in a software program.
Adapter cards must have a unique hardware interrupt number to distinguish them from the other adapters in the system. The term IRQ, or Interrupt Request Line, can be used to describe the interrupt number to be used by an adapter.
PY
Software interrupts are interrupts sent by an application that is running on the computer. Software interrupts generally trigger one of the built-in ROM BIOS routines. These built-in routines can be replaced by routines available from third-party vendors. The substituted routines would be called in the case of a software interrupt.
Input/Output (I/O) Addresses

Once the adapter has used an interrupt to signal the processor that it needs attention, it then needs a way to communicate with the host system. This is accomplished with an I/O address. Several terms are used to describe this feature, such as I/O address, Base I/O address, and I/O port. An I/O address marks the beginning of a range of memory, usually in the lowest portions of memory (conventional memory), that is used for communications between the processor and the adapter. Each adapter must have its own unique, non-overlapping I/O address space. I/O addresses are generally ranges of memory on the order of 4 to 32 bits of contiguous memory space. These addresses usually fall between 0x200 and 0x3FF (hexadecimal).
Base Memory Addresses

The Base Memory address is the memory address of any memory that might be on the adapter card. This feature is often used to provide a buffer space, or a control program execution space, on the adapter. This congurable area is usually associated with adapters that contain their own BIOS chips or memory. Memory addresses for these on-board memories are most often mapped to the range between 640 kilobytes (KB) and 1 megabyte (MB), which is the UMB (Upper Memory Block) region of the host computer. Adapters must have unique Base Memory addresses, and must operate in the same mode, either 8 or 16 bit. Problems can arise when you are using an 8-bit network card, for example, with a 16-bit video card. The system might be unable to boot or operate properly due to the mode differences. In such a situation, the video card should be switched to operate in 8-bit mode, or the network card should be replaced with a 16-bit card. DOS memory managers, such as HIMEM.SYS, EMM386.SYS, or QEMM, load TSRs, drivers, and other programs into the Upper Memory Block region. Most of these, especially the commercial ones, are fully capable of managing access to this memory region by adapter cards, drivers, and TSRs.
Direct Memory Access
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Adapters must each use a unique DMA channel to communicate with the DMA controller. Failure to do so will prevent proper operation of the conicting adapters. The following table shows the most common uses for each channel. DMA Channel
0 1
The DMA controller works with the processor and other components in the system to speed data transfer by relieving the processor from this duty and handling all of the related issues. The DMA controller also communicates with the adapters to facilitate transferring data from them directly to system memory.
Default DMA Assignments on an 8-bit Bus

Dynamic RAM refresh Hard disk controller (XT)
DMA (Direct Memory Access) is a technique for speeding data transfers within the computer. In a non-DMA situation, the system processor is involved with transferring every single byte of data between adapters and system memory. While dealing with these data transfers, the processor cant perform other tasks.
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Default DMA Assignments on a 16-bit Bus

Available Available
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Base Memory address: The memory address of any memory that might be on the adapter card. UMB: Upper Memory Block is an unused blockin the upper memory area (640 KB to 1 MB). TSR: Terminate and Stay Resident; a program that always stays in memory. DMA: Stands for Direct Memory Access. Specialized circuitry or a dedicated microprocessor that transfers data from adapters to memory without using the CPU.
DMA
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I/O address: On PCs, a three-digit hexadecimal number (2AB, 2A0, and so on) used to identify and signal a peripheral device like a serial port, parallel port, or sound card.
DMA Channel
2 3 4 5 6 7
Default DMA Assignments on an 8-bit Bus

Floppy drive controller Available n/a n/a n/a n/a
Default DMA Assignments on a 16-bit Bus

Floppy drive controller Available 2nd DMA controller Available Available Available
1.
Match the description on the left with its corresponding term on the right.
b d
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An 8-bit Expansion Card
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Topic 4B
The 8-bit Bus
The original IBM PC and its successor, the PC/XT, used simple expansion buses. Its architecture provided an 8-bit data bus, with minimal support circuitry.
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b. c. Bus d. e.
The means by which the CPU and devices communicate. A signal line used by a device to get the attention of the CPU. Allows a device to bypass the processor and write information directly to main memory. The CPU talks to a device at this location. Refers to memory resident on an expansion card.
a.
DMA Channel
I/O address
Base Memory Interrupt
Identifying the Physical Components of a Bus
TASK 4A-1:
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Figure 4-1: An 8-bit expansion card.
The cards for an 8-bit slot have only one edge connector. It also has many resistors and larger components because VLSI (Very Large-Scale Integration) hadnt come out yet, so the circuitry had to be included on the card. Cards were congured with jumpers and DIP switches to operate with the computer. Drivers were then loaded on the computer to support the card.
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Be sure youre able to identify each card type based on its edge connector. VLSI: Stands for Very Large-Scale Integration. The process of placing thousands of electronic components on a single chip. jumper: A small plug placed over pins (or removed from pins) to congure hardware settings.
This bus has a clock speed of 4.77 MHz. It supports 8 interrupts and 4 DMA channels; however, except for IRQ 2 and DMA 3, all resources were already assigned, so you didnt have many choices when you installed additional cards.
To install a card, locate a slot matching the card connector. For example, an 8-bit card needs to be installed in an 8-bit slot. Press the card down rmly into the slot. Finally, reconnect any cables, and then screw it to the case.
Replacing an 8-bit Expansion Card
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1.
After examining any cables or wires connected to the card, and noting their location and orientation, disconnect any external cables and any internal leads from the 8-bit card to the system board.
TASK 4B-1:
Setup: The computer enclosure has been removed, and you have an 8-bit expansion card already installed.
You can use the modem card for this exercise.
-D
To remove a card, disconnect all cables, making a note of where they were installed and the orientation (such as white wire on left pin), unscrew the card from the case. Gently rock the card front to back (not side-to-side) to remove it from the slot, and then place it in an anti-static bag to prevent electrostatic damage to the card.
Removing and Installing Cards
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2.
Remove the screw that mounts the expansion card to the chassis. Be careful not to drop the screw down into the system where it can be hard to retrieve, and potentially damage other components if left in when the system is restarted. Remove the expansion card by rocking it slightly in a forward/back motion. Be sure not to rock it from side-to-side as this can damage the card and wont get it out of the slot either. Examine the connectors on the expansion card. These are the gold pins on the bottom edge of the card and make the connection between the card and the bus through the slot. Be careful not to touch these as they can be easily damaged. What characteristics could you use to identify this card?
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
The Industry Standard Architecture Bus
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ISA bus: Industry Standard Architecture bus is an expansion bus commonly used in PCs.
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Topic 4C
The ISA Bus

The ISA bus (Industry Standard Architecture bus) was developed by IBM for the IBM AT. At that time, it was not called the ISA bus, but was simply called the expansion bus. A consortium of vendors that was seeking to expand on the ISA bus gave ISA its name. The ISA acronym is pronounced eye-suh. The ISA bus supports 8- and 16-bit adapter cards. It operates at 8 MHz. Data can be transferred across the bus at either 8 or 16 bits per cycle. Technically, the ISA bus has 16 data-line connections and 24 address line connections: For XT and similar computers, 8-bit data transfer occurs through 62-line slot connectors. For AT and similar computers, 16-bit data transfer occurs. Slot extension connectors enable the use of additional connector pins. Some 8-bit boards can be used in 16-bit slots, unless the boards are skirted (part of the board drops down to the system board right after the edge connector). Some system boards have slots without slot extension connectors to provide backwardcompatibility with skirted boards.
Reconnect any internal leads to the system board and any external cables. Use the notes you recorded before removing the card to verify that the correct cables are reconnected and if there are any internal leads, they are correctly installed.
Mount the expansion card to the chassis using the screw you removed earlier. It is best not to use a magnetic screwdriver since the magnet can damage computer components. If you do use a magnetic screwdriver, be sure not to accidentally touch system components with it.
Re-insert the expansion card in its slot. Make sure its seated rmly. When it is, the at part of the back plane of the card will rest on the chassis where you will be able to screw it back in.
It has a single-edge connector and many resistors and other components on-board.
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Figure 4-2: A representation of the ISA bus connections on an adapter.
This limited transfer rate, plus the memory limitations inherent to the ISA bus, make it a poor choice for a server. However, more expansion boards are available for the ISA bus than for any other bus, so it is a popular choice for client systems. If you have a single-server network with fewer than 20 users and consistently less than 50 percent utilization, you might also be able to use an ISA system as a server. The ISA bus enables only one adapter in a system to take control of the bus during a data transfer.
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A Representation of the ISA Bus Connections on an Adapter
Notice that the ISA card has two separate edge connectors as compared to the single-edge connector on an 8-bit card.
Configuration
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ISA adapter cards are most often congured with switches (also known as DIP switches, where DIP stands for DIPolar or Dual In-line Package) or jumpers. With these, you physically alter circuitry paths on the card by selectively opening or closing switches. This conguration process adds difficulty and labor requirements to the use of ISA cards.
C
Pass around one of each type of ISA board for the students to examine. Demonstrate how to congure the adapter that requires software conguration.
Some vendors have implemented work-around solutions to surpass this 16 MB limit. The software drivers for these boards use DMA for transfers below the 16 MB limit and standard processor-assisted transfers above that limit. The ISA bus is most often implemented as a 10 MHz bus, which limits the bus to a theoretical maximum of 20 Mbps transfer rate.
Settings for adapter cards include IRQ, DMA, memory I/O ranges, and other settings. There are 16 interrupts and eight DMA channelsa huge improvement over the 8-bit bus. Each card in a system must have unique and exclusive values for these settings. Conicts between cards occur when they share or overlap congurations. When congurations overlap, the system will operate erratically or not at all.
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ISA boards range in physical size. Most of the newer boards are not more than 4.2 inches high, while some older boards are 4.8 inches high and might not t into some machines. Because of its 24-bit addressing architecture, the ISA bus supports systems with up to 16 MB of memory. Using an ISA card in a system with more than 16 MB of memory can cause problems. For example, a disk controller card that uses DMA (Direct Memory Access) to transfer data from the disk to system RAM might have a problem if it attempts to transfer that data to a memory location above the 16 MB limit. In such a situation, the controller would actually be transferring the data to a location within the 16 MB, overwriting any data that may be there. For example, if the card were performing a DMA transfer of one megabyte to the range between 16 MB and 17 MB in RAM, it would actually write that data to the rst megabyte of system RAM. This would crash the system.
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Figure 4-3: Examples of switches and jumpers for an ISA card.
Switchless ISA Adapters

Although you will probably see switches and jumpers on older equipment that you service, software-congurable and Plug and Play adapters are becoming more and more prevalent. Most newer ISA adapter cards can be congured through the use of software, rather than switches or jumpers. These cards come with special software to accomplish this task. On rare occasions, you might nd an ISA adapter that is congured combining software and hardware (switches or jumpers). The setup software communicates with special circuitry on the adapter. This circuitry sets the appropriate communications parameters, such as the IRQ or DMA channel. During normal operation, the host computer uses these settings to communicate with the card. To communicate with the card before the communications parameters have been established, the software uses a pulsed signal on the ISA bus. Electronic pulses send out a code, analogous to Morse code, across certain lines on the bus. The circuitry of the card is designed to detect such pulses. The conguration software
Examples of Switches and Jumpers for an ISA Card
Switches are usually found in even-numbered banks or groups. You congure cards with switches by using a small object such as a mini-screwdriver, pen point, or bent paper clip to set the switches to ON or OFF. Do not use a pencil to set switchesthe graphite can get into and foul the switch mechanism.
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The settings needed for a particular card that will be used in a particular system are specic to that installation. Each manufacturer will list the valid settings for its cards. Check the manuals that come with your system to determine the valid settings for your computer as well, because they can differ among computer makes and models: You congure cards with jumper pins by using the jumpers, which are plastic-coated metal clips, to close a circuit represented by a bank or group of jumper pins. If a jumper goes bad, the circuit will not be completed until the jumper is replaced. One way to save jumpers so that they are available for replacement (or reconguration of the board) is to place them over only one of the jumper pins in a pair, as shown in Figure 4-3.
uses this pulse-coding to inform the card of the proper settings. Those settings are congured and stored in on-board, non-volatile memory. Settings are saved on the board itself by the use of an EEPROM chip. (Remember, EEPROM stands for Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory.)
TASK 4C-1:
Replacing a 16-bit Expansion Card
Setup: The computer enclosure has been removed and you have a 16-bit expansion card already installed. 1. 2. 3. 4. Disconnect any external cables and any internal leads to the system board. Remember to note the cables and orientation before removing them. Remove the screw that mounts the expansion card to the chassis. Remove the expansion card by rocking it slightly in a forward/back motion.
What characteristics could you use to identify this card? The card has two separate groups of edge connectors. 5. 6. 7.
Re-insert the expansion card in its slot. Make sure its seated rmly. Mount the expansion card to the chassis using the screw you removed earlier. Reconnect any internal leads to the system board and any external cables. Be sure to check with the notes you recorded if its necessary to correctly reconnect internal leads.
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During 1988 and 1989, a number of vendors, including Compaq, formed a consortium to extend the features and capabilities of the ISA bus. They jointly developed the EISA bus (Extended Industry Standard Architecturebus), and named the ISA bus in the process. The EISA acronym is generally pronounced ee-suh. The EISA bus uses a 32-bit slot and runs at 8 to 10 MHz. It supports existing 8and 16-bit ISA adapter cards, plus newer 32-bit EISA cards. EISA cards differ physically from ISA cards by the addition of a second row of connectors and some additional guide notches. Most EISA cards are 5 inches high.
The EISA Bus
Topic 4D
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Examine the connectors on the expansion card. Notice that the edge connector is divided into two separate connectors that will only t into ISA slots.
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EISA bus: Extended Industry Standard Architecture is a PC bus standard that extends the 16-bit ISA bus (AT bus) to 32 bits and provides bus mastering.
C
You can use the sound card for this exercise.
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In addition to 32 data lines, the EISA bus uses 32 address lines. This means that the EISA bus supports systems with up to 4 GB (4,096 MB) of system memory. This difference makes EISA more suitable for server systems than for clients. However, many EISA adapters are simply ported ISA cards and still use only 24 address lines. Such cards, even though they use the EISA bus interface, can address only 16 MB of system RAM.
bus master: Takes control of the bus away from the CPU to transfer data directly to RAM or other devices.
Configuration
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Because the conguration is also stored in an SCI le, if the CMOS memory becomes corrupted or gets lost, you can restore the settings from that le. You might want to back up your current CMOS conguration information to a oppy disk. The conguration utility for your system should offer that option. Printing the CMOS information is another good backup strategy. EISA systems support existing ISA adapters, but cannot congure those adapters through software. To install an ISA card in your EISA system, run the conguration program (by booting with the oppy disk in the drive, for example) to look for available interrupt, memory I/O settings, or other needed settings. Then set
The conguration program is supplied on a set of oppy disks, but you can copy the program to the hard disk for convenience. These oppy disks, after they have been used to congure a system, are specic to that system. The steps required for the conguration program are specic to the systems manufacturer.
When an EISA system is booted, it checks the conguration of the currently installed adapters and options. It compares the current conguration to that stored in CMOS memory. If differences are found, the conguration program is run.
One of the most important features of the EISA bus is the way in which EISA adapters are congured. Jumpers and switches are not necessary with EISA adapters; conguration is accomplished with software. System congurations are saved in non-volatile CMOS memory and a System Conguration Information (SCI) le. EISA adapters also store their congurations in on-board, non-volatile memory.
The EISA bus allows one adapter in a system to occasionally take control of the bus during a data transfer. Such an adapter is described as a bus master. A bus master takes control of the bus away from the system processor in order to transfer data directly to system memory or to other I/O devices.
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Although 8- and 16-bit ISA boards can be used with an EISA bus, you need to use 32-bit boards to get the full benet of the architecture. In addition, using ISA boards in an EISA system can cause performance problems even with EISA boards in the system. If you are using 8-bit ISA boards with an EISA bus, make sure that there are no resource conicts.
the jumpers or switches on the ISA adapter based on that information. Once your system is turned off, you can install the adapter in your system. The conguration utility can include an option to inform the system that an ISA adapter is located in a particular slot. If so, set such information by using the conguration utility.
A Representation of the EISA Bus Connection on an Adapter
Figure 4-4: A representation of the EISA bus connection on an adapter.
Identifying an EISA Expansion Card

1.
Describe the physical characteristics of an EISA expansion card. An EISA expansion card is taller than an ISA card and has additional guide notches.
2.
How do you congure an EISA card for your system?
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You must use an EISA conguration utility disk. The conguration les for specic devices are stored in SCI les.
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TASK 4D-1:
Notice how the edge connector of EISA cards compares to 8-bit and ISA edge connectors.
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Topic 4E
Micro Channel Architecture Bus
Micro Channel Architecture bus: A proprietary 32-bit bus from IBM that was used in PS/2, RS/6000, and certain ES/9370 models.
Figure 4-5: The 32-bit Micro Channel bus connection with a video extension. Like the EISA bus, the Micro Channel bus calls for 32 data lines and 32 address lines. The Micro Channel bus can also address up to 4 GB (4,096 MB) of system RAM. Like many EISA cards, many Micro Channel cards are simple ports of ISA cards and use only 24 address lines. Such cards (for example, the Novell DCB-2) work properly only in systems with 16 MB of memory. IBM developed the Micro Channel architecture to overcome many of the limitations of the ISA bus architecture. The Micro Channel bus offers many performance improvements that make it ideally suited for server applications. ISA and EISA cards communicate with the host system in a two-step process: they signal that they are about to transfer some data, and then they transfer one byte. This process is repeated until all of the data is transferred. Micro Channel offers three additional modes of data transfer: burst mode, streaming mode, and multiplexed streaming mode. Micro Channel burst mode uses one signal for the transfer of more than one byte of data. Streaming mode is used when the data to be transferred exists as a large block, such as data in a disk drives read buffer. The streaming mode operation offers the ability to transfer data at up to 40 MBps. To further improve data transfer performance, Micro Channel offers the multiplexed streaming mode. In this mode, the data is transferred across the 32 data lines and across the 32 lines usually reserved for address information. In this special mode, data is transferred at 64 bits per cycle, offering higher performance than the streaming mode.
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The 32-bit Micro Channel Bus Connection with a Video Extension
It is incorrect to refer to Micro Channel Architecture as MCA. MCA is a trademark of Universal Studios, who legally challenged IBMs use of the acronym.
Micro Channel cards and slots are either 16- or 32-bit. The 32-bit versions use an extra edge connector in line with the rst, 16-bit, connector. One slot in a system will have an additional connector that provides direct access to video circuitry on the motherboard. These connections allow designers of video boards to use some of the built-in video circuitry and to avoid duplicating engineering effort.
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In 1987, IBM developed the Micro Channel Architecture bus, or Micro Channel bus, for its PS/2 line of computers. This bus operates at 20 MHz and can accept 16- and 32-bit adapter cards. However, cards for ISA or EISA systems cannot be used in Micro Channel systems.
Micro Channel is an asynchronous bus; it does not depend on the timing of the system for its interaction with that system. Micro Channel cards can actually slow the bus, if necessary, in order to work properly. Thus, slow or inadequately engineered boards will work properly in a Micro Channel system. The Micro Channel Architecture bus allows up to 15 adapters in a system to occasionally act as bus masters during a data transfer. The Micro Channel specication calls for smaller board dimensions and lower power levels. Thus, Micro Channel boards are harder to design and are more expensive than either ISA or EISA adapters.
Configuration
Micro Channel introduced the software conguration concept that was later adopted by the EISA design committee. IBM calls this feature Programmable Option Select (POS). The POS feature operates in a manner similar to the EISA conguration process. At boot time, the system checks for installed options and compares this information with the conguration information stored in CMOS. If a discrepancy is discovered, the system attempts to load the conguration program.
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During the conguration process, you need to provide Adapter Denition Files (ADFs). These are provided by the manufacturer of the board you are conguring. They hold similar information to the EISA SCI les. The conguration program compares the valid settings in all of the ADF les and chooses appropriate settings for each board. The nished conguration information is stored in non-volatile CMOS memory. In addition, Plug and Play specications exist for Micro Channel systems.
To access the programs from the Reference Disk, simply boot the computer with the disk in the A drive. To access the programs stored on the conguration partition on the hard drive, you must rst perform a warm boot by pressing [Ctrl][Alt][Delete]. At a certain point as the system starts, the cursor will jump to the upper-right corner of the screen. When it does, press [Ctrl][Alt][Insert]. The system will then load the conguration programs from the hard-disk partition.
Micro Channel systems can access the conguration program from a Reference Disk. Systems that are purchased from IBM and are congured with a hard drive have the conguration programs loaded on a special 3 MB partition of the hard disk.
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TASK 4E-1:
Identifying a Micro Channel Architecture Expansion Card
1. Describe the physical characteristics of a Micro Channel Architecture expansion card.
A Micro Channel Architecture expansion card has nearly twice as many connectors as an ISA card and is segmented to provide for 16-bit, 32-bit, and video extension segments.
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A Representation of the PCI Bus Connection on an Adapter
load: Power consumption of a device.
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PCI bus: Peripheral Component Interconnect bus is a peripheral bus commonly used in PCs that provides a high-speed datapath between the CPU and peripheral devices.
A motherboard typically contains three or four PCI slots; the remainder of the slots will be ISA or EISA slots. A PCI controller or two may also be built into the motherboard. With PCI, up to eight functions can be integrated onto one peripheral board. PCI cards are automatically congured at startup for Plug and Play support.
Support for peripherals is assigned via loads. A load is calculated with inductance, capacitance, and other electrical characteristics. Each bus receives 10 loads. The PCI chipset uses three loads, controllers integrated into the motherboard use one load each, and controllers plugged into a slot use one and one-half loads each. Peripheral boards in Windows 95 and Windows 98 machines can even share IRQs.
Figure 4-6: A representation of the PCI bus connection on an adapter.
PCI bus (Peripheral Component Interconnect bus) is a local bus standard. This standard was introduced in 1992 by Intel and has become a popular standard for high-end systems. PCI uses a 32-bit bus operating at 33 MHz, and has separate buses for network and disk boards. It supports 10 devices and 32-bit bus mastering, and is designed to be scalable for 64-bit bus implementations. PCI is compatible with many CPUs, including 486, Pentium, and PowerPC chips.
The PCI Bus
Topic 4F
You must use a Reference Disk and an options disk after installing the device.
2.
How do you congure a Micro Channel Architecture card for your system?
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TASK 4F-1:
Replacing a PCI Expansion Card
Setup: The computer enclosure has been removed and you have a PCI expansion card already installed.
You can use the network card for this exercise.
2. 3. 4.
Remove the screw that mounts the expansion card to the chassis. Remove the expansion card by rocking it slightly in a forward/back motion. Examine the connectors on the expansion card. What characteristics could you use to identify this card?
Its short, has closely spaced pins on two edge connectors, and inserts into a white slot. 5. 6. 7. Re-insert the expansion card in its slot. Make sure its seated rmly.
Mount the expansion card to the chassis using the screw you removed earlier. Reconnect any internal leads to the system board and any external cables.
Plug and Play
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Plug and Play, in its early days, was often also called Plug and Pray. This is because, especially in older systems, both PnP components and legacy (non-PnP) components were often found in the same system, opening up the potential for conicts and improper conguration. Most newer components support Plug and Play, and thus problems are much less likely in such systems. In general, the fewer legacy devices you have installed in your system, the less likely you will be to encounter problems. For PnP to work, the following components must support Plug and Play: The device/adapter you want to install. The BIOS. The operating system.
In Plug and Play (PnP), the conguration of adapters is performed by the operating system. After you install a component into a Plug and Play computer and reboot, the system detects the new component and uses I/O, IRQ, and DMA settings that are not used by other components to congure the new component. Plug and Play specications exist for ISA, EISA, and PCI buses.
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Topic 4G
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1.
Disconnect any external cables and any internal leads to the system board.
PnP was originally developed and introduced around 1993 through a joint effort by Microsoft, Intel, Phoenix, and Compaq. Microsoft provided an operating system that supported PnP, Intel provided chips that supported PnP, Phoenix provided a BIOS that supported PnP, and Compaq provided the computers that could use PnP. This enabled other manufacturers to manufacture adapters and devices that could take advantage of PnP.
Plug and Play Devices
Plug and Play BIOS
Heres how a PnP BIOS handles resource assignment for both PnP devices and legacy devices. During boot-up, after the POST routine nishes, the BIOS takes over, and rst looks to see if there are legacy devices in the system. If there are, the BIOS determines what resources they need (as assigned by you or the operating system) by checking a list of resources that are already assigned. Then, it queries PnP devices and identies the resources required by those devices. Typically, a PnP device can only use certain resources, and thus the BIOS can choose from only those resources. Thus, even though resource assignment is automatic, it can become complicated if other devices are already using all of the resources a new PnP device can use. The symptom you will likely see is that the device just wont be recognized. In this scenario, you might need to re-allocate resources for legacy devices, or let the BIOS recongure all devices. You can do this through PnPs Reset Conguration Data option in the system BIOS (which you can enter during boot-up).
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Plug and Play Operating System

The operating system youre running must support Plug and Play for Plug and Play devices to be recognized and congured automatically. Windows 95, 98, and Windows 2000 all support Plug and Play. When you install a PnP device in the system and restart the operating system, Windows will display a message that a new device was detected, and will try to locate and install the correct driver for the device. If its successful, you dont have to do anything, the device driver will be installed automatically, and the proper resources allocated and resource information saved. If Windows cant nd a driver, you will be able to either choose the correct driver from a list, or specify that you have the driver on a disk (as supplied by the hardware manufacturer).
Todays BIOSs all support PnP. If you have a Pentium computer, you can pretty much count on the BIOS supporting PnP. To verify whether the BIOS supports PnP, watch the screens during bootup. If it does, you will see a screen that will make reference to the Plug and Play BIOS extension. If your BIOS doesnt support PnP, you should look into upgrading the BIOS, if possible. Alternatively, you can install a new system board with a BIOS that supports PnP.
Most new devices you might buy will be PnP-compliant. Such devices might include modems, network cards, CD-ROM drives, and so on. Make sure the device youre buying is truly a Plug and Play device. If it just says it works as well as Plug and Play, its not Plug and Play, and you can run into problems. PCI devices are always PnP devices. ISA devices should state whether theyre PnP or not on the packaging, and in the documentation.
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Note that if you manually assign a resource in Device Manager, that resource is no longer available for future PnP reconguration or assignment. It is permanently assigned to the device for which you made the manual assignment.
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Figure 4-7: The Resources tab of a device indicating that Plug and Play is used for resource assignments. If you install a new device, and Windows doesnt automatically detect it, you can also use the Add New Hardware Wizard to install and congure PnP devices. You will nd the Add New Hardware Wizard in the Control Panel. When using the Add New Hardware Wizard, you should initially let Windows try to scan for new hardware (this will be the default selection). If Windows can nd the new device, it will identify and install the driver for the device. If Windows cant nd the device, you can then either choose the device from a list of devices offered by Windows, and Windows will install the appropriate driver, or you can click Have Disk to point to a driver youve been provided by the manufacturer.
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The Resources Tab of a Device in Device Manager
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You can use the Device Manager in Windows to see current resource assignments, and the driver that is used for any device installed in your system. Select a device in Device Manager, and click Properties. You will nd driver information on the Driver tab, and resource information on the Resources tab. On the Resources tab, you will see a check box called Use Automatic Settings. If checked, PnP is used to allocate resources. If unchecked, you can manually assign resources (even to PnP devices) by clicking Change Setting and making the necessary assignments. Note, however, that if you manually assign resources, those resources are no longer available for possible, future PnP reconguration or assignment, but are instead permanently assigned to the device for which you made the manual assignment.
TASK 4G-1:
Reviewing Plug and Play
1. Dene the function of Plug and Play. Plug and Play enables the automatic assignment of device resources when a new device is installed in a system. 2.
Which components must support Plug and Play for it to work properly? The device you want to install, the systems BIOS, and the operating system all must support Plug and Play.
3.
Where can you see which resources are currently assigned to a Plug and Play device? On the Resource tab of a device in Device Manager.
VL-Bus
VL-Bus: Stands for VESA Local-Bus. A peripheral bus from VESA that was primarily used in 486s and provides a highspeed datapath between the CPU and peripherals.
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A Representation of the VL-Bus Connection on an Adapter
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In 1992, the Video Electronics Standards Association (VESA) introduced the VL-Bus (VESA Local-BUS standard). A motherboard can contain up to three VL-Bus slots. Bus mastering is supported by the VL-Bus standard. A 32-bit slot is located next to an ISA, EISA, or Micro-Channel Architecture slot and enables vendors to design adapters that use the local bus or both buses simultaneously. VL-Bus boards are generally software-congurable. Like some ISA systems, conguration information is stored in on-board, non-volatile memory and EEPROMs. Although the VL-Bus standard provides for theoretical speeds up to 66 MHz, the maximum practical speed is 33 MHz. Even so, the increased speed (over ISA and EISA) enhances performance on systems that run graphics and other applications requiring intensive I/O operations.
Figure 4-8: A representation of the VL-Bus connection on an adapter.
We will briey examine two other popular architectures in this topic: VESA Local Bus (VL) and Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP). Both of these architectures deal with video performance.
Video Circuitry Buses
Topic 4H
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AGP Bus
The AGP (Accelerated Graphics Port) was developed by Intel and is based on the PCI architecture. It uses the same connector as a PCI card and plugs into a port that is dedicated to video data. It was designed specically to speed up 3D graphics. It includes a dedicated 32-bit wide channel running at 66 MHz direct to memory to increase speed and throughput. Current maximum speed is 528 MBps, future maximum speeds are around 1 GBps. AGP provides an improvement in speed of four times the current speed over a PCI bus. With AGP, the graphics controller can directly access system memory, rather than rst loading data into local video memory. AGP only works on system boards with an AGP slot, and using Windows 95, Windows 98 or Windows 2000. For more information on AGP, you can visit Intels AGP Web site at http://developer.intel.com/ technology/agp/index.htm.
Replacing an AGP Expansion Card
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
Disconnect any external cables and any internal leads to the system board. Remove the screw that mounts the expansion card to the chassis. Remove the expansion card by rocking it slightly in a forward/back motion. Examine the connectors on the expansion card.
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You can use the video card for this exercise.
Setup: The computer enclosure has been removed and you have an AGP expansion card already installed.
Mount the expansion card to the chassis using the screw you removed earlier. Reconnect any internal leads to the system board and any external cables.
Summary
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In this lesson, you learned what a bus is and how its used for communication between the CPU and expansion cards. You examined the technical characteristics of popular buses and you learned the various methods for conguring them. Then, you learned how to replace expansion cards. Finally, you examined the concept of Plug and Play and how it makes adapter installation much easier.
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Re-insert the expansion card in its slot. Make sure its seated rmly.
TASK 4H-1:
Check out http:// developer.intel.com/ technology/agp/ index.htm for in-depth information on AGP.
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AGP: Stands for Accelerated Graphics Port. Architecture that is based on the PCI architecture and is designed specically to speed up 3D graphics.
Lesson Review
4A Describe the function of the expansion bus.
The expansion bus is a set of pathways over which the CPU and devices communicate with each other. The expansion bus allows you to add additional functionality to the PC by installing expansion cards for specic purposes.
4B Describe the characteristics of an 8-bit expansion bus.
4C Describe the characteristics of the ISA expansion bus.
The Micro Channel Architecture bus runs at a slightly higher clock speed than ISA (10 MHz), is available in 16-bit and 32-bit versions, and uses a high-density connector.
4F Describe the characteristics of the PCI expansion bus.
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The PCI expansion bus supports both 32-bit and 64-bit datapaths and runs at 33 MHz. The bus is universal in that PCI expansion cards can be used in PCs, Macintoshes, and RISC systems.
4G Which operating systems support Plug and Play?

Windows 95, Windows 98, and Windows 2000.
4H Describe the difference between the VL-Bus and the AGP bus.
The VL-Bus was based on the ISA bus with the addition of a 32-bit local bus connector; the AGP bus was based on the PCI bus, but runs at twice the speed (66 MHz). Both buses were designed almost exclusively for the purpose of increasing video performance.
4E Describe the characteristics of the Micro Channel Architecture bus.
The EISA expansion bus is a 32-bit bus that is backward-compatible with the 16-bit ISA bus. The 16-bit connectors are near the top of the slot, whereas the 32-bit connectors are near the bottom of the slot.
4D Describe the characteristics of the EISA expansion bus.
The ISA bus is characterized by having a bus clock speed of 8 MHz. It has 16 interrupts and eight DMA channels. It is backward-compatible with the 8-bit expansion cards.
The 8-bit bus is characterized by having a maximum bus clock speed of 4.77 MHz. It has eight interrupts and four DMA channels.
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Ports, Connectors, and Cables

Overview
In this lesson, you will examine the technical specications, characteristics, and capabilities of ports that you will nd on-board or that you can add to a PC. You will learn how to physically identify them, how to congure their operational parameters, and how to design device topologies.
LESSON
5
Data Files none
To become familiar with the ports, connectors, and cables, you will: 5A
Examine how microcomputers use input and output ports to communicate with electronic devices. In this topic, you will identify general ways that data can be exchanged with peripheral devices. Specically, we will look at how microcomputers use input and output ports to communicate with electronic devices.
5B
Identify the technical characteristics of PS/2 ports. In this topic, you will examine the role of PS/2 ports. You will also learn how to test them for proper functioning.
5C
Identify the characteristics of serial ports. In this topic, you will examine the technical specications of PC serial ports. Then, you will learn how to congure the serial ports on a PC running Windows 98.
5D
Identify the characteristics of a parallel port.
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5E
5F
In this topic, you will examine the technical specications of a parallel port. You will then use your systems BIOS setup utility to examine which parallel port modes are available. Identify the characteristics of the Universal Serial Bus. In this topic, you will examine the technical specications for USB. Then, you will create a topology for connecting multiple devices to a single host. Finally, you will look at troubleshooting USB. Identify the characteristics of FireWire ports. In this topic, you will examine the technical specications for FireWire. You will also examine how to connect devices using FireWire.
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Lesson 5: Ports, Connectors, and Cables 145
Objectives
Lesson Time 3 hours
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Topic 5A
Overview of Input/Output Ports
In addition to the many devices that can be added inside a microcomputer, you can also use cables to attach devices that are outside the microcomputer, such as printers, modems, mice, and other peripherals. The portion of the microcomputer into which you plug these cables is called an input/output port (I/O port, or simply port). On the outside of the computer, ports are sockets, into which you can plug cables. The shape of the socket and the number of pins (connectors) it provides depends upon the type of port. Two types of ports commonly found in microcomputers are serial ports and parallel ports. Other less common ports include MIDI (Musical Instrument Device Interface) and SCSI (Small Computer System Interface). A variety of other types of ports is used in microcomputers. For example, older Macintosh computers have an ADB (Apple Desktop Bus) port, to which devices such as mice, trackballs, and keyboards can be connected.
Types of Ports
1.
For this task, ask students to gather around a single microcomputer. If there are too many students to do this easily, have students work in groups around various computers. You can move from group to group and quickly point out the port types. Then explain ports to the entire class.
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serial transmission: Data is sent and received one bit at a time over a single wire.
Parallel Transmission Sends Several Bits at Once
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Serial Transmission Sends One Bit at a Time
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There are two fundamental ways that ports transmit and receive data. They will use either serial or parallel communications.
Figure 5-1: Serial transmission sends one bit at a time. In a serial transmission, data is sent and received one bit at a time over a single wire. Bytes are disassembled into bits on the sending end, and re-assembled into bytes at the receiving end.
How Data is Transmitted
Examine the ports on various computers in the classroom. Your instructor will identify the type of each port, and the types of devices that are commonly connected through that type of port.
Examining Ports
TASK 5A-1:
I/O port: A place on a computer where you can plug in peripheral devices. Also referred to as input/output port, or port.
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Figure 5-2: Parallel transmission sends several bits at once. In a parallel transmission, eight wires are used to send an entire byte at the same time. No disassembly or re-assambly of bytes is necessary.
Comparison of Parallel and Serial Transmission
TASK 5A-2:
Comparing Data Transmission Types
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Most likely parallel, although serial can also be used. This short distance can be easily handled by a parallel connection.
1.
Ellen needs to connect a printer to her computer. The printer will be located on the same desk as the computer.
Objective: For each of the following scenarios, identify whether parallel or serial data transmission is more appropriate and explain why.
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On the other hand, the eight wires used for transmitting data (and other wires that provide supporting signals) can cause interference that degrades the quality of signals. This interference, called crosstalk, is not a problem if the length of a parallel communication channel can be kept short. Typically, parallel cables are kept under 10 feet to reduce crosstalk. Serial cables have fewer wires than parallel cables. These wires are typically twisted around each other or shielded within a metal sheath to reduce crosstalk.
Because more bits are transferred at one time, parallel transmission is potentially faster than serial transmission. The data bus within the computer transmits data in parallel. The circuitry used for parallel transmission is typically less complicated (and therefore less expensive) than the circuitry for serial.
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parallel transmission: Data is sent several bits at once. crosstalk: Interference caused by leaks from a nearby communication channel.
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2.
Jim needs to connect a printer to his computer. The printer will be located on a table 12 feet away from the computer. Serial. Although serial data transmission is potentially much slower than parallel, 12 feet is too long a distance for a parallel connection to be reliable.
3.
Parallel. Data buses inside a microcomputer are typically parallel because they are fast and inexpensive. The short distance inside the system cabinet is not subject to crosstalk and other limiting factors.
Topic 5B
PS/2 Ports
PS/2 port: A round 6-pin port used to connect keyboards and mice to PCs.
PS/2 Port Pinouts
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Figure 5-3: PS/2 port pinouts. The pinouts for the PS/2 connector are shown in the following table. Pin
1 2 3 4 5 6
mini-DIN: Another term for a PS/2 port.
Direction
Bidirectional Through Computer to keyboard or mouse Computer to keyboard or mouse
N
Used for
This pin carries key data. Referred to as DATA. This pin isnt connected. This pin is the ground. Referred to as GND. This pin carries +5 volts of direct current. Referred to as VCC. This is the clock pin. Referred to as CLK. This pin isnt connected.
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pinout: A diagram of wire termination to connector pins.
The mouse port uses IRQ 12; the keyboard port uses IRQ 1. The output voltage of a PS/2 port is +5 V DC.
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Some older AT systems use a regular 5-pin DIN for the keyboard connection. If you need to replace that keyboard, you will probably need to get an adapter that goes from DIN to mini-DIN to make a newer keyboard work on a regular DIN connection.
The PS/2 port is a 6-pin round port. It is also referred to as a mini-DIN. PS/2 ports are used to connect keyboards and mice to the system.
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Dora is designing and building a microcomputer. She needs to design a data transmission circuit between the processor and memory.
PS/2 Keyboard Port

Most systems mark which port is the keyboard and which is the mouse because they appear identical when you look at them. The port usually will either be color-coded to match the end of the cable that came with the system (often green for mouse and orange for keyboard) or there will be a picture of a mouse and keyboard near the connectors.
On some systems, the sticker is under the connectors and perpendicular to the actual ports. Just imagine sliding it up the wall of the computer so that it would be next to the ports to determine which device goes in which port.
Mice come in many different congurations. Originally, on IBM PCs, they used a bus port or a serial port. With the PS/2 line of computers, they standardized the PS/2 port. Most systems today use the PS/2 port.
TASK 5B-1:
Working with PS/2 Ports
Setup: Your computer case is open and all external cables are disconnected. 1. 2.
What happened? Why? The BIOS reported the keyboard was missing.
3. 4.
Turn off the system. Plug the mouse into the keyboard port and the keyboard into the mouse port. Power on your system. What happened? Why?
5.
Turn off the system. Plug the keyboard and mouse into the appropriate ports, and then power on your system. Use the information on the system case to determine which port is which.
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You should have been able to boot without any BIOS error messages and your mouse should have worked when you booted into Windows.
6.
Were you able to successfully boot? When Windows started, were you able to use your mouse?
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Even though either device will t into either port, the IRQs are different, so the BIOS reports that the keyboard is still missing.
Plug in the power cord and the monitor cable, then power on your system. The keyboard and mouse remain unplugged.
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If you have a multimeter with small enough probes to t into the holes on the PS/2 ports, you can have students test the voltage by inserting the black probe in Pin 3 and touching the chassis with the red probe.
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PS/2 Mouse Port
Topic 5C
Serial Ports
In order for the two systems to communiate, you need to congure both systems to use the same settings. These include:
Modems are Commonly Connected to Serial Ports
Bits per second Data bits Parity Stop bits Flow control
Figure 5-4: Modems are commonly connected to serial ports.
Without Synchronization, Data-transmission Errors can Occur
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The device receiving a transmission must know how frequently to read the data line. As shown in Figure 5-5, if the receiving device is not synchronized with the signal, the signals will be misread.
Figure 5-5: Without synchronization, data-transmission errors can occur. To prevent this problem, some type of synchronization or clocking is necessary. Two methods for doing this are synchronous and asynchronous transmission.
Synchronization
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Serial ports provide two-way serial communication in microcomputers. One of the most common devices that connects to serial ports is a modem. Modems enable two computers to transfer data across a telephone line.
Synchronous Transmission
Synchronous transmissions keep the receivers clock synchronized with the transmitters clock. To accomplish this, a clock line between the two devices enables the receiver to adjust the frequency with which the receiver retrieves bits from the data line.
Asynchronous Transmission
Another way to accomplish this is for the transmitter to embed clocking pulses in the data line. This is referred to as asynchronous transmission. To signal the beginning and end of a block of data, the transmitter adds a start sequence (typically a pattern of bits) to the beginning of the block of data, and an end sequence (another special bit pattern) at the end. A parity bit can also be included to verify that data has transmitted correctly. The transmitting device sets the parity bit to a particular value (1 or 0) depending on whether the sum of the bits in the data block is an even or odd number. The receiving device can verify the data by summing it and examining the parity bit. The process of adding start, stop, and parity bits is called framing. The block of data combined with a start and stop pattern is called a data frame.
Framing Bits
The computer and devices with which it communicates must use the same number of several types of bits. These include the start, data, parity, and stop bits.
You must also specify the data ratethe number of bits of data that are transmitted per second. This rate is referred to in bits per second (bps). For example, computers typically communicate with serial printers at 9600 bps. Use a conguration utility (such as MS-DOSs MODE command) to set the rate used by the serial port. The printers bps rate is most likely set through DIP switches. The bps rate is often confused with another data transfer rate called baud. The baud rate measures the number of signal changes that a data transmission line makes in one second, whereas the bps rate measures how much data can be transferred in one second. If a transition in the signal equates to a single bit of data, then these measurements are the same. However, some devices (such as modems) can use special encoding and compression techniques to communicate with other devices. These techniques enable a modem to transfer more bits per second over a telephone line than the maximum baud rate. These two rates are confused so often that even technical documentation sometimes uses the wrong terminology.
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Data Rate
IBM computers provide one or more serial ports named COM1, COM2, and so forth. Typically, the operating system and applications that use the COM ports provide conguration options that you can set. When you set up a computer to communicate with a serial device (such as a modem or printer), the hardware and software must be congured to communicate using the same settings. Settings include framing bits, data rate, and ow control.
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COM1 is also sometimes known as AUX. This refers to the DOS auxiliary device. data rate: The number of bits of data that are transmitted per second. Not to be confused with baud rate. baud rate: The number of signal changes that a data transmission line makes in one second. Not to be confused with data rate.
Configuration
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asynchronous transmission: Transmitter embeds clocking pulses in the data line.
framing: The process of using start, stop, and parity bits to verify asynchronous transmission.
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synchronous transmission: Keeps the receivers clock synchronized with the transmitters clock.
Flow Control
As with human communication, electronic devices need to know when the other device has nished talking so that they can talk. Devices also need a way to conrm that they have received data that was sent to them. Flow-control techniques control and acknowledge the ow of data. Handshaking is a ow-control method that can be implemented through hardware or software. With hardware handshaking, a separate wire is provided for ow control. The receiving device sends a signal over this wire to inform the sending device that it is ready to receive data.
TASK 5C-1:
Configuring Serial Ports
1. 2. 3.
Right-click on My Computer and choose Properties. Select the Device Manager tab. Expand Ports.
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Setup: The computer is powered on and the operating system has loaded.
Software handshaking reserves special characters for the receiving device to send control signals to the sending device. The XON/XOFF (transmit on/transmit off) protocol is an example of this. The receiving device sends a Control-S character (ASCII value 19) to request that the sending device stop sending data. The receiving device sends a Control-Q character (ASCII value 17) to request that the sending device resume sending data.
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handshaking: Signals transmitted back and forth over a communications network that establish a valid connection between two stations.
4. 5.
Double-click on a COM port. Select the Port Settings tab.
6. 7.
Click on the drop-down list for each setting and examine the possible values.
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8.
Close all dialog boxes.
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Click Advanced and examine the Receive Buffer and Transmit Buffer slider controls. You may need to adjust the receive and transmit buffers to ensure a compatible connection with the other modem.
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The RS-232 Standard

In 1967, when the technology for modems became available to the general public, the need arose for a standard way to connect computer terminals (Data Terminal Equipment, or DTE) to modems (Data Communication Equipment, or DCE). In 1969, the Electronics Industry Association published the RS-232 standard, which described how these devices should be connected. In 1987, the standard was enhanced to meet the changing needs of the electronics industry. In general use, the name RS-232 is still used to refer to the serial communication standard. The RS-232 standard describes: Mechanical characteristics, including wiring, connector-pin arrangements, and cable connectors. Signaling techniques. Functions of support circuits.
Procedures that devices use to communicate over RS-232 lines.
Mechanical Characteristics
DB-25 Connector Pins
Figure 5-6: DB-25 connector pins.
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Pin
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Signal
Protected ground Transmitted data Received data Request to send Clear to send Data set ready Signal ground Data carrier detector Reserved for data set testing Reserved for data set testing Unassigned Secondary carrier detector Secondary clear to send
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Pin
14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
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Signal
Secondary transmitted data Transmit timing signal Secondary received data Receive timing signal Unassigned Secondary request to send Data terminal ready Signal quality detector Ring indicator Data rate selector External timing signal Unassigned
Pin assignments, which are listed in the following table.
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Have students make a star next to pins 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 20. Explain that only these eight pins are used in most RS-232 cables. The other pins are left unconnected. You can illustrate this by removing the hoods from a DB-9 to DB-25 modem cable.
10 11 12 13
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The RS-232 standard species the following mechanical characteristics: A male, 25-pin connector (such as the DB-25 connector shown in Figure 5-6).
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RS-232: Serial communication standard that describes how to connect computer terminals to modems.
Most implementations do not use all of the pins shown in the previous table. In fact, it is possible to use nine or fewer pins to provide a functional two-way serial connection. For this reason, many computers provide a 9-pin (rather than a 25-pin) connector for their serial ports.
Serial Port Pinouts for a 9-pin Connector
Figure 5-7: Serial port pinouts for a 9-pin connector. The following table explains the default pin assignments for a 9-pin serial cable. Pin
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Signal
Received line signal detector Received data Transmitted data Data terminal ready Signal ground Data set ready Request to send Clear to send Ring indicator
Signals on RS-232 pins carry voltage levels that represent a certain binary value. The RS-232 standard species the following signaling characteristics: Voltages between -3 and -15 represent a binary value of 1. Voltages between +3 and +15 represent a binary value of 0. Voltage levels must not exceed 25 volts. RS-232 circuitry must be designed so that any combination of wires can be crossed without causing damage to connected equipment, such as computers or modems. Voltages between -3 and +3 do not represent values. The rate at which data is transmitted cannot exceed 20 kilobits per second.
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Circuit Functions
The RS-232 standard species the following functional categories of circuits: Ground or common returnProvides a reference for positive or negative voltages. DataThe circuits over which data are transmitted. Secondary channelEnables simultaneous two-way communication.
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Signaling Techniques
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ControlCircuits that control the ow of data and other factors. TimingEnables receivers to decode signals at the same rate at which they were encoded.
IRQs and I/O Addresses

Serial ports share IRQs, but use different I/O addresses. The following table shows these settings. COM Port
1 2 3 4
IRQ
4 3 4 3
I/O Address
3F8H 2F8H 3E8H 2E8H
RS-232 Communication Procedures
Figure 5-8 shows a typical procedure through which a computer might communicate with a modem. This is an RS-232 communication.
A Procedure for RS-232 Communication
Null Modem Pinouts
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Figure 5-8: A procedure for RS-232 communication.
Null-modem Serial Connections

There are times when you need to make a serial connection, but need a different conguration than the usual serial connection, such as the connection used with a modem. Figure 5-9 shows an example of wiring a 9-pin serial cable for a nullmodem connection. If two devices need to connect and are within tens of meters of each other, a cable wired in a null-modem, or dumb, conguration can be used in place of a modem. At other times, you may need a different pin arrangement. In some cases, such as from Pin 4 on the left to Pins 6 and 1 on the right, a single pin will be jumpered to two or more pins on the other end. Using your tools, such as a multimeter, you can determine which pins need to be connected. This was commonly required in the past, but most connections today use a standard modem or null-modem cable.
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Figure 5-9: Null-modem pinouts.
Identifying Pins that are Necessary for a Connection

1. Which of the following pins arent required for a mouse cable: 2 (data the computer receives), 3 (data the computer sends), 7 (signal ground), 14 (secondary transmitted data)? Pins 3 and 14 arent required. 2. Explain your answer.
Communication with the mouse is one way. The computer does not have to send data, so Pin 3 is unnecessary. Only one channel of data is required, so Pin 14 is not needed.
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Parallel ports are commonly used to connect microcomputers to printers. Because parallel ports use parallel transmission, they are fast. The IBM PC, XT, and AT computers had a unidirectional parallel port, which is capable of sending, but not receiving, data. The most common use for parallel ports is to connect the microcomputer to a printer.
Parallel Ports
Topic 5D
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TASK 5C-2:
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Centronics Pinouts
A Centronics Parallel Cable with a Centronics and a DB-25 Connector
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Figure 5-10: A Centronics parallel cable with a Centronics and a DB-25 connector.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
- Strobe + Data bit 0 + Data bit 1 + Data bit 2 + Data bit 3 + Data bit 4 + Data bit 5 + Data bit 6 + Data bit 7 - Acknowledge + Busy + P. End (out of paper) + Select
14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
- Auto feed - Error - Initialize printer - Select input Ground Ground Ground Ground Ground Ground Ground Ground
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Centronics: Parallel port standard that uses a 36-pin connector to connect to the printer, and a DB-25 connector to connect to the PC.
The type of parallel port used in IBM and compatible computers is called the Centronics standard, named after the company that designed the original interface. The Centronics standard uses a 36-pin Centronics connector to connect to the printer, and a DB-25 (25-pin) connector to connect to the PC. IBM computers have up to three parallel ports: LPT1, LPT2, and LPT3. These ports provide the following connections. Pin Signal Pin Signal
Configuration
Typically, very little conguration is involved with parallel ports. To enable software to communicate with a printer, you need only identify the name of the port (LPT1, for example) to which the printer is attached. Of course, you might need to install or select printer driver software to enable applications to send the correct commands to the printer. Other devices, such as CD-ROM drives, also require that you install driver software to enable the computer to communicate with the device. Parallel ports use IRQ 7 and I/O Address 378H for LPT1 and IRQ 5 and 278H for LPT2. If you choose to install a second LPT port (LPT2), there may be a conict with the sound card, which also uses IRQ 5.
Figure 5-11: Parallel port pinouts.
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Bidirectional
Unidirectional Bidirectional
Type
Standard
SPP ECP (IEEE 1284)
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As time has gone on, needs have gone beyond those provided by the original parallel port. In the original, data only owed in one directionto the printer (or other device), but the printer couldnt send any information back to the CPU. Designers needed a way to make the port faster, allow communication back and forth, and other features. Newer bidirectional ports are available and are known as EPP (Enhanced Parallel Port), and ECP (Extended Capability Port). EPP is used primarily by non-printer peripherals, whereas ECP is used by newer generation printers. Examples of non-printer devices include CD-ROM drives and network adapters. Both ECP and EPP provide throughput that is about 10 times faster than the Centronics standard provides. The ECP and EPP standards are dened in the IEEE 1284 standard. Windows 95, Windows 98, and Windows 2000 have built-in support for IEEE 1284. Both the parallel port and device must support IEEE 1284 for the higher speeds to be achieved.
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Description
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EPP: Stands for Enhanced Parallel Port. Newer generation parallel port standard that offers high throughput (approximately 10 times faster than the Centronics standard). Used mostly by non-printer peripherals, such as CD-ROM drives and network adapters.
EPP (IEEE 1284)
Standard Parallel Port. Extended Capability Port. Provides faster throughput than Centronics. Used by newer generation printers and scanners. Enhanced Parallel Port. Also known as a Fast Parallel Port. Provides faster throughput than Centronics. Used by non-printer devices, such as CD-ROM drives and network adapters.
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ECP: Stands for Extended Capability Port. Newer generation parallel port standard that provides high throughput (approximately 10 times faster than the Centronics standard). Used mostly by newer generation printers and scanners.
Parallel Port Pinouts
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The IEEE 1284 standard identies three different types of connectors. These include the 1284 Type A connector which uses a 25 pin DB25 connector, the 1284 Type B connector which uses a 36 conductor, 0.085 centerline Champ connector with bale locks, and the 1284 Type C connector which uses a 36 conductor, 0.050 centerline mini connector with clip latches.
Identifying Parallel Port Modes

1. 2.
Note that some BIOSs may display different values and use different terminology.
Select Advanced.
3. 4. 5. 6.
Select I/O Device Conguration and press [Enter]. Select Parallel Port Mode and press [Enter]. Examine the parallel port modes available.
Universal Serial Bus Ports
For more information on the USB standard, visit http:// usb.org/.
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USB standard: Stands for Universal Serial Bus. A hardware interface for low-speed peripherals such as the keyboard, mouse, joystick, scanner, printer, and telephony devices.
USB Ports
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Compaq, Digital, IBM, Intel, Microsoft, NEC, and Northern Telecom worked together to develop the USB standard (Universal Serial Bus). It offers a new single-port connector standard to connect to common I/O devices.
Topic 5E
Exit without saving changes.
Power off and power on the computer, and as it is booting enter the BIOS setup program.
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TASK 5D-1:
Figure 5-12: USB ports on an ATX motherboard.
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Up to 127 devices can be connected to a USB port. Using USB hubs containing several USB sockets plugged into a PC or other device is used to do this. Up to seven peripherals can be attached to each USB hub. This can include a second hub with up to seven more peripherals connected. This can keep going until you reach 127 devices. Examples of devices you can connect to a USB port include modems, digital cameras, printers, scanners, Ethernet cards, CD/RW drives, external hard drives, external oppy drives, keyboards, and mice.
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A PCI-to-USB Adapter, a USB Hub, and a PC Cardto-USB Adapter
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Figure 5-13: An internal PCI to USB adapter, an external USB hub, and a PC Card to USB adapter.
USB Power
The USB bus distributes 0.5 amps (500 milli-amps) of power through each port. This allows low-power devices that normally need their own power adaptor to be powered through the cable. Through USB, the PC automatically senses the power thats required and delivers it to the device. Hubs may get all of their power from the USB bus (bus-powered), or they may be powered from their own AC adaptor. Powered hubs with at least 0.5 amps per port provide the most exibility for other downstream devices.
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USB Connectors
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USB Cables
All cables that are permanently attached to the device have a Type A plug. Devices that use a separate cable have a square Type B socket, and the cable that connects them has a Type A and Type B plug.
A 5-volt power supply is carried along with the USB signal. This allows small devices, such as hand-held scanners or speakers, to use power from the PC rather than requiring their own power cable. Devices are plugged directly into a 4-pin socket on the PC or hub using a rectangular Type A socket.
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Figure 5-14: USB connectors.
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Software to support USB is added to the operating system. This software manages the host controller. Data ows bidirectionally to and from the host controller and subsidiary hub controllers. Portions of the bus bandwidth are permanently reserved for specic peripherals. This is referred to as isochronous data transfer.
isochronous: Uses a single device for clocking and all other devices set their internal clocks to this one device.
USB manages connected peripherals in a host controller mounted on the PCs system board or on a PCI card added to the system. The host controller and the controllers in USB hubs manage USB peripherals. This reduces the load on the PCs CPU time and improves system performance.
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USB is user-friendly and nally provides real Plug and Play capabilities. With USB, you dont need to install expansion cards in the PC and then recongure the system. Instead, the bus allows peripherals to be attached, congured, used, and detached while the host and other peripherals are in operation. You dont need to install drivers, determine if a serial or parallel port is available, or congure IRQ settings, DMA channels, and I/O addresses.
USB overcomes the speed limitations of traditional serial ports. USB runs at 12 Mbps. USB bandwidth supports devices such as external CD-ROM drives and tape units, ISDN, and PBX interfaces. It can also carry digital audio directly to loudspeakers equipped with digital-to-analog converters, eliminating the need for a sound card. To keep costs down, its range is limited to 5 meters between devices. A lower communication rate of 187.5 KBps can be set up for lower-bitrate devices like keyboards and mice, saving space for those things which really need it.
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The USB interface contains two main modules. The rst is the SIE (Serial Interface Engine). It is responsible for the bus protocol. The second is the root hub. It is used to expand the number of USB ports.
SIE: Serial Interface Engine. The USB module responsible for bus protocol.
Another type of USB hub is the port-switching hub. Port-switching hubs isolate all ports from each other so that one shorted device will not bring down the others. The ultimate goal of USB is a PC with a single USB port, rather than the current four or ve different connectors. One large, powered devicelike a monitor or a printerwould be attached to this single USB port. This device would act as a hub with other smaller devices such as mouse, keyboard, modem, document scanner, digital camera and so on, attaching to this device. Note that even though devices like this exist today, the actual USB 1.0 specication regards them as extensions to the cable, which are not allowed under the specication. With current devices like this, it is advisable to only use them to plug in small, low-power USB devices, such as a mouse or keyboard.
root hub: The USB module used to expand the number of USB ports.
A Monitor with an Integrated 4-port USB Hub
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Figure 5-15: A monitor with an integrated 4-port USB hub.
USB Version 2.0

The USB 2.0 specication improves performance to provide support for future classes of high-performance peripherals. Performance is around 30 to 40 times over USB 1.1 capabilities. USB 2.0 extends the capabilities to between 360 and 480Mbps, providing a connection point for next-generation peripherals that complement higher-performance PCs. USB 2.0 is both forward- and backward-compatible with USB 1.1, and results in a seamless transition process for the end-user. USB 2.0 has led to the development of higher-performance peripherals that brings new applications to the PC. Existing USB peripherals operate with no change in a USB 2.0 system. Devices, such as mice, keyboards, and game pads, dont require the additional performance that USB 2.0 offers, and operate as USB 1.1 devices. All USB devices co-exist in a USB 2.0 system. The higher speed of USB 2.0 greatly broadens the range of peripherals that can be attached to a PC. This increased performance also allows a greater number of USB devices to share the available bus bandwidth, up to the architectural limits of USB.
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Troubleshooting USB
Generally speaking, you should run into few problems with USB ports, hubs, and devices. Due to their true Plug and Play nature, things should go smoothly whenever you install a new USB device. However, here are some of the things you need to know, and that you might run into when working with USB: USB support must be enabled in the BIOS. Enabling USB support assigns an IRQ to the PCI USB host bus controller. USB may be enabled by default in the BIOS. If it isnt, enter the BIOS during the POST, and locate the area where you enable USB support, and then enable it. You will likely nd USB support under the Input/Output Ports menu, under Peripheral Setup, or under Advanced Options. If your BIOS doesnt have USB support, you may need to upgrade it, or, alternatively, install a PCI to USB adapter card in the system. The computer must have a USB port. If it doesnt, you can install a PCI to USB adapter card in the system. Once you have a USB port, and have USB support enabled in the BIOS, Windows will detect the USB controllers (the PCI to USB Universal Host Controller, and the USB Root Hub) and install the necessary drivers. To verify that this has been done, you can check for the Universal Serial Bus controllers in the Device Manager.
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Figure 5-16: USB controllers as displayed in Device Manager. Make sure that the USB cable doesnt exceed 5 meters. An extension may lead to signal loss, and errors can occur, such as devices not functioning properly or not being detected. The USB 1.0 specication specically states that extensions are not allowed. In the future, cables with internal repeaters should be available, but signal loss can still occur.
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USB Controllers as Displayed in Device Manager
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If a device cant be seen, a port on your USB hub may be bad. Isolate the problem by moving the device to another port. If its detected in the different port, you have a bad port. Your operating system may not support USB. Windows 95 provides limited USB support, and requires version B (OSR2) and supplemental USB support les. Youre best off with Windows 98 or Windows 2000, which both natively support USB. To check if the USB supplement has been installed in Windows 95, open Add/Remove Programs from Control Panel, and look for USB Supplement to OSR2. If you dont see this item, then the supplement hasnt yet been installed. The supplement le is USBSUPP.EXE, and you can nd it on the Windows 95 OEM Service Release 2.1 and 2.5 CDs. You cant download it from Microsofts Web site.
If a USB device displays as an unknown device in Device Manager, you can check the following. If in Device Manager, only the USB host controller, but not the Root Hub, is listed, you may have a problem with the USB.INF le. To try to alleviate this problem, remove the USB host controller from Device Manager, and then click Refresh. Windows will then redetect hardware, and should see and install both the USB host controller and the Root Hub. Then, browse to \Windows\Inf, right-click on the USB.INF le, and choose Install. Windows should then detect your USB device, and you should be able to nd it in Device Manager.
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Note that you cant download the USB supplement from Microsofts Web site.
Of course, its always possible that your USB device simply experienced hardware failure. If everything else is working properly, and youve veried that there are no conguration errors or problems of that sort, suspect the hardware.
If you need to know how much power a device is using, run \tools\reskit\ diagnose off of the Windows 98 CD. It will tell you how much power a device is using, and whether the device is bus- or self-powered.
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TASK 5E-1:
Connecting USB Devices
1. You have a computer with a single USB connector and you want to connect ve USB peripheral devices to your system. Draw a diagram that illustrates how you would accomplish this. In your diagram, include any other USB components you will need.
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Dont show this overhead before students complete the step.
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USB Hub Conguration
Topic 5F
FireWire Ports
For more information on FireWire, refer to www.1394ta.org/.
IEEE 1394 is similar to USB in many ways, but much faster. FireWire and USB are both hot-swappable serial interfaces. However, FireWire has a higher bandwidth with faster data transfers than that provided by USB.
FireWire Cables
Apple currently receives a $1 royalty per FireWire port.
Electrical contacts are inside the structure of the connector of an IEEE 1394 cable. This helps prevent shock to the user or contamination of the contacts by the users hands. These connectors are derived from the Nintendo GameBoy connector. Field-tested by children of all ages, this small and exible connector is very durable. These connectors are easy to use even when the user must blindly insert them into the back of machines. There are no terminators required, or manual IDs to be set. IEEE 1394 uses a six-conductor cable which contains two pairs of wires for data transport, and one pair for device power. The cable can be up to 4.5 meters long. The design is similar to a standard 10BaseT Ethernet cable; each signal pair is shielded and the entire cable is shielded. Cable power is specied to be from 8 V DC to 40 V DC at up to 1.5 amps. It is used to maintain a devices physical layer continuity when the device is powered down or a malfunction occurs. This is a unique and very important feature for a serial topology. It also provides power for devices connected to the bus. As the standard evolves, new cable designs are expected to allow longer distances without repeaters and with more bandwidth.
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IEEE: Pronounced I-triple-E. Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers. An organization of scientists, engineers, and students of electronics and related elds whose technical and standards committees develop, publish, and revise computing and telecommunication standard.
The 1394b specication plans to use a different coding and data-transfer scheme that will provide 800 Mbps per second, 1.6 Gbits per second, and even higher speeds. This high speed makes IEEE 1394 a viable solution for connecting digital cameras, video cameras, printers, TVs, network cards, and mass-storage devices to PCs.
The backplane bus supports data-transfer speeds of 12.5, 25, or 50 Mbps. The cable standard supports speeds of 100, 200, and 400 Megabits per second. This is about four times as fast as a 100BaseT Ethernet connection and much faster than the 12 Mbps provided by USB. Future speeds will include 800 Mbps, and 1,200 Mbps.
FireWire: A high-speed serial bus developed by Apple and Texas Instruments that allows for the connection of up to 63 devices.
Two Levels of Interface
There are two levels of interface in IEEE 1394, one for the backplane bus within the computer and another for the point-to-point interface between device and computer on the serial cable. A simple bridge connects the two environments.
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FireWire, the IEEE specication 1394, was approved by the IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) in 1995. FireWire was pioneered by Apple. Apple was later joined by Microsoft, Philips, National Semiconductor, and Texas Instruments in the 1394 Trade Association.
FireWire Chips
Every IEEE 1394 connection contains two chips per device: a physical layer and a link layer semiconductor chip. The physical interface (PHY) is a mixed-signal device that connects to the other devices PHY. All PHY chips use the same technology, whereas the link is device-specic allowing IEEE 1394 to act as a peerto-peer system as opposed to USBs client-server design. Therefore, an IEEE 1394 system doesnt need a serving host or a PC. FireWire supports both asynchronous and isochronous transport. Asynchronous transport is the traditional method of transmitting data between computers and peripherals, data being sent in one direction followed by acknowledgement to the requester. Asynchronous data transfers place emphasis on delivery rather than timing. The data transmission is guaranteed, and retries are supported. Isochronous data transfer ensures that data ows at a preset rate so that an application can handle it in a timed way. Isochronous data transfers operate in a broadcast manner, where one or many 1394 devices can listen to the data being transmitted. Up to 63 channels of isochronous data can be transferred simultaneously on the 1394 bus. Because isochronous transfers can only take up a maximum of 80 percent of the 1394 bus bandwidth, there is enough bandwidth left over for additional asynchronous transfers.
The 1394 bus bridge isolates data traffic within each work area. IEEE 1394 bus bridges allow selected data to be passed from one bus segment to another. Because the 1394 cable is powered, the PHY signalling interface is always powered, and data is transported even if a PC in the chain is powered off. Over 1,000 bus segments may be connected by bridges, thus providing a large growth potential. An additional feature is the ability of transactions at different speeds to occur on a single-device medium. For example, some devices can communicate at 100 Mbps while others communicate at 200 and 400 Mbps. IEEE 1394 devices can be added to or removed from the bus while the bus is in full operation. Upon altering the bus conguration, topology changes are automatically recognized. This Plug and Play feature eliminates the need for address switches or other user intervention to recongure the bus. FireWire uses memory-based addressing, rather than channel addressing, which views resources as registers or memory that can be accessed with processor-tomemory transactions. This makes for easy networking. A digital camera can easily send pictures directly to a digital printer without a computer in between. Using IEEE 1394, the PC might become just a very intelligent peer device.
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IEEE 1394s scalable architecture and exible peer-to-peer topology make it ideal for connecting high-speed devices: everything from computers and hard drives, to digital audio and video hardware. Devices can be connected in either a daisychain or tree topology.
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FireWire Connectors
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Figure 5-17: FireWire connectors.
Device Bay
Compaq, Intel, and Microsoft proposed an industry standard called Device Bay. It combines the fast interface of IEEE 1394 and the USB interface. It offers a bay slot to slide in peripherals such as hard disks or DVD-ROM players. Other devices that use IEEE 1394 include ZIP drives, scanners, and CD-RW drives. Largely because of its support of isochronous data transfer, FireWire has become the preferred technology used for video capture. Used as a hard-disk interface, it offers several advantages over SCSI. It can be just as fast as high-end SCSI, and it is much easier to install.
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Connecting a FireWire Device
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hot swap: To change out a device without needing to power down the PC during installation or remove the device.
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SCSI devices require a pre-assigned ID and both ends of the bus must be terminated; IEEE 1394 dynamically assigns addresses and doesnt require terminators. FireWire devices are hot-swappable, without the need to power down the PC during installation. IEEE 1394 makes for trouble-free Plug and Play installations because there are no addresses or DMA channels to worry about.
IEEE 1394 peripherals will be more expensive than SCSI, IDE, or USB devices. This is because two pieces of silicon instead of one are needed. This will make it too expensive for low-speed peripherals. However, it will probably catch on in higher-end applications like digital video editing. So far it is mainly used in digital camcorders, where it is known as iLink.
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Figure 5-18: Connecting a FireWire device.
TASK 5F-1:
Connecting FireWire Devices
1.
You have two PCs in separate work areas, each with FireWire capability. Draw a diagram that illustrates how you would interconnect the two work areas so that each could use the others devices. In your diagram, include any other FireWire components you will need.
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Display this overhead when reviewing student answers. FireWire Conguration
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Summary
In this lesson, you examined the technical characteristics of ports commonly found on PCs. You learned how to physically identify them, how to congure them, and how to connect devices to them.
Lesson Review
Serially and in parallel.
5A Identify two ways that data can be transmitted through I/O ports.
Keyboard port uses IRQ 1; Mouse port uses IRQ 12.
When troubleshooting PS/2 ports, whats the expected output voltage? +5 V DC.
COM1 and COM3 use IRQ 4; COM2 and COM4 use IRQ 3. Which I/O addresses are reserved for COM1 and COM2? COM1 = 3F8H. COM2 = 2F8H.
Describe the RS-232 standard, and identify congurable settings for RS-232 ports.
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Answers will vary, but may include: RS-232 is a common serial communication standard that describes mechanical characteristics, signaling techniques, functions of support circuits, and procedures that devices use to communicate over RS-232 lines. Congurable settings include framing bits, data rate, and ow control.
5D Which IRQs are reserved for the LPT1 and LPT2 parallel ports?
IRQ 7 for LPT1 and IRQ 5 for LPT2. Which I/O addresses are reserved for the LPT1 and LPT2 parallel ports? 378H for LPT1 and 278H for LPT2. Describe the Centronics parallel standard. The Centronics parallel standard uses a 36-pin Centronics connector to connect to the printer and a DB-25 (25-pin) connector to connect to the PC.
5C Which IRQs are reserved for the serial ports?
5B Which IRQs do the PS/2 ports use?
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5E Describe the major characteristics of a USB system.

A USB system consists of three components: a host (computer), one or more hubs, and up to 127 devices. Maximum bandwidth is 12 Mbps.
5F Describe the major characteristics of FireWire.

FireWire, also known as IEEE 1394 or iLink, supports up to 63 devices with a maximum bandwidth of 400 Mbps.
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Expansion Boards
Overview
This lesson focuses on expansion boards you will replace inside a PC. These boards enable you to expand the functionality of your computer.
LESSON
6
Data Files none To identify the internal expansion capabilities of a PC, you will: 6A Identify the technical characteristics of drive controllers. In this topic, you will compare the technical characteristics and operational features of common types of drive controllers. These include ST-506/ST-412, ESDI, SCSI, IDE, EIDE, and Ultra DMA. 6B
The MDA or Hercules monochrome displays soon gave way to CGA displays which quickly were replaced by EGA, and then nally with VGA displays (and its variants). 6C Identify the operational characteristics of sound cards.
6D
Identify the hardware and software characteristics that dene the operation of a modem. In this topic, you will examine the technical characteristics of a modem from both a hardware standpoint and a software standpoint. You will install a modem and congure it for use in the Windows 9x operating system.
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In this topic, you will describe the role sound cards play in computing. You will identify their operational characteristics, such as sound in, sound out, and how they interface with a CD-ROM drive.
Identify and describe common display technologies used with IBM computers.
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Lesson 6: Expansion Boards 175
Objectives
Lesson Time 3 hours
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Topic 6A
Drive Controllers
drive interface: A collection of electrical and logical connections between a hard drive and a PC.
Common Drive Interfaces
ESDI
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An ESDI Installation of Two Drives
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termination: The process of properly ending a chain of ESDI or SCSI disk drives by installing a terminating resistor.
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ESDI: Stands for Enhanced Small Device Interface. A drive interface similar to the ST506 interface that provides increased performance over the ST-506. Pronounced ez-dee.
ESDI, or Enhanced Small Device Interface, is similar to the ST-506 interface. However, it offers at least double the performance of the ST-506 interface. ESDI is still a popular choice for servers, but is being supplanted by some of the newer interfaces. (The ESDI acronym is often pronounced as ez-dee.) ESDI controllers can generally support up to two drives each. Drives are connected by two cables: a 34-pin data cable and a 20-pin control cable. ESDI drives must have jumpers set to designate their drive numbers (rst or second on the chain). This setting is described as the drive select; the jumper that sets the drive select is the drive select jumper. ESDI drives must also be properly terminated. The drive that occupies the end position on the ESDI chain must have a terminating resistor pack installed. Other ESDI drives and the controller are not terminated.
ST-506 interface: A legacy drive interface still in use today. Also referred to as the ST-412 interface.
The ST-506 interface, later upgraded and renamed the ST-412 interface, is one of the oldest drive interfaces still in use. Due to its low speed, it has not been a popular choice for some time. However, it was popular enough that the PC architecture is built around the ST-506 design. When you are installing drives, the PCs BIOS will require you to set a drive type. These types are based on the ST-506 interface and operational parameters. For compatibility reasons, newer drive and interface types use this same method.
ST-506/ST-412
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All of the data on your hard drive must have a way to get to the processor and peripherals on your computer. That is the role of the drive interface. A drive interface is a collection of electrical and logical interconnections between a hard drive and your computer. Many interfaces exist, but the most commonly used interfaces are ST-506/ST-412, ESDI, IDE, Ultra DMA, and SCSI.
Figure 6-1: An ESDI installation of two drives.
Other ESDI settings can include drive speed, interface transfer rate, or spindle synchronization. ESDI drives require that you set the BIOS drive type in the same way that you would for an ST-506 drive, unless your controller contains its own BIOS chip. Manufacturers of ESDI drives and controllers have worked hard to get maximum performance from the ESDI interface. Often, ESDI controllers will include large amounts of RAM-based cache and an intelligent cache controller. Reads and writes to this cache are faster than reads and writes to the actual disk, so the performance enhancement can be signicant.
SCSI
One of the most popular server drive interface choices is the SCSI, or Small Computer System Interface. This interface provides high performance and the ability for one controller to control up to seven devices, chained on one cable. (The SCSI acronym is often pronounced scuzzy.)
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Because SCSI is a logical interface as well as an electrical interface, it applies to more than just disk drives. SCSI has been used as the interface to scanners, network adapters, monitors, and even as a network topology itself. The others, like ST-506 and ESDI, are simply electrical connections between the computer and the disk drive. Because of this difference, the SCSI controller is not technically a controller, but rather an adapter. The SCSI adapter converts messages from the systems bus to the SCSI bus and vice versa. A SCSI adapter is most often called a host bus adapter.
SCSI: Stands for Small Computer System Interface. A drive controller that provides highperformance data transfer between the hard drive or other SCSI device and the other components of the computer. Pronounced scuzzy.
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External and Internal SCSI Connectors and Cables
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SCSI devices are connected by daisy-chained cable. The cables typically use 50or 68-pin connectors. 50-pin connectors are used for an 8-bit bus, 68-pin connectors are used for a 16-bit bus. 25-pin connectors are also used (often for Macintosh connections), as are 80-pin connectors for high-speed implementations of SCSI. Internal cables are at-ribbon cables. External connectors can be Centronics, High Density, Very High Density Centronics, and DB-25. Internal connectors can be High Density or Standard. Following, you will see diagrams of internal and external SCSI connectors, as well as some examples of internal and external SCSI cables. You will also see a diagram of a generic SCSI drive chain.
SCSI does not use the computers built-in BIOS drive types, which are used by ST-506 or ESDI. Rather, most SCSI installations require you to set the computers built-in BIOS as if the hard drive were not installed in the system. One of the functions of the SCSI host bus adapter is to give you the ability to boot from a SCSI drive without using the PCs BIOS table. This is possible because of the additional BIOS extensions (chip) on the host bus adapter.
The SCSI specication can be implemented in 8-bit or 16-bit versions. Additionally, the bus can operate at different speeds. At its lowest speeds and in an 8-bit implementation, SCSI transfers data at the rate of about 5 MB per second (MBps). In its fastest implementations, SCSI can achieve data transfer rates in the range of 40 MBps to 160 MBps or more.
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The SCSI connection can be described as an intelligent bus. Devices talk across the bus to manage access to the bus, resolve contentions, arbitrate speeds and transfer modes, and transfer data. Newer SCSI devices support a feature called disconnect/reconnect. With this feature, the host bus adapter gives one of the devices a command, such as Retrieve a piece of data from the disk, but does not wait for the device to complete that command. Instead, the host bus adapter disconnects and moves on, giving commands or transferring data with other devices on the SCSI bus. When it is ready, the host bus adapter reconnects to the rst device to complete the command operation. An advantage of this feature is that a slow device, such as a tape drive, cannot dominate and slow the entire bus.
Figure 6-2: External and internal SCSI connector diagrams, and internal and external SCSI cables.
SCSI Drive Chain
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Figure 6-3: SCSI drive chain. SCSI devices, including the host bus adapter itself, must be congured with a number, or SCSI ID, that uniquely identies them on the SCSI bus. These IDs range from 0 to 7 (or 0 to 15 for Wide SCSI), with 7 often reserved for the host bus adapter and 0 the default for the primary hard disk drive. The higher the ID a
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An External 50-pin Centronics Terminator
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Figure 6-4: An external 50-pin Centronics terminator.
The SCSI bus requires proper termination. Termination is the addition of a resistor or resistors to one or both ends of the bus to prevent signal reections. A terminator makes the cable appear to be innite in length. The SCSI bus requires that both ends of the bus are terminated. The host bus adapter generally takes care of terminating one end of the bus. However, the last device on the SCSI chain must also be terminated. Some devices offer the ability to terminate the chain by setting a switch or jumper. Others require you to physically install a resistor pack or special terminating connector.
LUN: Logical Unit Number is a unique identier for subdevices assigned to a single SCSI ID.
You can support more SCSI devices through the use of LUN (Logical Unit Numbers). A LUN is a unique sub-device identier that enables you to have up to seven sub-devices per single SCSI ID. One of the most common uses for this is to create a single logical disk drive from multiple physical disk drives. This is typically seen in network servers, such as Windows NT, UNIX, and NetWare servers. You will need specic software to set up LUNs.
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device has, the higher the priority it has on the bus if two devices try to gain control at the same time. You should try to give slower devices, such as tape drives higher priority, so that faster devices like hard drives dont dominate control of the bus. The sequence of priority is 7,6,5,4,3,2,1,0 for narrow SCSI and 7,6,5,4,3,2,1,0,15,14,13,12,11,10,9,8 for Wide SCSI. Some systems, especially UNIX systems, require that certain devices have certain SCSI IDs. For example, in a Sun Microsystems SPARC 1+ workstation running SunOS 4.1.1, the primary hard drive must have the SCSI ID of 3. Without extra conguration work, the primary hard drive will not work if it is set to another SCSI ID. Most non-UNIX systems do not have this requirement.
SCSI-II
SCSI-II is an improved version of the SCSI specication. In addition to providing backward-compatibility with all SCSI (often called SCSI-I) devices, SCSI-II offers support for wide or fast connections, provides increased throughput due to lowered overhead, and solves many of the compatibility problems associated with early implementations of SCSI. Fast SCSI-II is an implementation of the SCSI bus that operates at twice the speed of the normal SCSI bus. The SCSI-II bus operates at 10 MHz or faster speeds, with a throughput of 10 MBps. Wide SCSI-II is an implementation of the SCSI bus with additional data lines. The standard SCSI bus uses eight data lines to move data in a parallel fashion. Wide SCSI-II is available in 16 and 32bit versions to increase the data transfer rate. Typically, when you see Wide SCSI, the reference is to the 16-bit version (Fast/Wide throughput 20 MBps), as the 32-bit version proved to be too expensive for widespread acceptance and was withdrawn from the standard.
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The following illustrations show several SCSI implementations. This includes internal devices only, external devices only, and internal and external devices on the same bus.
The SCSI Bus with Internal and External Devices Properly Terminated
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SCSI-III, or Ultra SCSI, is the next generation of SCSI specications. It can provide higher transfer rates than earlier versions of SCSI, and can support 16 devices per channel (numbered 0 through 15). Ultra Wide SCSI and Fast-20 refer to a 20-MHz bus with 40 MBps transfer rates. Ultra2 Wide SCSI and Fast-40 refer to a 40-MHz bus with 80 MBps transfer rates, and Ultra3 SCSI and Fast-80 refer to an 80-MHz bus with 160 MBps transfer rates.
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Figure 6-5: The SCSI bus with internal and external devices properly terminated.
The SCSI Bus with Several Internal SCSI Devices Connected
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The SCSI Bus with Several External Devices Connected
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Figure 6-6: The SCSI bus with several internal SCSI devices connected and properly terminated.
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Figure 6-7: The SCSI bus with several external devices connected and properly terminated.
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Earlier SCSI devices were single-ended devices. A single-ended device uses a single wire for each bit of data. Noise is a problem with single-ended devices, and limits the maximum length of the SCSI chain to approximately 6 meters. To address this issue, SCSI-II introduced the ability to use differential devices. Differential devices use two wires, one for the actual data, and one for the inverse of the data. By identifying the difference between the signals (of the data and the inverse of the data), the device can identify noise and reject it. Originally, differential devices were HVD (High Voltage Differential) devices, also called just Differential. Using these devices, a SCSI chain could be up to 25 meters in length. However, if you accidentally plugged an HVD device into a single-ended SCSI chain, the single-ended devices on the chain, and possibly also the HVD device, were damaged. Not so with LVD (Low Voltage Differential) SCSI devices. These are differential devices that use less power than HVD SCSI devices. They can be used together with single-ended devices without the possibility of damaging any of the devices on the chain. However, if you add an LVD SCSI device to a single-ended SCSI chain, the LVD SCSI device will function in the same way as a single-ended device, and you lose the advantage of using a differential device. The maximum length of an LVD SCSI chain is 12 meters.
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Figure 6-8: Internal 68-pin LVD SCSI cable, and a 68-pin LVD SCSI terminator.
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single-ended device: SCSI device that uses a single wire for each bit of data. HVD: Stands for High Voltage Differential. A SCSI device that uses two wires, one for data, and one for the inverse of data. These devices use high voltage and cant be used on a single-ended SCSI chain. LVD: Stands for Low Voltage Differential. A SCSI device that uses two wires, one for data, and one for the inverse of data. These devices use low voltage and can be used on a single-ended SCSI chain.
Low Voltage Differential (LVD)
Internal 68-pin LVD SCSI Cable, and a 68-pin LVD SCSI Terminator
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IDE
The IDE, or Integrated Drive Electronics, interface is another popular drive interface. The IDE interface is a simple disk interface; most of the intelligence has been transferred to the disk drive. The IDE controller simply connects the proper wires from the system bus to the proper wires on the drive cable. The IDE interface offers performance equal to or better than that of the ESDI interface, at a lower cost. Additionally, because it is so simple to implement, many computer makers now include an IDE controller in their motherboard designs. Technically, there are different varieties of IDE interfaces.
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Manufacturers rate the capacity of their drives using a decimal megabyte; a decimal megabyte is dened as 10^6 or 1,000,000. Technically, the actual size of the drive should be measured using a binary megabyte; a binary megabyte is dened as 2^20 or 1,048,576.
IDE does not support CD-ROMs or hard drives larger than 528 or 504 MB. The size limitation is stated as either 528 MB, or as 504 MB. 504 MB is derived by dividing 528,000,000 bytes by 1,048,576 (the exact number of bytes per MB), and is realistically the more accurate number.
The IDE interface enables either one or two devices to be attached to the same controller. One device must be congured as the master drive, the other as the slave drive. This conguration is most often accomplished with jumpers. Disk drives are attached to the IDE interface with a single cable, plus a power connection. Drives are daisy-chained when a second drive exists on the IDE channel.
The acronym IDE is most often associated with the implementation designed to work with the ISA/AT bus. This type of IDE interface is sometimes called the ATA, or AT Attachment, interface. Other IDE interfaces exist for the 8-bit XT bus, the Micro Channel bus, and others.
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IDE drive interface: Stands for Integrated Drive Electronics. A drive interface that provides inexpensive, high-speed data transfer between the hard drive or other IDE device and the other components of the computer.
LBA and ECHS

Its possible to get around the 504 MB limitation of IDE drives through the use of LBA (Logical Block Addressing) or Extended CHS (ECHS). With LBA or ECHS, hard drives can be up to 8.4 GB in size. LBA and ECHS are methods of sector translation (translating a hard drives logical geometry into physical geometry) that essentially give the BIOS incorrect information about the geometry of the drive so that larger hard-drive capacities can be supported, while staying within BIOS limitations. The cylinder value after translation never exceeds 1,024. As mentioned earlier, both LBA and ECHS provide for the support of hard drives of up to 8.4 GB. LBA was developed by Western Digital. ECHS was developed by Seagate. They differ only in the sector translation results they produce. If you want to move a hard drive from one computer to another, however, the other computer must support the same sector translation method as the computer out of which youre taking the hard drive. Otherwise, you will lose the data on the disk if you move the drive. This is a problem mostly if one computer is signicantly older than another. But you do want to check, and always back up your data before moving a drive. Todays hard disks and BIOSs all support LBA and ECHS to accommodate the need for large disk capacity.
INT13 Extensions
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To address the need for even larger hard-drive capacity, Interrupt 13 (INT13) extensions were developed by Phoenix Technologies in 1994. For the BIOS to support drives over 8.4 GB, the BIOS must include INT13 Extensions, which is a new set of BIOS calls. Besides the BIOS extensions, the operating system must support larger drives as well.
EIDE
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Enhanced IDE, or EIDE, is dened by Western Digital and is based on the ANSI ATA-2 specication. Seagate calls their implementation of this specication Fast ATA or Fast ATA-2. EIDE has three main advantages over IDE: It breaks the 528 MB hard-drive size limitation by allowing up to 8 GB.
Enhanced IDE: A drive interface based on the ANSI ATA-2 specication that provides support for larger hard drives, additional device connections, CDROMs, and tape drives. Also referred to as EIDE.
It supports CD-ROM and tape drive connections in addition to hard drives.
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PIO Mode
The ATA and ATA-2 standards use the PIO Mode (Programmed Input/Output Mode) to indicate the speed of data transfer between two devices that use the computers processor as a part of the datapath. See the following table for the different PIO Modes and transfer rates. The PIO Mode is set in the BIOS. It is originally set when you install an IDE or EIDE drive. You will learn more about installing IDE and EIDE drives in the Storage Systems lesson.
It supports dual host interface controllers, which allows up to four devices to connect; IDE allows only two devices.
CHS: Cylinders, heads, sectors addressing. Used to manually congure hard drives smaller than 504 MB.
ECHS: Extended CHS. Enables use of hard drives of up to 8.4 GB.
PIO Mode: Stands for Programmed Input/Output Mode. Indicates the speed of data transfer between two devices that use the computers processor as a part of the datapath.
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LBA: Logical Block Addressing is used to support increased capacity of IDE drives to over 504 MB, up to 8.4 GB. Some BIOS versions enable you to choose whether to use LBA mode.
Standard
ATA ATA ATA ATA-2 ATA-2
PIO Mode
0 1 2 3 4
Transfer Rate
3.3 MBps 5.2 MBps 8.3 MBps 11.1 MBps 16.6 MBps
Ultra DMA (UDMA)
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An Ultra DMA/33 Cable
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Ultra DMA requires an Ultra DMA-compatible hard drive, it has to be supported by the BIOS (which todays BIOSs all provide), and it requires a system bus on the system board that supports Ultra DMA (such as Pentium system boards). Note that some system board chipsets dont support Ultra DMA/66 or Ultra DMA/100, such as Intels 440BX AGPset (used with Pentium II and some Pentium III Xeon chips). This chipset only supports Ultra DMA/33. Intels 840 chipset supports Ultra DMA/66 (used with some Pentium III Xeon chips, and Pentium III chips), as does their 810 and 820 chipset. Typically, you can enable or disable Ultra DMA support in CMOS. Alternatively, support may be set automatically, and you cant change the setting. Ultra DMA drives use a special IDE cable. This cable has a black connector on one end, and a blue connector on the other. The cable used for Ultra DMA/33 is a 40-wire, 40-pin cable, and it uses seven pins for grounding. The cable used for Ultra DMA/66 and Ultra DMA/100 is an 80-wire, 40-pin cable. The additional 40 wires in this cable are ground wires. This helps reduce the signal noise that results from the higher data transfer rates.
Figure 6-9: An Ultra DMA/33 cable. Data integrity is also enhanced with Ultra DMA. This is because of improved timing margins and the integration of cyclical redundancy checks (CRCs).
UDMA: Ultra DMA is a newer and faster drive technology for data transfers on IDE drives. Also called Ultra ATA and Fast ATA-2. Provides for transfer speeds of up to 100 MBps.
The rst incarnation of Ultra DMA, introduced in 1996, was Ultra DMA/33 (ATA-33) with a transfer rate of 33.3 MB per second. This is supported by chip sets such as Intels PIIX4 chip set. The next incarnation, introduced in 1998, was Ultra DMA/66 (ATA-66), with a transfer rate of 66 MB per second. Then, in 2000, Ultra DMA/100 (ATA-100) was introduced, with a transfer rate of 100 MB per second. Hard drives, today, cannot actually transfer data at these maximum speeds, but will soon. The next technology on the horizon for even higher speeds is Serial ATA, with transfer rates of 160 MB per second, and eventually up to 528 MB per second.
UDMA (Ultra DMA), originally introduced by Intel and Quantum and supported by all leading hard-drive manufacturers, is a newer and faster drive protocol for hard-drive data transfers on IDE drives. Its an extension of the ATA hard-disk interface. Ultra DMA is also called Ultra ATA, and Fast ATA-2.
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Interface Comparison
You can use the information in the following tables to determine the type of drive that is best suited to your needs. Type
ST-506/ST-412
Characteristic
Speed Cables required Cable length Devices per controller Required settings
Description
52.5 KBps Power; 20-pin data; 34-pin control 24 inches maximum 2 BIOS type; termination on the last drive; set drive select (indicate drive 1 or 2 on controller) The ST-506 and the ST-412 interfaces are limited to drives with fewer than 1,024 cylinders Up to 3 MBps Power; 20-pin data; 34-pin control 3 meters maximum 2 (Specication allows 7, but few manufacturers have implemented the full specications) BIOS type; termination on the last drive; set drive select (indicate drive 1 or 2 on controller) ESDI implementations are usually heavily cached for maximum performance Up to 5 MBps Power; 50-pin cable (shielded if external) Maximum of 6 meters 7 (Actually, 8 devices are allowed, but one is the host bus adapter; the specication also allows 7 logical devices per device through the use of LUNs, for a total of 49) Set computer BIOS to indicate that no drive is installed; set SCSI ID (0-7); install termination on rst and last devices on SCSI bus; may need to congure the adapter BIOS The SCSI bus can be used for devices other than hard drives, such as monitors, printers, networks, and so forth
Comparing Drive Interfaces (4 slides)
ESDI
Required settings
Other considerations
SCSI-I
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Speed Cables required
Cable length Devices per controller
Required settings
Cable length Devices per controller
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Type
SCSI-II
Characteristic
Speed Cables required Cable length
Description
Up to 20 MBps Power; 50- or 68-pin cable 1.5 meters for up to 3 devices; 3 meters for more than 3 devices; 25 meters for High Voltage Differential (HVD) SCSI; 12 meters for Low Voltage Differential (LVD) SCSI 7 (Actually, 8 devices are allowed, but one is the host bus adapter; the specication also allows 7 logical devices per device through the use of LUNs, for a total of 49) Set computer BIOS to indicate that no drive is installed; set SCSI ID (0-7); install termination on rst and last devices on SCSI bus; may need to congure the adapter BIOS SCSI-II Fast increases the clock rate of SCSI-I; SCSI-II Wide uses a double-wide datapath; maximum data transfer rates are realized with SCSI-II Fast/Wide implementations Up to 160 MBps Power; 50-pin, 68-pin, or 80pin cable Maximum of 12 meters; 25 meters for High Voltage Differential (HVD) SCSI, 12 meters for Low Voltage Differential (LVD) SCSI 15 (Actually, 16 devices are allowed, but one is the host bus adapter) Set computer BIOS to indicate that no drive is installed; set SCSI ID (0-15); install termination on rst and last devices on SCSI bus; may need to congure the adapter BIOS SCSI-III Fast increases the clock rate of SCSI-I; SCSI-III Wide uses a double-wide datapath; maximum data transfer rates are realized with SCSI-III Fast/Wide implementations 3-4 MBps
Devices per controller
SCSI-III
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Speed Cables required Cable length Devices per controller Required settings Other considerations
Required settings
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Type
Characteristic
Cables required
Description
Power; 40-pin ribbon cable (IBM sometimes uses 44- or 72-pin cables) Maximum of 24 inches 2 Set BIOS type based on emulation; set drives to be master or slave, set drive type (often auto-detected) The IDE interface is a popular PC drive interface; it is often built into the motherboard Up to 16.6 MBps Power; 40-pin ribbon cable (IBM sometimes uses 44- or 72-pin cables) Maximum of 24 inches 2 Set BIOS type based on emulation; set drives to be master or slave The IDE interface is a popular PC drive interface; it is often built into the motherboard 33, 66, or 100 MBps Power; special 40-pin IDE ribbon cable with one blue connector on one end and one black connector on the other end; 80-wire, 40-pin cable for Ultra DMA/66 and Ultra DMA/ 100 Maximum of 24 inches 2 Enable in BIOS (can be automatic); set drives to be master or slave, enable DMA support in operating system Ultra DMA drives are quickly becoming very popular due to the faster transfer speeds they offer; backward-compatible with EIDE motherboards or controllers, but the drive will run at EIDEs speeds
EIDE
Ultra DMA
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Cable length Devices per controller Required settings
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TASK 6A-1:
Discussing Drive Controllers
1. 2. With the rest of the class, evaluate the hard-drive storage technologies presented in this topic.
The IDE/EIDE interface is most appropriate for workstations because it is built into most desktop PCs. Expect to nd newer drives using Ultra DMA technology.
5.
Display OV 6-15 as you review the answers.
Answers will vary.
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Which interface do you use for the hard drives in your companys servers? Why?
The SCSI interface is most appropriate for a server, due to its high performance and ability to handle up to seven devices off a single host adapter, and up to seven sub-devices per single SCSI ID through the use of LUNs.
4.
Which interface is most appropriate for a network le server?
LBA and ECHS, as well as INT13 extensions. LBA and ECHS enable support for drive sizes of up to 8.4 GB, and INT13 extensions enable support for drive sizes of up to 137 GB.
3.
What is used to break the 504 MB hard-drive size limitation of IDE drives, and what maxiumum drive sizes can be supported?
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Which interface is most appropriate for a client workstation? Why?
6.
Given the following diagram of a SCSI drive chain, indicate where it would be correct to add terminators.
0, 3, 4, 5, and 7; but 0 or 7 will be used by the host bus adapter.
Installing Hard Drive Controllers
Most system boards come with IDE connections built-in. Most dont include SCSI connections. Lets add a SCSI card to your system.
TASK 6A-2:
Installing a SCSI Controller
1. 2.
Shut down the computer, turn the power off, and disconnect the power cord. Locate an available PCI slot. These are short, white slots with closely spaced pins. Remove the PCI slots matching cover. On some systems, just unscrew the slot cover; on other systems, you will need to press out the slot cover that has been perforated along the sides. The rst type of slot cover should be saved in case you remove the card later and need to cover the back of the machine again. The other cover type can be thrown away as they cannot be reattached to the system.
Setup: This task assumes youre using an auto-terminating host adapter. If not, consult the host adapter documentation to ensure proper termination and SCSI ID conguration.
In this task, students will install a SCSI host bus adapter. In the Storage System lesson, they will attach a SCSI drive to the adapter.
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7.
If the SCSI bus on your server has devices numbered 1, 2, and 6, what device numbers are available for additional peripherals?
Answers should show the top two blanks as not terminated, and the bottom two blanks as terminated.
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4.
If you need to set the host adapter ID with jumpers or switches, do so before inserting the card in the system. Insert the SCSI host adapter into the PCI slot. Mount the SCSI host adapter to the chassis. Restart the computer. When the computer boots, notice that information about the SCSI host adapter is displayed. In Device Manager, locate the SCSI controller, and then return to the Desktop.
5. 6. 7.
Number of characters that can be displayed.
Types of Display Adapters
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MDA: Stands for Monochrome Display Adapter. The rst IBM PC monochrome video display standard for text only.
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Scan rate, or how frequently the display image is refreshed. A low scan rate is detected by the eye as a icker.
Most of the common display options for IBM and IBM-compatible computers are described in the following sections. They include MDA, HGC, CGA, EGA, and VGA.
Monochrome Display Adapter (MDA)

MDA, developed in 1981, provides the minimum display conguration for IBM and IBM-compatible microcomputers. This standard provides a text-only display. Although the hardware is considered to be monochrome, it can display characters of various intensity, characters in reverse video, and underlined characters. For computers using a non-graphical operating system and applications, MDA is inexpensive and it produces a legible image. MDA connects to a TTL monitor. The TTL monitor uses transistor-transistor logic signals, which are the same types of signals used in the computer. Colors/ Grays
4
monitor: A display screen used to present output from a computer.
Number of different colors that can be displayed at one time. A display might be monochrome (black and white, for example) or it might be able to display millions of different colors. More colors might seem more important than high resolution when you want to display a realistic graphic image.
Resolutionthe number of horizontal and vertical graphics dots (pixels) that the screen displays. The greater the resolution, the higher the quality of the display image.
display adapter: A PC expansion board that converts the images created in the computer to the electronic signals required by the monitor.
Display modes, such as text only or graphics.
TTL: Monitor that uses transistortransistor logic signals.
Mode
Text
Resolution
720 x 350
Video displays for IBM and IBM-compatible microcomputers typically consist of two components: a display adapter that goes in an expansion bus slot, and a video monitor that is compatible with that adapter. These items determine the video capabilities of the computer, including (but not limited to):
Number of Characters
80 x 25
Video Cards
192
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Character Box
9 x 14
Topic 6B
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Hercules Graphics Card (HGC)

In 1982, Van Suwannukul, who founded Hercules Computer Technology, developed a PC graphics display system, the Hercules Graphics Card (HGC). It is also referred to as HGA (Hercules Graphics Adapter). It was able to produce highresolution graphics (720 x 348) as well as text on monochrome monitors. It was extremely popular because it could display graphs and charts in that all-popular 1980s program, Lotus 1-2-3. The reason he developed this technology was so he could use his native Thai language alphabet on the PC when he wrote his doctoral thesis.
Color Graphics Adapter (CGA)

CGA, also developed in 1981, was the rst color graphics display conguration for IBM and IBM-compatible microcomputers. This standard displays 16 colors in text and graphics modes. CGA is compatible with software that supports MDA. However, CGAs low resolution can make it difficult to view text. Typically, the IBM RGB monitor was used with this adapter. RGB stands for red, green, and bluethe three basic colors that this monitor combines to make a total of 16 colors. The RGB monitor uses TTL signals, similar to the monochrome monitor. CGA can also drive a composite monitor, which connects to the display adapter with a single phono-type plug. This type of monitor is not widely accepted because it has a low resolution. However, a television can be used as a composite monitor by adding a device called an RF (Radio Frequency) modulator.
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8x8 8x8 8x8 8x8 8x8 8 x 14 9 x 14 8x8 8x8
Even though color cards eventually replaced the HGC, the company went on to produce graphics accelerators, which are popular with gamers. The company went out of business when it was acquired by Guillemot Corporation.
Mode
Text Text Graphics Graphics Graphics
Resolution
320 x 200 640 x 200 160 x 200 320 x 200 640 x 200
Enhanced Graphics Adapter (EGA)
EGA, developed in 1984, enables you to upgrade an adapter from MDA or CGA and use your old monochrome or RGB monitor. With the old monitors, EGA emulates CGA and MDA adapters, and provides a higher resolution.
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16 16 16 4 2
40 x 25 80 x 25 40 x 25 80 x 25
Colors/ Grays
Character Box
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The EGA adapter can also be used with the IBM Enhanced Color Display monitor. With this monitor, the EGA adapter can display 16 colors in a 640 x 350 resolution. Text, with an 8 x 14 character box, is easier to read than CGA text. EGA has been made obsolete by the new VGA standards. Colors/ Grays
16 16 4 16 16
Mode
Resolution
320 x 350 640 x 350 720 x 350 320 x 200 640 x 200
40 x 25 80 x 25 80 x 25 40 x 25 80 x 25
Character Box
Text Text Text Graphics Graphics
CGA: Stands for Color Graphics Adapter. An IBM video display standard that provided low-resolution text and graphics.
EGA: Stands for Enhanced Graphics Adapter. An early IBM video display standard that provided mediumresolution text and graphics.
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Hercules Graphics: A monochrome display adapter capable of producing both high-resolution monochrome graphics and text.
Mode
Graphics Graphics
Resolution
640 x 350 640 x 350
Colors/ Grays
4 16
80 x 25 80 x 25
Character Box
8 x 14 8 x 14
Video Graphics Array (VGA)

VGA, developed in 1987, uses an analog signal rather than a digital signal to control the display monitor. MDA, CGA, and EGA transmit digital signals to indicate the color or intensity to be displayed. Analog circuits lend themselves to large numbers of variations, which make them ideal for color displays. VGA can display up to 256 colors at 320 x 200 resolution. (An enhanced version of the VGA standard, called Super VGA, can display 256 colors at a resolution of 800 x 600.) VGA can emulate MDA, CGA, and EGA. VGA monitors must use the same scan rate as the video adapter that drives them. For this reason, you need to purchase a monitor that is compatible with the display adapter that will drive it. Some monitor manufacturers have manufactured multiscan monitors that support multiple scan rates and automatically match themselves to the scan rate of the display adapter. Colors/ Grays
Mode
Text Text Text Graphics Graphics Graphics Graphics Graphics Graphics Graphics Graphics Graphics
Resolution
360 x 400 720 x 400 720 x 400 320 x 200 640 x 200 320 x 200 640 x 200 640 x 350 640 x 350 640 x 480 640 x 480 320 x 200
O
16 16 16 4 2 16 16 4 16 2 16 256
VGA: Stands for Video Graphics Array. The minimum standard for PC video display, which originated with IBMs PS/2 models in 1987.
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40 x 25 80 x 25 80 x 25 80 x 25 80 x 25 80 x 25 80 x 25 80 x 25 80 x 25 80 x 25 80 x 25 80 x 25
Super and Ultimate VGA

SVGA and UVGA are higher-resolution versions of the VGA standard. There is no SVGA or UVGA standard. SVGA cards are produced by various companies who each have different commands and ways of conguring the cards and monitors.
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Character Box
9 x 16 9 x 16 9 x 16 8x8 8x8 8x8 8x8 8 x 14 8 x 14 8 x 16 8 x 16 8x8
TASK 6B-1:
Examining Video Displays
1. 2. Examine the various video displays and adapters provided by your instructor. In your classroom, there might be only one type of display.
4. 5. 6.
In Control PanelSystemDevice Manager, examine the Display Adapter that is installed. Return to the Desktop. Identify why the display adapter supports display modes from older adapter types. For backward-compatibility.
Topic 6C
Sound Cards
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Sound cards convert digital signals to sound waves. SoundBlaster from Creative Labs is the default standard to which other sound cards are usually designed. They are usually set to IRQ 5, I/O address 220, and DMA channel 1. Todays sound cards are congured through software, but some of the older cards you might encounter might use jumpers. Some older sound cards may also have an IDE channel on them, in which case the sound card will use 2 IRQs. Sound cards include several connections as shown in Figure 6-10. The MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface) allows you to connect and control electronic musical devices such as electric keyboards (also known as electric pianos), synthesizers, and guitars. Sound cards usually include built-in synthesizers as well to produce MIDI sounds. The following table describes typical sound card connections.
N
sound card: An internal card used to convert digital signals to sound waves. Includes several external ports for connecting electronic musical instruments, joysticks, speakers, and microphones.
EV
Port or Interface
Mic In Speaker Out Line In Line Out CD Audio IDE Port Game Port
Description
Receive signal from an external microphone. Sends signals to a speaker set or headphones. Receives signals from the output of an external sound source. Sends signals from the sound card to an external sound source. Receives digital audio from an audio CD. Connects an IDE CD-ROM drive to the sound card. Lets you attach a joystick or similar game controller to the sound card.
T
MIDI: Musical Instrument Digital Interface. An interface that allows you to connect and control electronic musical devices such as electric keyboards (pianos), synthesizers, and guitars.
C
Return to Windows. Windows runs only in a graphical mode. Most users run Windows with a VGA or Super VGA display.
3.
At the MS-DOS command prompt, enter the command MODE CO80 to return to the 80-column mode originated by the MDA adapter.
You can either restart your computer in DOS mode or use the MS-DOS prompt from the Start menu.
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At the MS-DOS command prompt, enter the command MODE CO40. This command changes the display mode to 40 columns, emulating the 40-column mode that originated in the CGA adapter. Enter dir to see the new display mode.
A Sound Card
Figure 6-10: A sound card.
TASK 6C-1:
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Replacing a Sound Card

Setup: The computer is powered down and the enclosure has been removed.
1.
Power down the computer and disconnect any devices that are connected to the external ports on the sound card. These might include speakers, microphones, or other audio devices. Disconnect the CD audio connector from the sound card. This connection allows you to play sounds from the CD-ROM or music CD. If necessary, disconnect the CD-ROM interface cable from the sound card. Some sound cards are also the controller for the CD-ROM drive. Remove the screw that mounts the sound card to the chassis. Remove the sound card from its slot and examine its slot connectors and on-board interfaces. This could be an ISA, PCI, or other card. Insert the sound card into an available, matching slot on the system board.
2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
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7. 8. 9.
Mount the sound card to the computer chassis using the appropriate mounting screw. Connect the CD audio cable to its interface on the sound card. If necessary, connect the CD-ROM interface cable from the CD-ROM drive to the sound cards IDE interface.
Topic 6D
Modem Cards
Modems are used to enable computers to communicate with one another over standard telephone lines. Modem stands for MOdulator/DEModulator. This refers to the conversion of digital signals to analog and back to digital. The data starts out as digital information on the computer, which must then be turned into analog (like your voice on the phone lines) to go across the phone line, and then when it reaches the other system, it needs to be turned back into a digital signal. Most PCs have modems these days, especially if you are accessing the Internet and dont have access to a direct connect line. These can be internal or external devices. External modems have LEDs that can be useful in seeing whether the modem is transmitting and receiving data. Internal modems dont have this feature, although it is often simulated in software.
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Figure 6-11: Connecting a modem.
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modem: Stands for MOdulator/ DEModulator. A device that adapts a computer to an analog telephone line by converting digital pulses to audio frequencies and vice versa.
Connecting a Modem
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10. Reconnect the external audio devices.
Modems can also be hardware-based or software-based (often referred to as controller-less modems or Win-modems). Software modems are slower than hardware modems because of the overhead in translating code. They leave the processing to the PCs CPU, rather than incorporating a controller chip on the card as the hardware modems do. The main advantage of doing so is that they can be sold very inexpensively. A disadvantage is that these modems are designed for Plug and Play operating systems only, but not other operating systems.
Asynchronous and Synchronous Modems
synchronous: Transmission of a bit stream of data where the transmitter and receiver are synchronized.
Several synchronous protocols have been dened. They are listed in the following table.
BSC Binary Synchronous Communications
Protocol
N
bps
9,600
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SDLC Synchronous Data Link Control HDLC High-level Data Link Control
ITU Modem Standards

Modem standards, or V dot modem standards, are dened by the ITU (International Telecommunications Union). Some standards have bis or terbo version suffixes; these are French for second and third. The most recent standard is V.90. This includes technology that enables receiving data faster than 56 Kbps by bypassing modulation of the data. When sending data, it must be modulated, resulting in a slower 33.6 Kbps data rate. The following table describes some of the most popular ITU standards. These include V.32, V.32 bis, V.34, V.34 bis, V.42, V.42 bis, and V.90. ITU Standard
V.32
Synchronous modems are less prone to errors. They use a timing mechanism to regulate transmissions between systems. Data is sent in frames that contain synch characters before each frame. The frame only needs to be resent if the synch character doesnt arrive at the prescribed point.
Description
Also known as bi-sync. Replaced by SDLC. Developed for use in connecting IBM 360 mainframes and IBM 3270 terminals. Frames include header and trailer synch characters. Designates one system to be the controlling system and the other to be controlled. Replaced by HDLC. Bit-oriented protocol that supports variable length frames.
The data ow is controlled by the slower of the two systems. This slower system interrupts the transmission whenever the buffers are full and it needs time to catch up. Since this method has great potential for errors, a parity bit is used for control. This is why many PCs are congured with eight data bits, none for parity, and one stop bit (often referred to as 8-none-and-one).
198
asynchronous: A bit synchronization transmission technique that uses start and stop bits.
O
Notes
Asynchronous (or async for short) modems are the most common type of modem. Serial data transmission includes start and stop bits in the data stream to indicate the beginning and end of each character.
Synchronous to 9600; Asynchronous is 4800
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Modern modems include fax and voice capabilities. This allows you to use your PC to send documents as faxes and to use your PC as a phone and answering machine.
ITU Standard
V.32 bis V.34 V.34 bis V.42 V.42 bis V.90
bps
14,400 (14.4 K) 28,800 (28.8 K) 33,600 (33.6 K) 57,600
Notes
Synchronous and Asynchronous
56,000 (56 K)
The MNP (Microcom Networking Protocol) denes classes 1 to 5 for modem standards. Each class offers different levels of error correction and detection. Most modems use the MNP Class 5 protocol, which includes data compression. This basically provides a data transmission rate of twice the speed you would normally achieve.
The AT, or Attention commands are the modem commands set used on most modems. Hayes originally developed it for its line of modems. Since other companies wanted to be Hayes-compatible, they developed their modems to use this command set. The AT command set is used by almost all PC modems.
AT Commands
AT DT H A DP ,
Command
Description
EV
*70 Z A/
+++
Attention used at the start of modem command lines. Dial using touchtone. Hang up or disconnect. Answer. Dial using pulse (rotary dial). Pause (each comma is roughly 3 seconds by default). Often used when you need to dial an access code for an outside line so that you wait for the dial tone. For example, 9,,,7165557300. Disable call-waiting. Reset. Repeat. Repeats the last command. Often used to redial. Escape character sequence. Returns you to the command mode. You can then adjust modem conguration, or hang up. The modem responds with OK to indicate that you are in command mode. Online. Often used after the escape character sequence to continue communication.
The most basic command is AT, which alerts the modem that you want to communicate with your modem. The following table lists some of the most common commands.
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O
MNP: Microcom Networking Protocol. Five modem standards offering different levels of error correction and detection. AT commands: The modem command set developed by the Hayes company for use on its modems and now used on most modems. For more information on the Extended AT Command Sets, visit www.modems.com/ general/extendat.html.
MNP Modem Standards
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Species standards for error checking Species standards for compression
Installing and Configuring a Modem

Before you start with the conguration, make sure your modem is connected to the computer and turned on. It is not necessary to have a phone cable plugged into a telephone line for conguration purposes. Your modem is installed through the Control PanelModems utility. If no modems are currently installed, the Install New Modem Wizard will automatically start; otherwise, click Add to begin the installation. Follow the prompts, either allowing the wizard to auto-detect your modem or you specifying the modem manually. Upon completion, you can then congure the modem. If you have a Plug and Play modem, when you restart the system after installing it in a slot, the wizard will automatically start. To congure the modem, use the Control PanelModems utility. Select the modem, and then click Properties. The options that can be congured are listed in the following tables. Properties on the Properties tab
Enabling the FIFO buffers in your modem conguration enables the UART on the modem. This increases the speed of transmissions.
Description
Port Speaker Volume Maximum Speed
Properties on the Connection tab

Connection Preferences Call Preferences
UART: Stands for Universal Asynchronous ReceiverTransmitter. A component that controls asynchronous serial communications. A computer has a UART to control serial ports, and internal modems have their own UART. External modems use the computers UART. In this case, to achieve maximum transmisison speeds, the computers UART must be capable of handling the modems maximum transmission speed.
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Port Settings Advanced
* If you need to congure your system to use a UART processor to increase the speed of serial connections, it is congured here. You can also increase or decrease the Receive Buffers and Transmit Buffers settings to correct connection problems or get faster performance. **This dialog box contains options to enable error control and ow control. You can also specify the modulation type if you are using a non-standard modem (such as a Bell or HST). If you need other modem settings congured, you can use the Extra Settings text box to enter the modem string to do so. You can also enable logging of modem errors by checking the Append To Log check box. The le C:\WINDOWS\MODEM.TXT is created. Commands sent to the modem and modem settings sent by the modem are written to this le.
Species the port on which the modem is installed. Species the volume of phone tones including the dial tone and dialing sounds. Species the highest modem connection speed.
Description
Used to congure the data, parity, and stop bits. Species whether to wait for a dial tone before dialing, to cancel the call if it doesnt complete the connection (limit set in seconds), or to disconnect the call if the system remains idle for too long (limit set in minutes). Accesses the Advanced Port Settings dialog box.* Accesses the Advanced Connections Setting dialog box.**
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TASK 6D-1:
Replacing an Internal Modem
Setup: The computer is powered off and the enclosure has been removed.
2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
Remove the screw that mounts the modem card to the chassis. Remove the modem card.
Insert the modem card into an available, matching slot.
Mount the modem card to the chassis using the appropriate screw.
IRQs and I/O Addresses
Lets quickly review the default IRQs and I/O addresses associated with the COM ports. Remember that those devices with the same IRQ cant be used at the same time even though you can congure multiple devices with the same IRQ. In fact, if Plug and Play is enabled, you cant congure devices to share an IRQ at all. So, you couldnt have COM1 and COM3 or COM2 and COM4 in use at once. Port
COM1 COM2 COM3 COM4
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IRQ
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04 03 04 03
The two Control Panel utilities on Windows 95 and Windows 98 systems used to congure the modem are Device Manager and Modem Conguration. Many modems also include custom conguration utilities.
Reconnect any external cables to the rear of the modem card. If there were phone cords connected to the modem, be sure you put the wall jack line to the appropriate port and the phone cord to its port.
I/O Address
03F8 - 03FF 02F8 - 02FF 03E8 - 03EF 02E8 - 02EF
T
Examine the modem cards slot connectors, on-board I/O interfaces, and any jumper or DIP switch blocks.
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1.
Disconnect external cables from the rear of the modem card. One phone line port goes to the wall jack and is usually indicated by a picture of a phone jack or the word Wall and the other port goes to a physical telephone so that you can use the wall jack for a regular phone when you arent using the modem. In this situation, you wont be able to use the phone while you are connected through the modem; you would need a second phone line and number run to your location.
TASK 6D-2:
Configuring a Modem in Windows 9x
1.
The order of the steps in this task may vary depending on which version of Windows youre using as well as on your system conguration.
Power on your computer. Open the Control PanelModems utility. If no modems are installed, the Install New Modem Wizard will start; if there is a modem already installed, you will need to click Add to start the wizard.
2.
3.
4. 5. 6.
Check Dont Detect My Modem, and then click Next. Verify that Standard Modem Types is selected in the Manufacturers list; then select Standard 28800 bps Modem in the Models list. Click Next. From the Ports list, select an available COM port, and then click Next. This will often be COM2 since COM1 is usually taken by the existing modem or possibly the mouse. Click Finish.
7. 8. 9.
Select the modem you just installed, and then click Properties. Display the Connection page and observe the Connection preferences available. Options include data bits, parity and stop bits, and call preferences, including how long to wait before disconnecting and waiting for a dial tone before dialing.
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10. Click Advanced. In the Advanced Connection Settings dialog box, you can determine whether to use hardware or software ow control and you can record a log le. Click Cancel to return to the previous screen. 11. Close all open Modem property windows, and then close the Control Panel.
Configuring a Remote Access Connection Through Dialup Networking

On a Windows 95 or Windows NT Workstation computer, you can use Dial-up Networking to create a connection that you will use to connect to the remote access server. Before you can do this, you must make sure that Dial-up Networking is installed. 1. You can nd Dial-up Networking in the Accessories program group. 2. 3. If it hasnt been installed, go to the Control Panel and double-click on Add/ Remove Programs. Select the Windows Setup tab, and then select Communications.
If prompted, in the Location Information dialog box, enter your area code and, if required, any access number required to access outside lines. This dialog box might not be displayed depending on your system conguration. Notice that either Pulse or Tone dialing can be selected in this dialog box. Click Next.
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4. 5.
Click Details and check the Dial-Up Networking option. Click OK twice.
If youre using a Windows NT Workstation machine, Dial-up Networking is installed by default during the operating system installation. To congure a remote access connection on a Windows 95 Workstation computer: 1. Select Dial-up Networking from the Accessories program group. 2. Double-click on Make New Connection, and type a name for the connection in the Type A Name For The Computer You Are Dialing text eld. This name might describe the location into which you are dialing, or you might use your companys name if you have only one dial-in connection to your companys network. Verify that your modem is the modem listed in the Select A Modem dropdown list box. If not, select your modem from the list. Click Next. If you didnt install a modem during the installation of the operating system or at a later time, you will be prompted either to have the system detect your modem or to pick a modem from the list. It is recommended that you let the system detect your modem if it can.
3. 4.
6. 7. 8.
Verify that your country is properly selected in the Country Code drop-down list box. Click Next. Click Finish. The new connection is displayed in the Dial-up Networking program group.
Establishing a Remote Access Connection

Make sure your modem is connected, turned on, and your telephone cable is connected to the modem and your phone jack. In Dial-up Networking, to establish the connection between the computer and the remote access server: 1. Double-click on the connection you created.
EV
3. 4. 5.
In the Password text eld, enter the users remote access password. Verify that the phone number in the Phone Number text eld is correct. Click Connect. A dialog box displays telling you that the modem is dialing. You will most likely hear the modem dialing. After a short while, a message tells you that the user name and password are being veried. A message box appears that tells you that you are connected and the speed and duration of your connection are displayed. If you click the Details button, you can also see the server type and supported protocols for the connection.
6. 7.
2.
In the User Name text eld, enter the name of the user you want to connect as.
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The setup procedure for Windows NT Workstation computers is almost identical. The information you provide is the same, although the steps are slightly different. Start the installation of a new connection by selecting Dial-up Networking from the Accessories program group. A wizard then guides you through the connection creation process.
5.
In the Make New Connection dialog box, enter your area code and telephone number. Add a 9 and a comma before your telephone number if you need to dial 9 to reach an outside line.
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8.
You are now connected to the network through the remote access server, and you can browse and use the network resources.
To break the remote access connection, click Disconnect in the Connected To message box.
Configuring a Dial-up Networking Connection

1. 2. 3. 4.
If you have a number that students can dial in to, have them enter it in step 3. They can then test the connection after step 4 by dialing in.
Name the new connection Recon1. (Note: Windows NT users need to check the Send Plain Text Password and Non-Windows NT options.) Click Next.
5. 6.
Click Next.
Click Finish when the new connection has been created.
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In this lesson, you examined the most common expansion boards in a PC, including drive controllers, video cards, sound cards, and modem cards. You examined their technical characteristics and practiced physically replacing them in a PC.
Summary
Type the area code and phone number into the appropriate elds. (Note: Windows NT users need to verify that PPP is selected, and then accept the defaults in the remaining dialog boxes.)
At the workstation, open My Computer, double-click on Dial-up Networking, and begin to create a new Dial-up Networking connection.
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TASK 6D-3:
Lesson Review
6A Match the type of hard drive controller or interface on the left with the denition on the right (each drive type corresponds to a single denition):
e d c IDE ESDI SCSI-I a. b. c. This drive can transfer data at up to 20 MBps. This drive interface supports up to 16 devices per channel. Termination is required on both ends of the bus with this type of drive interface. The maximum cable length for this type of drive is 3 meters. Controllers for this type of drive are usually built into the motherboards of PCs.
a b
SCSI-II SCSI-III
d. e.
6C Describe the purpose of each of the following sound card ports or interfaces.
Port or Interface
Mic In Speaker Out Line In Line Out CD Audio IDE Port Game Port
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6B Identify and briey describe six common display technologies used with IBM computers. 1. MDA: The original text-only display for IBM computers. 2. CGA: The original graphics display for IBM computers. 3. EGA: The graphics display that enhanced the capabilities of CGA. It became virtually obsolete by VGA. 4. VGA: The most common display adapter for IBM-compatible computers until SVGA came along. It uses analog signals to generate up to 256 colors. 5. SVGA: Super VGA improves on VGA by adding VRAM to off-load video processing from the CPU to the video card. This is not a standard, but is a higher-resolution VGA card. Runs in 800 x 600 mode. 6. UVGA: Ultimate VGA raises VGA resolution to 1,024 x 768.
Description
Receive signal from an external microphone. Sends signals to a speaker set or headphones. Receives signals from the output of an external sound source. Sends signals from the sound card to an external sound source. Receives digital audio from an audio CD. Connects an IDE CD-ROM drive to the sound card. Lets you attach a joystick or similar game controller to the sound card.
T
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6D Describe the operation of a modem.

A modem converts a computers digital signals to analog signals which can be sent over telephone lines. The analog signal is then converted back to a digital signal by the receiving system.
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Storage Systems
Overview
This lesson focuses on storage systems. You will examine the technical characteristics and functional operation of common storage devices, including hard-disk drives, oppy disk drives, CD-ROM drives, and others. You will also learn about backup policies and procedures.
LESSON
7
Data Files none
Objectives
To identify the technical characteristics of storage systems, you will: 7A
7B
7C
Identify system backup policies and procedures. Since the data on your network is only as good as your most recent backup, in this topic, you will examine various backup choices available for PCs.
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In this topic, you will examine the characteristics that dene various kinds of removable disk drives. You will learn how to replace removable disk drives and learn to identify which device is most appropriate for a particular application.
Identify the technical characteristics of common removable media disk drives.
In this topic, you will identify the technical characteristics of xed disk drives. You will examine the BIOS settings for installed disks and you will learn how to replace xed disks and install additional disk controllers.
Identify the distinguishing characteristics of both IDE and SCSI xed disk drives.
T
Lesson 7: Storage Systems 207
Lesson Time 5 hours
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Topic 7A
Fixed Disk Drives
EV
track: A storage channel on disk or tape. On disks, tracks are concentric circles (hard and oppy disks) or spirals (CDs and video discs). On tapes, they are parallel lines.
sector: The smallest unit of storage read or written on a disk.
208
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Figure 7-1: A disk storage location can be specied by its side, track, and sector. Disks arrange information into concentric rings called tracks. Tracks are divided into pie-like slices called sectors. Some disks can be written to only on one side; others can be written to on both sides. A read/write head can be positioned over any track, and data is read (or written) as the sectors pass by.
Hard Disks
Hard drives, or xed disks, are a type of storage device that provide fast access to large amounts of storage in a small, reasonably reliable physical package. Without them, most modern computing applications would be impossible.
Disk Storage Locations
In general, all sorts of disk storage share certain common elements. On all disks, physical differences in the surface of the disk are used to represent data. On oppy and hard disks, magnetism is used to encode data. On CD-ROM and optical disks, variations in how the disk surface reects light are used to encode data.
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Disks are the most commonly used type of storage. There is a wide variety of different disk types, including many sizes and formats of oppy disks, hard disks, optical disks, CD-ROMs (Compact Disc Read-Only Memory), and removable hard disks (such as Syquest).
Hard disks are often composed of multiple disks. A cylinder consists of a track on the top side of the top-most disk, and all of the tracks beneath it, as shown in Figure 7-2. A cylinder represents all of the data that the read/write heads can access when they are in a certain position. (There is a separate read/write head for each side of each disk, but they all move together.)
Figure 7-2: A cylinder is a collection of tracks that can be read at the same time. Hard drives have been designed to meet users needs for speed and capacity. With the maturation of the technology, designers now add reliability to, and reduce the cost of, the design process. This constant redesign process has produced better drives, in many different types. However, even with differences, almost all hard drives operate the same way: data is stored as locations of magnetic ux, or change, on a disk of specially coated aluminum or glass. Hard disks can have one or more of these platters or disks. The information is read or written with a head, or small magnet, that oats on a cushion of air over the platter. The platter spins at a high rate, generally 5,400 or 7,200 revolutions per minute (rpm). The heads are moved across the platter by one of two technologies: older designs used a motor, called a stepper motor, that moved only in pre-dened increments, or steps. Newer designs use a voice-coil, similar to an audio speaker, to move the heads more precisely over the platter.
Writing Data to the Hard Disk

Hard disks spin at very fast speeds, and the read/write heads hover over the platters, very close to the surface so that they can read or write data. The platters are made of a rigid material, such as aluminum, that is coated with a magnetic material. To write data, the computer positions the head in a particular track. When the appropriate sector passes by, pulses of electricity are sent through a coil of wire in the head. This creates an electromagnetic eld, which aligns magnetic particles on the disk surface. By alternating the ow of the current to the head, ones and zeroes can be encoded magnetically.
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A Cylinder
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cylinder: The aggregate of all tracks that reside in the same location on every disk surface. On multiple-platter disks, the cylinder is the sum total of every track with the same track number on every surface. On a oppy disk, a cylinder comprises the top and corresponding bottom track.
The data is encoded, or written, in circular tracks as the head oats over the rotating platter. Each platter has its own read/write head. The newer voice-coil designs allow cylinders to be written closer together so more data can be t onto the same-sized platter.
Disk-drive Geometry
Figure 7-3: The physical components of a hard drive. Newer coatings, developed in recent years, as well as smoother platter surfaces, have enabled more data to be stored on a hard drive. A few years ago, drives with a couple of hundred megabytes were considered large. Now, disks capable of storing multiple gigabytes are commonly available.
Reading Data from the Hard Disk
inductance: A circuit or device in which a change in the current generates an electromotive force.
EV
head crash: When read/write heads bang against the surface of the disk.
park: Read/write heads move over an unused section of the disk when the computer is powered off.
210
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To read data, the computer positions the head over the appropriate track. When the sector passes by, the magnetic particles on the disk create an electrical current in the head through a phenomenon known as inductance. In the head, the alternating patterns of magnetism on the disk translate into alternating ows of electrical current, which can be translated into ones and zeroes.
Avoiding Head Crash
You should never transport or jar a hard disk that is spinning, because you can easily cause a head crash. If the read/write heads bang against the surface of the disk, you might damage that part of the disk, and possibly the read/write heads as well. Most hard-disk drives automatically park over an unused section of the disk when the computer is switched off. Hard-disk drives are tightly sealed to prevent dust and other particles from entering the drive. A single dust particle is likely to be larger than the gap between the head and the disk platter. With the platter spinning, dust acts like sandpaper on the surface of the disk. For this reason, you should never break the seal on a hard-disk drive.
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Physical Characteristics
Physically, hard drives come in a number of designs. The terms form factor and height are used to describe the physical characteristics of hard drives that are mounted internally. External drives are most often simply internal drives mounted in a case that also has a power supply. Form factor. The form factor of a drive refers to its width. This measurement is derived from the original IBM PC/XT case that had drive openings of 5 1/4 inches. Most drives today are actually smaller than their rated form factor and use spacers, or mounting brackets, to t within the case. The 5 1/4-inch and 3 1/2-inch form factors are the most popular for desktop and deskside computer systems. Newer form factors, designed for use in laptops and notebooks, include 2 1/2-inch and even 1-inch designs. Height. Again, the height of the drive is a measurement derived from the original IBM PC/XT case. A device that would ll the height of the drive bay of the XT is considered to be a full-height device. Other heights include half-height and the newer 1-inch high drives.
You must match the form factor and height of a drive you purchase with the available openings in your computer.
Installing Hard Drives
2.
Prepare the new hard disk for use in the system.
Configuring Hard Drives
The rst drive is referred to as the master drive. The second drive is referred to as the slave. If you have two IDE or EIDE devices on the same cable, one needs to be set to master and the other to slave. This allows both devices to properly communicate on a single channel. It also species the boot order of the drives. The master drive on the rst IDE channel is the rst IDE drive accessed when the system boots.
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You should congure the hard drive before you install it in the case. The drives are congured with jumpers. There is often a label on the drive with the jumper settings.
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master: The rst IDE or EIDE device on a single IDE channel. If the device is the hard drive on the rst IDE channel, the device can be formatted to be the boot disk. slave: The second IDE or EIDE device on a single IDE channel.
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If possible, place hard drives on a different channel than CD drives. This requires two IDE controllers. One or two hard drives should go on IDE 1, as master and slave, or single. If you have an IDE CD-ROM and a second CD drive (such as a rewriter, DVD, or just another CD-ROM), they should go on IDE 2 as master and slave.
Working with Hard Drives

Keep the following in mind when you are working with hard drives:
You will need to change the jumper settings to reect their role (master or slave). Also, some drives have separate settings if there will only be one drive in the system. This is usually referred to as single drive or cable select if there is only one drive on the IDE channel.
The specic steps for setting up a hard disk in a system depend on the system and the type of hard disk you are installing; however, the main tasks are: 1. Physically install the hard disk into the computer.
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form factor: The physical size of a device as measured by outside dimensions. With regard to a disk drive, the form factor is the overall diameter of the platters and case, such as 3.5 inches or 5.25 inches, not the size in terms of storage capacity.
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Because of the delicate nature of hard disks, you need to be very careful when you are handling them. Do not bump or shake them unnecessarily, and do not transport them unless they are encased in protective packaging. When performance is a less-critical issue than cost, consider adding another hard disk to an existing controller board, rather than replacing the controller, disk, or computer.
TASK 7A-1:
1. 2.
Examining Fixed Disk Drive Characteristics
Restart your computer and enter the BIOS setup utility.
3.
If your system uses a different BIOS than the one used to develop this course, you might not have all of these settings in your BIOS.
4.
Exit BIOS without saving changes.
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IDE Hard Drive Connections
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IDE and EIDE Drives

IDE drives connect to the computer through the IDE drive interface, which might be on a separate card, on the sound card, or more likely, built into the system board. Technically, there are different varieties of IDE interfaces. The acronym IDE is most often associated with the implementation designed to work with the ISA/AT bus. This type of IDE interface is sometimes called the ATA, or AT Attachment, interface. Other IDE interfaces exist for the 8-bit XT bus, the Micro Channel bus, and others. Disk drives are attached to the IDE interface with a single cable, plus a power connection. Drives are daisy-chained when a second drive exists on the IDE channel.
Cylinders Heads Sectors CHS Capacity Maximum LBA Capacity PIO Mode Ultra DMA Mode
Examine the settings for your hard-disk drive and record them in the following table:
Locate the settings for the hard drive. These might be on a different screen than the one that rst appears. Select Primary Master and press [Enter].
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Figure 7-4: An IDE hard-disk drive.
EIDE is the most common drive type found in systems today. Also, quickly gaining in importance are Ultra DMA drives. Ultra DMA is an extension of the ATA disk interface. EIDE has distinct advantages over IDE: It supports dual host interface controllers, which allows up to four devices to connect; IDE allows only two devices. It supports CD-ROM and tape-drive connections in addition to hard drives. SCSI interfaces and drives are still faster than EIDE. This is due mainly to SCSI use of faster mechanical and electrical components.
BIOS
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Installing IDE Hard Drives

When you install a hard drive, you should place the drive in an available bay in your system. High-speed drives generate a lot of heat, so if possible, keep them away from other components. Since power supplies have magnetic elds around them, keep drives away from there. The best place for a drive is near the front of the machine, away from other components. The installation of specic disks varies with the type of disk and system. For most IDE hard disks, you need to complete ve basic steps:
Next, you need to set or verify the drive type. This is most often set to User. The heads and sectors should have been auto-detected, so leave them alone. The PIO Mode should have been set to 3. Finally, disable block mode (so you dont waste disk space).
Most BIOS today can auto-detect the hard drive. It uses the DriveID command to congure the hard drive in BIOS. For IDE hard drives, you will probably then be prompted to choose between LBA (the default for large drives), Normal (for operating systems that dont use the BIOS), or Large (for drives that support ECHS).
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1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 1. 2.
If IDE support is not embedded on the system board, congure and install an IDE controller (expansion) board. Congure and install the hard disk. Attach cables to the installed disk. Set the CMOS disk type. When needed, complete the controller board and disk conguration. Locate an available bay. You might need to install drive rails or a mounting bracket if the bay is a larger size than the drive.
More specically, you will need to:
3. 4.
If you are adding a second drive, use a connector on the ribbon cable that is still open. There are usually two connectors per cable with one being at the end and one in the middle. Plug the keyed, 4-wire power connector from the power supply into the drive.
5.
If you install the ribbon cable backward, errors will occur and the drive wont work. It might seem like the drive is dead.
Configuring and Installing the IDE Controller Board

The IDE controller resides on the actual IDE disk. If IDE support is not embedded on the system board, you need to congure an IDE controller board by identifying and setting IRQs and addresses as you would for any other expansion board. Likewise, these settings can be made by jumpers, switches, or software conguration utilities, or any combination, and some computers can autocongure the board. The following table describes some of the board settings that you might need to congure via jumpers. Setting
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Base I/O address
Base Memory address
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DMA channel IRQ
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Description
Use the factory setting unless there is more than one controller board in the system; then, reset the second board to resolve addressing conicts. If the controller board has ROM BIOS, you need to set this address. Verify that you are using an address that does not conict with other devices such as VGA or network boards. Also, avoid using address ranges above E000h, because some system boards will not support these addresses. It is recommended that you provide separate DMA channels for all devices. Sharing a DMA channel can lead to problems. Use the factory setting when you are booting to a device attached to the controller. Unless the hard disk is a boot device, the actual IRQ setting does not matter. Record the IRQ setting, as you will need to specify it when you are loading the device driver.
Attach the ribbon cable with the red stripe on Pin 1 (the pin closest to the power connector).
Slide the drive onto the rails or into the bracket. The connectors need to be facing the rear of the system. When it is in, screw it in to hold it to the rails or bracket.
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When you physically install the controller board into the system, make sure that it is completely seated in the expansion slot. Otherwise it wont work, and can potentially be damaged.
Configuring and Installing the IDE Drive

To congure the IDE disk, you need to specify the disk mode as single drive only, master, or slave. (Some controller boards will auto-congure the IDE bus.)
When you are installing two IDE disks, congure the boot disk as master. When you are installing two IDE disks, congure the non-boot disk as slave.
Attaching Cables to the Installed Drive

Connect the power cable and the cable that connects the controller board hard disk. Make sure that you use a 40-pin cable, and verify that the cable is less than 0.5 meters long. Do not use oppy-disk drive cables for hard-disk connections, and do not reverse cablesalways use the Pin 1 designations on the cable, controller, and disk, to properly orient the cable.
Most systems automatically recognize and congure a new hard disk and save those settings in the CMOS. Disk types are numbered according to the characteristics of the hard disk, such as number of cylinders and heads, capacity (in MB), and sectors per track. Check the hardware documentation for the IDE disk for these values so that you can determine which disk type to assign to the new hard disk. For some disks, you also need to determine write pre-compensation, which deals with the timing problems associated with the disparity of track sizes. (Cylinders near the center of the disk have shorter tracks than those near the edge of the disk.) Newer disks do not usually need to have write pre-compensation dened; when you do need to determine this value, divide the maximum number of cylinders by two. Setting the CMOS disk type is usually accomplished by one of the following methods: Selecting a type from the list provided in the CMOS setup program. Avoid selecting a disk type that has more cylinders, heads, or RAM capacity than are present on the new disk, but select the highest number of cylinders possible to derive maximum use of the medium.
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Dening a new type. If this option is available, you will see a type designation called User Dened. (This is often designated as Type 47, but the actual number designation depends on the systems BIOS.) Choose the User Dened designation and supply the specic parameters for the new hard disk. Make sure that you label the hard disk with these parameters in case the CMOS battery fails and you need to restore the CMOS. Using auto-detection. On many systems, the BIOS will detect the hard disks type and supply the parameters to CMOS.
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Setting the CMOS Drive Type
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When the hard disk is congured, physically install it into the computer.
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When you are installing only one IDE disk, congure the disk as single drive only.
Completing the Configuration

Some IDE hard disks and controllers cannot be congured until after they have been installed into the computer. For these systems, run any software conguration programs necessary to complete the conguration process. Settings that might be software-congurable include board-conguration parameters, such as IRQ, DMA, Base Memory, or Base I/O address, and BIOS conguration parameters for the disk itself.
TASK 7A-2:
Replacing an IDE Hard-disk Drive
1.
The cable connected to the drive is referred to as either the controller cable (because it connects the drive to the controller card) or the data cable (because it transfers data to the system).
3. 4. 5.
Remove the screws that mount the IDE drive in the chassis bay.
There is usually a label on the top of the drive that explains the jumper settings for the drive. If there isnt, you will need access to the documentation or to a resource such as MicroHouse Technical Library or an Internet site.
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If students plug the data cable in backward, the system wont boot and displays dire-sounding messages. Before you point out their error, see if they can gure it out on their own.
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Examine the controller cable connectors and the jumper block for master/slave conguration on the rear of the drive. Verify that the IDE drive is set as master or single. Now, lets re-install the IDE hard drive in your computer. Insert the IDE drive into its bay. Mount the IDE drive to the chassis using the appropriate screws. Connect the controller cable to the rear of the IDE drive. Make sure the colored stripe on the controller cable lines up with Pin 1 on the IDE drive. Connect the power connector to the rear of the IDE drive.
6. 7. 8.
9.
10. Plug in the external cables, and then boot the system to verify that the drive was correctly installed. If the system doesnt boot, try troubleshooting the problem on your own before requesting assistance from your instructor.
Slide the IDE drive out of its bay.
2.
Observe the data cable connected to the drive. The red stripe on the cable is on Pin 1 of the drive. This is usually located on the side closest to the power connection on the drive. If you put the cable in backwards, it will usually t, but the drive wont work. Disconnect the controller cable from the rear of the IDE drive.
Lets remove the IDE hard drive from your computer. Disconnect the power connector from the rear of the IDE drive. This connection is usually very tight, so you might need to pull hard, being sure to pull straight.
Objective: In the rst part of this task, you will remove an existing IDE hard drive from your computer. In the second part of the task, you will install an IDE hard drive in your computer.
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Troubleshooting IDE Hard Drives

If you remove the second IDE hard disk from a computer with two IDE drives installed, verify that the disk that remains in the computer is set as single. The Master/Slave setting should be used only when there is more than one hard disk in a system; otherwise, a disk-controller error will occur when you restart the computer. If you need to move an IDE drive from one computer to another, you likely wont run into problems. However, especially if there is a great difference in age between the computers, you might run into problems. The BIOS of another computer might not support LBA or Large (ECHS), or might not be set up for it. In that case, data on the hard drive would be lost if you install it in that system. You can change the mode for a hard drive (from LBA to Large, or vice versa), but this poses a risk of data loss. Typically, you should only set the mode when you rst install the disk. If you do need to change it, make sure you have a working backup of all of the data on the disk before doing so.
Ultra DMA Drives
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Ultra DMA also requires appropriate operating system device drivers, and you have to enable DMA support. Microsofts QFE513 driver for Windows 95 (not supplied with the retail package of Windows 95 or Windows 95 Release 2), and the Windows 98 and Windows 2000 drivers all support Ultra DMA. For the retail package of Windows 95 or Windows 95 Release 2, and for Windows NT, you will have to get and install Intels latest bus master DMA driver. The retail package of Windows 95 Release 2 actually does come with a driver for UDMA support, but it has known problems. For Windows NT with Service Pack 2 or 3, the correct driver is installed automatically during installation of the Service Pack, but you have to enable Ultra DMA support by running DMACHECK.EXE. Note that this utility is included only with the CD-ROM version of the service pack, not the downloadable version. After youve enabled DMA support in the operating system, you may also have to enable it in the BIOS. You have to do this only if its not automatically detected and congured. If so, after enabling DMA support in the OS, restart the computer and enter the CMOS setup. Locate the channel to which the Ultra DMA hard drive is connected, and set the value to Auto. This enables DMA support.
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To upgrade to Ultra DMA, if a system doesnt currently support it, you will have to upgrade the system board. You cant get Ultra DMA support by simply upgrading the BIOS and drivers. Alternatively, you can purchase and install a separate controller.
In the context of IDE and EIDE drives, we will also have to look at Ultra DMA drives. Ultra DMA is an extension to the ATA disk interface. Ultra DMA drives provide transfer rates of 33, 66, or 100 MBps, a great improvement over traditional IDE or EIDE drives. Note that Ultra DMA drives are backward-compatible with EIDE system boards and controllers, however, if you use an Ultra DMA drive on an EIDE system board or controller, the data transfer rate will be limited to 16.6 MBps. You can also run EIDE drives from an Ultra DMA system board or controller, but you wont get any improvement in speed. If you run an EIDE drive and an Ultra DMA drive off of the same channel on an Ultra DMA controller, the speed will also be limited to 16.6 MBps. To avoid losing the speed advantage of the Ultra DMA drive, place it on a different channel.
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TASK 7A-3:
Enabling DMA Support in Windows 98
Objective: To learn how to enable DMA support in Windows 98. 1. 2. 3. 4.
Dont select the DMA check box unless your drive, motherboard, and BIOS all support Ultra DMA.
Display the Windows 98 desktop. Choose Start SettingsControl Panel, double-click on System, and select the Device Manager tab. Expand Disk Drives, select Generic IDE DISK TYPEXX, and click Properties.
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5.
Click Cancel twice and power down the computer.
Troubleshooting Ultra DMA Drives

If youre having trouble with an Ultra DMA drive, check for these items: Make sure youre using an operating system that supports Ultra DMA, and that the correct drivers have been installed. Verify that DMA support has been enabled in the operating system. If required, verify that Ultra DMA support has been enabled in the BIOS.
Select the Settings tab, and locate the DMA check box. This is where you enable DMA support. Dont do this unless your drive, motherboard, and BIOS support Ultra DMA.
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Verify that youre using the correct Ultra DMA cable. For example, its easy to use the wrong cable, such as an IDE cable, or an Ultra DMA/33 cable on an Ultra DMA/66 drive.
Installing SCSI Disk Drives

A SCSI Chain
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
Plan the SCSI bus. If the system board does not have embedded SCSI support, congure and install the host bus adapter (HBA). Congure and install the hard disk. Attach cables to the installed disk. Set the CMOS type to 0, Not Installed, or SCSI. When needed, complete the disks conguration and termination.
Figure 7-5: A SCSI chain.
Planning the SCSI Bus
Creating and following a comprehensive installation plan is more likely to enable you to install the disk without encountering problems. Plans should include how to handle termination, SCSI addressing, and cabling. Termination. Proper termination is essential for the SCSI system to work correctly. Some disks and controllers provide active termination, which is a feature that provides termination when it is required, so no physical intervention is needed when you add devices to or remove devices from the bus. Internal, external, and mixed SCSI disk congurations are all terminated differently, as described in the following table.
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The setup and installation of SCSI disks varies for the type of SCSI disk involved, so you should check with the manufacturer for specic setup instructions before you attempt to install a SCSI disk. The following is a general procedure for physically installing a SCSI hard disk:
Conguration
Internal (multiple disks inside the PC) External (multiple disks in a separate cabinet)
Description
Termination should be on the HBA and on the last disk in the SCSI chain. Termination should be on the HBA and on the external cabinet itself, instead of the last disk. This enables you to chain more disks without reconguring the termination scheme. Termination should be on the last internal disk and on the external cabinet. No termination is needed on the HBA because you are using both ports (internal and external).
Mixed (multiple disks in the PC and in an external cabinet)
Cabling. Make sure that you have the right type and number of cables for the installation. Verify that the connectors are correct for each component. Do not use oppy-disk drive cables for hard-disk connections, and do not reverse cablesalways use the Pin 1 designations on the cable, controller, and disk to properly orient the cable. For external devices, use impedancematched cables to minimize potential problems. Do not use HVD devices on single-ended chains.
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You should sketch the layout of the SCSI bus to assist you in conguring the boards and disks. This sketch can also assist you in troubleshooting problems that might arise later.
Configuring and Installing the HBA

If the system does not have an embedded HBA, you will need to congure and install one into the computer. To congure an HBA: 1. Set the SCSI address according to your SCSI bus plan. 2. 3. Set termination according to your SCSI bus plan. Congure the controllers IRQ, Base Memory address, Base I/O address, and DMA channel, as necessary.
Record the specic revision levels of hardware, software, and rmware that you are using because this information can help you fully describe future problems to the HBA and disk manufacturers. When you physically install the HBA into the system, make sure that it is completely seated in the slot.
Configuring and Installing the SCSI Drive

To congure the SCSI disk, set the SCSI address and termination according to your SCSI bus plan. On some disks, you will also need to set jumpers. For other disks, you might need to use software to congure the disks, or the disks might be self-conguring. When the hard disk is congured, physically install it into the computer or external cabinet.
Addressing. Make sure that all SCSI IDs are set correctly by using jumpers or software conguration utilities. Usually, the HBA uses the ID 7; remaining devices use 0 through 6, where 0 is the lowest priority device (such as the primary or rst hard disk) and 6 is the highest priority device (such as a CD-ROM or tape drive). This keeps the faster devices from dominating control of the bus.
Terminating power can be supplied by the HBA or by the disks themselves.
Also, make sure that the terminating power, which ensures stable current for the data signals on the bus, is set up correctly for the specic hardware setup, by following the vendors recommendations.
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Attaching Cables to the Installed Drive

Connect the power cable and the cable that connects the hard disk to the HBA. For external disk subsystems, use impedance-matched cable to provide stability for the SCSI bus.
Setting the CMOS Drive Type
Completing the Drives Configuration and Termination

Some SCSI hard disks cannot be congured until after they have been installed into the computer. For these systems, run any software conguration programs necessary to complete the addressing and termination process.
TASK 7A-4:
Installing a SCSI Drive
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
Set the SCSI ID of the hard drive youre installing to 0. Refer to documentation or the label on the drive to determine how to set the drive ID.
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If you dont have documentation, there is usually a label on the drive, or you might be able to nd the information on the Internet.
Terminate the hard drive youre installing. Again, refer to the documentation. Insert the SCSI drive into its bay. Mount the SCSI drive to the chassis using the appropriate screws.
Connect the power connector to the rear of the SCSI drive. Power on the computer.
Press [Ctrl]A at the SCSI BIOS message.
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10. Use the menu in the SCSI BIOS utility to format the SCSI drive you installed. This is a low-level format. 11. Exit the SCSI BIOS utility and shut down the computer. 12. Remove the SCSI adapter and drive.
Troubleshooting SCSI Hard Drives

Keep the following points in mind as you troubleshoot SCSI hard drives:
Use the menu in the SCSI BIOS utility to examine the conguration of your host adapter card and the SCSI drive you installed.
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Connect the SCSI controller cable between the SCSI host adapter and the SCSI drive.
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For the system to be able to recognize and use the new hard disk, you need to identify the disk for the CMOS. For SCSI hard disks, set the disk type to 0, Not Installed, or SCSI; no other CMOS settings are necessary; BIOS handles any other setup and operation issues.
The vast majority (up to 95 percent) of problems with SCSI disks are due to incorrect ID settings and improper termination. Some 386 system boards cannot support 16-bit memory transfers, so you will need to use ESDI instead of SCSI with these systems. Check with the system manufacturer to verify that 16-bit memory transfers are supported. When a SCSI system is booted or reset, SCSI controllers generally need to renew all SCSI device connections before activating the devices, causing a delay during POST.
SCSI cables should be handled carefully to minimize problems. Do not roll SCSI cable on itself, run long lengths of it next to metal, or run it past power supplies.
Verify that all SCSI devices have unique SCSI ID numbers.
Removable Media Disk Drives
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Topic 7B
Removable Media Disk Drives
It is often necessary to share les with other people. One way to do this is to use removable disks. Another use for removable disks is to provide a second copy or backup of important les.
Floppy Disk Drives

Floppy disks are similar to hard disks, except that the material on which data is recorded is not hard; it is made of a oppy material, such as mylar. Read/write heads record data on oppy disks similar to the way they do on hard disks. Because oppy disks can be removed from the computer and easily carried, they are not as well protected as hard disks. To make oppy disks more tolerant (than
If you are installing an additional SCSI hard drive into a computer where only one connector is available on the SCSI cable and the cable itself is terminated, remove and replace the cable with one that has multiple connectors.
If you intend for a SCSI disk to be bootable after you install it, you must congure the BIOS to Enabled, by using jumper settings or software conguration.
SCSI buses can be connected through parallel printer ports and PC Card connections, enabling portable computers to take advantage of SCSI technology. You can attach up to seven daisy-chained SCSI devices and still use the printer port if you have a parallel-to-SCSI adapter that supports this piggyback conguration. Of course, the limitations of the printer port reduce the normal data transfer rate for SCSI devices, but because most laptops and notebook computers cannot normally use these devices, the lower data rate can be an acceptable trade-off for increased functionality.
SCSI disks are usually shipped with the parity jumper setting enabled. Verify that your system conguration requires this setting to be enabled, and disable it if it is not required for the system.
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hard disks) of dust and scratches, data is not packed as densely into a oppy disk as it is in a hard disk. What oppy disks lack in storage capacity, they make up in portability. To provide a reasonable degree of protection for oppy disks, they are contained inside a tight-tting square sheath of vinyl or hard plastic.
Three Floppy-disk Formats
Figure 7-6: Three oppy-disk formats.
Early oppy disks were large; they had an 8-inch diameter and a soft vinyl cover. The next type of disk to become widely used was the 5 1/4-inch format, which was essentially the same as the 8-inch format, only smaller. These two types of disks come with a special envelope, in which they are stored when not in use. The most commonly used type of oppy disk today is the 3 1/2-inch disk, which has a hard plastic cover, and a metal shutter that closes to protect the inner disk from dust when the disk is not inside a drive mechanism. The 3 1/2-inch disks do not need to be stored in an envelope when they are not in use because the metal shutter adequately protects the disk from normal amounts of airborne particles. Despite the trend toward smaller disks, the storage capacity of oppy disks has increased dramatically over the years.
Storage Capacity
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The amount of data that can be stored in a disk is determined by the number of sides, tracks per side, sectors per track, and bytes that can be stored in a sector. For example, a double-sided disk with 80 tracks, 36 sectors, and 512 bytes per sector has a total capacity of 2 x 80 x 36 x 512, or 2,949,120 bytes. Divide this by 1,024 to get the number of kilobytes, which is 2,880. The following table shows common oppy-disk sizes and formats, and their total capacity in kilobytes. Disk Size (inches)
3.5 3.5 3.5
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Sides
Tracks per Side

80 80 80
Sectors per Track

36 18 9
Bytes per Sector

512 512 512
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2,880 1,440 720
Total Capacity in Kilobytes
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Sectors per Cluster
2 2 2
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Point out to students that the two formats theyre most likely to encounter are the 3.5/1400 and 5.25/ 1200 formats.
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Disk Size (inches)

5.25 5.25 5.25 5.25 5.25
Sides
2 2 2 1 1
Tracks per Side

80 40 40 40 40
Sectors per Track

15 9 8 9 8
Bytes per Sector

512 512 512 512 512
Total Capacity in Kilobytes

1,200 360 320 180 160
Sectors per Cluster

1 2 2 1 1
Connectors for a Typical 3.5-inch Floppy-disk Drive
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Figure 7-7: Connectors for a typical 3.5-inch oppy-disk drive.
TASK 7B-1:
Replacing a Floppy-disk Drive
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Disconnect the power connector from the rear of the disk drive. Disconnect the controller cable from the rear of the disk drive. Remove the screws that mount the disk drive in the chassis bay. Slide the disk drive out of its bay. Examine the controller cable connectors and power cable connector on the rear of the drive. Notice that this data cable and power cable are different than those used on the hard drives. Insert the disk drive into its bay.
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7. 8. 9.
Mount the disk drive to the chassis using the appropriate screws. Connect the controller cable to the rear of the disk drive. Connect the power connector to the rear of the disk drive.
10. Start the system and verify that the disk drive was properly installed.
CD-ROM Drives
CD-ROM (which stands for Compact Disc Read-Only Memory) is an optical disc storage technology well suited for distribution of large amounts of information. A compact disc stores vast amounts (about 682 MB) of information in a convenient, permanent medium. Most manufacturers use the ISO standard 9960 or the High Sierra subset of that standard, and provide common le formats. Currently, most CDs are sold with information already recorded on them. However, writable CDs are gaining popularity. Data on a CD-ROM is stored as a series of microscopic depressions in a metal substrate, sandwiched in a glass or plastic disc. The data is read by a low-power laser beam. Binary 1s and 0s are differentiated by the degree of reectivity of the surface. The depressions, or pits, reect differently than the lands, or nondepression areas. CD-ROM, or CDs, are mastered. This disc is then copied in large quantities by a CD publisher, with each copy costing up to $1. CDs are usually produced in units of thousands. The costs associated with CD-ROM creation are decreasing with the advent of desktop CD recorders. CDs have many uses: they are used to distribute software and information, such as collections of data, and to publish books, magazines, or collections of graphics. Most CDs are indexed, enabling them to be searched easily by using keywords. Although they are slower to use than hard disks, CDs have become popular as a way to provide access to large amounts of information.
ATAPI
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DVD drives also use ATAPI, but in addition require a MPEG decoder (Movie Picture Experts Group decoder) to decode MPEG les used with DVDs. Two MPEG standards exist: MPEG-1 and MPEG-2. They are digital video compression standards and le formats that were developed by the Movie Picture Experts Group. MPEG-1 provides video resolution of 352 x 240 at 30 frames per second. MPEG-2 provides video resolution of 720 x 480 and 1,280 x 720 at 60 frames per second.
AT Attachment Packet Interface (ATAPI) is an extension to EIDE that enables support for CD-ROM drives (including CD-R and CD-RW drives), as well as tape drives on an IDE controller. You can install an ATAPI drive as if it were just another EIDE drive. With ATAPI drives, its not necessary to perform CMOS conguration. All conguration is handled automatically. ATAPI drives can be set up as master or slave drives (through jumpers), and can run off the primary or secondary controller.
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ATAPI: AT Attachment Packet Interface. An extension to EIDE that enables support for CD-ROM and tape drives. MPEG decoder: MPEG stands for Movie Picture Experts Group. This group has developed MPEG digital video compression standards and le formats, including MPEG-1 and MPEG-2.
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Using CD-ROMs
Some operating systemssuch as UNIX, OS/2 2.x, Windows NT, and others inherently support CD-ROM drives. Other operating systems, such as DOS, DOS/ Windows, and some versions of NetWare, require additional software in order to use CD-ROM drives. CD-ROM drives often provide driver software for the operating systems that need them. Third-party driver software is also available.
Keep the following in mind when you are using CD resources:
Connectors for a Typical CD-ROM Drive
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Figure 7-8: Connectors for a typical CD-ROM drive.
If you put a SCSI CD-ROM on the same controller as a hard disk, you might see a performance loss. Check with the hardware vendors for known incompatibilities.
CD-ROM drives are connected to a host computer by using a SCSI bus or an IDE bus.
Some older CD-ROM drives require that the disc be placed in a disc caddy, or protective plastic container, before they can be inserted into the drive. You may want to consider purchasing additional caddies for storage purposes.
Practical Issues
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Many CD-ROM drives use the SCSI interface to connect to the host system. A common interface for SCSI CD-ROM drives and other devices, called the Advanced SCSI Programming Interface, or ASPI, has been developed. This enables use of a single ASPI device driver for multiple SCSI devices. An example of such a driver is Adaptecs ASPIDSK.SYS.
TASK 7B-2:
Replacing an IDE CD-ROM Drive
Objective: In addition to learning how to replace an IDE CD-ROM drive, this task is setting the drive to master/single in preparation for the next task in which you will add an IDE device to the chain. Setup: In the rst part of the task, you will remove an existing IDE CD-ROM hard drive from your computer. In the second part of the task, you will install an IDE CD-ROM drive in your computer. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Disconnect the power connector from the rear of the CD-ROM drive. Disconnect the controller cable from the rear of the CD-ROM drive. Disconnect the audio cable from the rear of the CD-ROM drive.
Slide the CD-ROM drive out of its bay.
7. 8. 9.
Insert the CD-ROM drive into its bay.
10. Connect the audio cable to the audio out connector at the rear of the CD-ROM drive. 11. Connect the power connector to the rear of the CD-ROM drive.
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Removable cartridge drives have been available for a long time, but back in the 1980s there were few options to choose from. Those that were available (such as the Bernoulli boxes), were prone to many problems and were quite expensive. As storage prices came down, and storage needs rose, a new generation of removable drives came on the scene. The rst popular version of these was the Zip drive. Syquest and SuperDisk soon followed with their own versions of removable disk drives.
Syquest Drive
Syquest came up with the idea of removable hard disk cartridges back in 1982. Their current offerings include:
Other Removable Drives
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Connect the controller cable to the rear of the CD-ROM drive. Make sure the colored stripe on the controller cable lines up with Pin 1 on the drive.
Mount the CD-ROM drive to the chassis using the appropriate screws.
Examine the controller cable connectors and the jumper block for master/slave conguration on the rear of the drive. Verify that the CD-ROM drive is set as master/single.
Remove the screws that mount the CD-ROM drive in the chassis bay.
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SparQ
SyJet
EzFlyer
Zip Drive
SuperDisk Drives
Imation Corporations SuperDisk uses super-high-density 3.5-inch disks. They are formatted at the factory in a servo pattern with 2,490 tracks. This means that you can store 120 MB of data per disk. The SuperDisk Drive can also read regular 3.5-inch 1.44 MB disks (which have only 135 tracks). SuperDisk is available with parallel port, SCSI, USB, internal, and PCMCIA connections.
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Remind students that each IDE channel operates at the speed of the slowest device on the channel. Therefore, you should install only hard drives on the primary channel and only slower devices on the secondary channel.
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TASK 7B-3:
Installing an IDE Drive as a Slave
Setup: For this task, you can use any available IDE device, such as a SuperDisk drive, Zip disk drive, or IDE CD-ROM drive.
1.
Examine the controller cable connectors and the jumper block for master/slave conguration on the rear of the device. Verify that the device is set as slave. Insert the device into an available bay. Mount the device to the chassis using the appropriate screws.
2. 3.
Another Iomega product, the Jaz drive comes in 1 GB and 2 GB versions. The 2 GB drive can also read 1 GB cartridges. It comes in Ultra SCSI PCI, SCSI ISA, SCSI-to-parallel, and SCSI-to-PCMCIA. The average access time is 10 ms. The transfer rate is about the same as for a hard drive.
Jaz Drive
Iomegas Zip disks are slightly larger and twice as thick as regular 3.5-inch disks. The Zip drive can only read Zip disks. The original Zip disk was 100 MB and connected through the parallel port. The current version is 250 MB; this is backwards-compatible and can read 100 MB cartridges. Connection options now include parallel, SCSI, USB, internal ATAPI, and notebook (for four specic models).
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A 1 GB cartridge for PCs with a parallel port or EIDE interface. The speeds are equivalent to most hard disks. A 1.5 GB cartridge for PCs and Macs. Interface choices include parallel port, EIDE, and SCSI. Macs can only use the SCSI version. Seek time is 12 ms and average transfer rate is 3.8 MB per second A 230 MB cartridge for PCs and Macs. It uses parallel port or SCSI interfaces with Macs using only SCSI. It has a 13.5 ms seek time and 2.4 second transfer rate.
4.
Connect the free connector on the controller cable leading from the secondary IDE port to the rear of the device. Make sure the colored stripe on the controller cable lines up with Pin 1 on the drive. Connect the power connector to the rear of the IDE drive. Power on the system and access the BIOS. Examine the master and slave devices. Exit the BIOS and restart your system.
5. 6. 7.
Backup Systems
Consider the value of the data stored on your PC. A weeks worth of changes and additions to les or to a database can have greater value than the entire system on which it is stored. As companies use PCs for more and more of their business communications and data storage, the value of the information kept on these systems increases dramatically. The loss of any of this information can be devastating to a company. Therefore, it is essential that companies back up this information.
Does the system give you the performance and reliability you need? Is the system exible and easy to use? In the event of a disaster, will the recovery be complete? How fast can the system be up and running again?
There are more and more choices every year when it comes to backup media. A few years ago, you only had a choice between reel-to-reel tapes, QIC cartridges, and very expensive DAT recorders. Today, the costs of the DAT recorders and media are within the range of most IT budgets. You can also choose to use optical drives, recordable CD-ROMs, or additional disk drives. These options are popular for network backup and high-end workstations with many gigabytes of storage. For workstation backups, QIC cartridges are a popular choice; you might consider using Iomegas Jaz or Zip disks. Although you can use oppy disks to back up your system, this is not feasible given the size of todays systems. However, you might still use oppy disks to store an extra copy of important data les.
Backup Media
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When you plan the implementation of a backup system, you should consider the following questions: What backup media will you use?
You can use the backup utilities included with the operating system, or you can purchase third-party backup products. Many organizations have developed backup software to address this need.
Backup Considerations
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Types of Backup Media
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Magnetic tape is still the most popular backup media. These are most commonly found as described in the following table.
Topic 7C
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Media
DAT (Digital Audio Tape) DLT (Digital Linear Tape) QIC (Quarter-inch Cartridge)
Maximum Storage Sizes

At least 1 GB, up to 12 GB At least 10 GB, up to 12 GB At least 40 MB, up to 25 GB
Description
Used in many different size networks; 4 mm tape, about the size of an audio tape Used mainly in mid- to large-size networks; 1/2-inch cartridges Original width was 1/4-inch; available in 3 1/2-inch (Traven) or 5 1/4-inch cartridges; usually used in smaller networks and stand-alone PCs
Tape Drives
Quarter-inch Cartridge
4 mm DAT
DAT: Stands for Digital Audio Tape. Backup tape format that offers higher storage capacity at a lower cost than QIC technology. Capacity is from 1 GB to 4 GB and up.
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Originally adapted from the audio market, the 4 mm DAT tape format offers higher storage capacities at a lower cost than does QIC technology. The term DAT, or Digital Audio Tape, is often used to describe 4 mm tape technology. DAT cartridges are quite small compared with QIC cartridges, and therefore, are much easier to store and use. Capacities for 4 mm tapes range from 1 GB to 4 GB and more. DAT tapes are considered to be less reliable than QIC tapes. They are especially vulnerable to heat and moisture. Because the tape is pulled out of the cartridge during operation, to be wrapped around the spinning read/write head, the tapes wear more quickly than do QIC tapes. Due to lack of strict standards, 4 mm tape drives are not always compatible: tapes from one drive might not be readable in another drive. This will probably only be a problem for larger installations with a large variety of computing equipment.
8 mm (Exabyte)
The 8 mm tape format was originally developed by Exabyte, which continues to be the only manufacturer of 8 mm drives. Many other manufacturers purchase raw drives from Exabyte and integrate them into internal or external 8 mm tape drives. This arrangement ensures compatibility between 8 mm drives.
Two of the biggest detractions to QIC technology are cost and speed. QIC drives are inexpensive; however, the cartridges are expensive when dollars per megabyte is considered. Quarter-inch cartridge drives are slow, having about the slowest transfer rates of any of the tape technologies.
QIC: Stands for Quarter-inch cartridge. Oldest, most standardized backup tape technology, available for most computer platforms.
QIC cartridges are available in 60 MB, 150 MB, 250 MB, 525 MB, and larger sizes. Most of the drives designed to read the higher-capacity cartridges can also read the lower-capacity cartridges.
Quarter-inch cartridge (QIC) technology is among the oldest, most standardized, and most reliable of the tape technologies. QIC drives are available for most computer platforms.
In order to back up your systems, you will need a tape drive or other device. These are usually connected to your system through a SCSI adapter. The tape drive you use will determine the type of media you use to back up to. Lets examine the drives and tapes in more detail.
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These 8 mm tape drives offer storage capabilities between 2.2 GB and 10 GB per cartridge. The tape cartridges are only slightly larger than DAT tapes. They are often considered more reliable than 4 mm drives; however, the drives and tapes are more expensive than 4 mm units. The 8 mm tape drives are popular in the UNIX and workstation industry. These drives have only recently become popular with network administrators as the amount of data on LANs has grown.
DLT
Digital Linear Tape (DLT) was developed by DEC who sold this technology to Quantum. The tape is a half-inch cartridge with a single hub. There are 128 or 208 linear tracks, holding 10 to 35 GB of data. Another DLT format, Super DLT, holds up to 50 GB. Currently, DLT transfer rates are in the 1.25 MB to 5 MB per second range. The forecast is for DLT to soon hold up to 500 GB with up to 40 MB per second transfer rates.
Procedural Backup Policy
Assignment of backup administrationWho is responsible for performing the backup?
Backup setThe number of tapes (or other media) required to complete a backup.
Data identicationLabeling backup media and storing it in the safest possible location. Data testingOccasional testing of backup data. Recovery operation planLaying out a specic plan for the complete recovery of lost data. Backup methodsThe structure of how backup media are rotated in and out of the backup schedule. Maintenance scheduleHardware and media maintenance (or replacement).
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When the backup is performedEvaluating the best time to run the backup, depending on your needs.
Backup typesChoosing the appropriate backup method for your organization.
Backup frequencyEvaluating the cost of potential data losses and establishing an acceptable minimum backup frequency.
When you plan your backup methods, it is important to establish a policy and to set up procedures to be followed. Some considerations include: HardwareChoosing the appropriate hardware for your environment.
DLT: Stands for Digital Linear Tape. Backup tape technology developed by DEC. Current storage capacity is up to 50 GB.
Procedural Backup Policy
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Rotation Method and Backup Types

In a network environment, backups are usually taken care of for you by your system administrator. However, if they dont back up often enough for your needs, you might need to perform your own backups in between their backups.
Everybodys backup schedule varies; however, it is a good idea to maintain a minimum daily backup to update new and changed data. Different criteria help to determine the best strategy for backing up data.
The Grandfather Backup Method
Label each of the daily backup sets with the name of the day of the week; label the weekly tapes with number 1 through 4 for each Friday; and label the monthly tapes with the name of the month.
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Figure 7-9: The grandfather backup method.
A common, secure backup rotation method is the grandfather method. One backup set is designated for Mondays, one for Tuesdays, one for Wednesdays, and one for Thursdays. These backup sets are re-used on the same day the following week. Every Friday during the month, you use a new backup set. The next month, these Friday backup sets are re-used in the same order. At the end of each month, a new backup set is used. Depending on your needs, these monthly backup sets can be re-used the following year or kept as a permanent record and replaced with new backup sets.
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Rotation Methods
Another backup rotation method in use at some companies is the Tower of Hanoi method. In this method, ve media sets are used. Media set A is used every other day (two days apart). Media set B is used every fourth day. Media set C is used every eighth day. Media set D is used every sixteenth day. Media set E is alternated with media set D. This doubles the backup history with each media set used (two, four, eight, or 16 days until the media set is overwritten). This enables you to have media sets with most recent versions of les (those media sets used most frequently, such as sets A and B). Label each of the media sets with a letter or number (media set 1 or A). You can apply this rotation method to a daily or weekly rotation schedule. Five media sets is the minimum required when performing a daily rotation, and eight media sets are required for a weekly rotation. You should archive media sets as needed. For example, you might save the E set each month for a permanent archive. The tape sets you pull for archive will be based on your company needs.
The Tower of Hanoi Backup Method
Figure 7-10: The Tower of Hanoi backup method.
Backup Types
Backup Type
Full
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Incremental
Differential
The following table describes the different backup types supported by some backup utilities. Description
All information is backed up, regardless of whether it has been backed up before New les and les that were created or modied since the last full or incremental backup are backed up. All les that were created or modied since the last full backup are backed up.
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Relative Time to Back Up Data
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Figure 7-11: Relative time to back up data.
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In the long run, it might be more advantageous to perform differential backups, combined with a regularly scheduled full backup, because all new or modied les since the last full backup are included, and you would need only two media sets to perform a full restore. Each differential backup following the last full backup will take an increasing amount of time. Because differential backups are based on the last backup that cleared the archive bit, you should not mix incremental and differential backups. Differential backups count on the archive bit not being cleared. Any differential backups following an incremental backup would not back up all of the modied les since the last full backup because the archive bit was cleared with the incremental backup. If you choose to perform full backups every time you back up your data, be aware that a full backup takes the longest amount of time. On the other hand, it is also the method that allows the fastest full restores, because you will need only one media set to restore data.
Backup Types and Their Backup and Restore Time Requirements

The following table summarizes each of the three backup schemes and describes how long a full backup and full restore will take for each scheme, measured in relative time.
Although an incremental backup combined with a regularly scheduled full backup is usually the fastest type of backup to perform, any time that you need to perform a full restore, you must restore the last full backup plus every incremental backup since the last full backup (in the same order they were backed up). This process can be become very time-consuming.
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Backup Type
Full backup only Incremental backup with full backup Differential backup with full backup
Relative Time Necessary to Perform a Full Backup

Longest Shortest Time increases each day; shorter than full backup, overall, but longer than an incremental backup.
Relative Time Necessary to Perform a Full Restore

Shortest Longest Shorter than an incremental backup, but longer than full backup.
When Restoring
Full week All data up to Day 3
Full
1 tape from Day 5 1 tape from Day 3
Incremental
All 5 tapes Tapes 1, 2, and 3
Differential
Tapes 1 and 5 Tapes 1 and 3
TASK 7C-1:
1.
Discussing Backup Strategies
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One set each for Monday through Thursday (four), one set for each Friday of the month (ve because some months could contain ve Fridays), and one month end set (for the last day of the month), for a total of 10.
How many tape sets are required when using the grandfather rotation method?
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It is advisable to keep backup media in a safe location, preferably in a locked, re-safe room. In addition, you should consider moving at least one full backup per week to an offsite location. Many companies offer this service and store your tapes in a locked and re-safe area. Consider how critical your data is when you decide how often to move backups offsite. A disadvantage of offsite storage is that, when you need to restore data, you will have to involve a third party in delivering the media back to your location. This process can be time-consuming.
Storage
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Using Figure 7-11, the following table compares the number of tapes required to restore data. The necessary tapes and amount of time for restoring data depends on what is being restored and the type of back up that was used.
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2.
How many tape sets are required when using the Tower of Hanoi rotation method? This method requires ve sets because the rotation schedule is based on rotating sets A through E.
3.
List and describe backup types.
IncrementalNew les and les created or modied since the last full or incremental backup are backed up and the archive bit is cleared. DifferentialAll les created or modied since the last full backup are backed up and the archive bit isnt cleared.
Summary
Lesson Review
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Most PCs have two IDE controllersa primary and a secondary. You can install a maximum of two devices on each controller. IDE devices are typically used in consumer-level PCs. SCSI controllers can support up to either seven devices or 15 devices on a single controller (depending on the SCSI standard employed on the controller). SCSI disks are typically used on high-end workstations and server-class machines.
7B Describe the master/slave relationship.

The master device is the rst device on the drive chain and is the controlling device. The second device in the drive chain is the slave and is controlled by the rst device in the drive chain.
7C List some of the backup media choices available today.

Magnetic tape (including reel-to-reel, DAT, DLT, and QIC), optical drives, recordable CDs, additional drives and cartridges (such as Iomega Jaz and Zip disks).
7A Contrast IDE and SCSI xed disks.
In this lesson, you learned to identify and describe the technical characteristics of xed disk drives, removable media disk drives, and tape backup systems. You also learned how to install storage devices and how to implement a backup strategy.
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FullAll information is backed up.
Peripheral Devices
Overview
This lesson focuses on peripheral devices. First, you will examine the most common devices, including keyboards, mice, monitors, and printers. Then you will take a look at other devices that are commonly found on PCs today. Along the way, you will study general troubleshooting techniques and solutions to device-specic problems.
LESSON
8
Data Files none
Objectives
8B
8C
Review general guidelines for troubleshooting other peripheral input/ output devices, as well as distinctive features of common peripherals. You will investigate general troubleshooting guidelines for other peripheral input/output devices, as well as distinctive features of scanners, digital cameras, still/video capture, 3D image, DVD, CD-R/CD-RW, microphones, speakers, multi-function machines, and TV tuners.
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In this topic, you will examine the technical characteristics of monitors and printers. You will learn how to congure a monitors color depth, resolution, and refresh rate. You will also describe the phases of electrostatic photographic (EP) print process. Finally, you will learn how to connect a printer to a computer.
Identify the technical characteristics of the most common types of output devices, such as the monitors and printers.
In this topic, you will examine the technical characteristics of keyboards and mice. You will learn how to troubleshoot a keyboard and how to clean a mouse to keep it functioning properly.
8A
Identify the technical characteristics of the most common types of input devices, such as the keyboard and mouse.
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Lesson 8: Peripheral Devices 237
To identify the technical characteristics of common peripheral devices, you will:
Lesson Time 3 hours
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Topic 8A
Primary Input Devices
Keyboard Function
The site www.PCGuide.com is only one of many excellent resources on the Internet. Technology changes so fast you must constantly upgrade your knowledge and resources.
Most keyboards in use today are IBM Enhanced AT-style keyboards. Older XT (EXtended Technology) keyboards appeared in 1983 and are not compatible with modern computers. Original AT keyboards had only 10 function keys in a group at the left side of the keyboard, not 12 function keys across the top of the keyboard like the Enhanced AT keyboards in use now. Some keyboards have added special keys dedicated to specic Windows 95 or Internet functions. The following information describes Enhanced AT keyboards. ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) and ANSI (American National Standards Institute) have produced well-known number codes for each character in the English language, as well as some special and foreign characters. For example, A is 65, B is 66, and C is 67 in both ASCII and ANSI. Character maps, symbols selection options, and special character codes refer to ASCII numbers. Programming language looks at text as a series of ACSII codes, with one number representing each letter. IBM AT-style keyboards do not use ASCII or ANSI, or anything related to them. The IBM keyboard has a special scan code for every key on the keyboard. When a key is pressed, this scan code is sent through the keyboard cable to a special keyboard BIOS chip. This chip looks at the keys that have just been pressed and sends the proper ASCII code to the computer for processing. When the key is released, another code is sent to the BIOS chip to let it know that the key is up. The A key sends the same scan code every time it is pressed, even if the [Shift] key or the [Ctrl] key is held down at the same time. If the A key is held down for an extended period of time, the scan code for the A key will be repeatedly sent at specic intervals to the BIOS. Typematic Repeat Rate determines how many times a second the scan code for the key being held down is sent. This rate can be controlled by the keyboard BIOS and can be altered by the user through the Keyboard Control Panel. The delay between the time the key is pushed down and when the repeated codes begin can also be set through the Control Panel. The keyboard BIOS is the brains of the keyboard. When the [Caps Lock] key is pressed, it is treated just like any other key by the keyboard. The scan code for the key is sent to the BIOS. The BIOS, recognizing the special key, then sends a signal back to the keyboard telling the keyboard to turn the Caps Lock LED light on. If the [Shift] key is pressed down, and while it is down, the A key is pressed and released, the BIOS gures out that you want an uppercase A. If you let the [Shift] key up and then press and release the A key again, it is the BIOS that tells the computer you entered a lowercase A. Keyboards are manufactured using two different techniques:
AT-style Keyboard
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Computers need your input before they can do anything useful. In the early days, user input involved physically rewiring early electronic computers. Later computers could accept input on cards and paper tape. Keyboards and mice are now the standard input devices for personal computers.
The rst method uses coiled metal springs to push the key up after the user has depressed it and made the electrical contact that tells the computer which key has been pressed. The second method uses rubber or plastic membranes. When a key is pressed, a bump in the rubber membrane is pressed down, and a conductive material on the membrane completes a circuit that lets the keyboard know which key was pressed. The compressed rubber bump then bounces back into its original shape and pushes the key up into its starting position.
Keyboards need a force of about 100 grams to press the key down. Most keyboards require electric current that has a maximum load of 300mA. This power comes to the keyboard through the cable from the main computer power supply.
Many complaints and problems related to keyboards may be remedied by adjusting keyboard settings in the Control Panel.
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Figure 8-1: Keyboard Control Panel.
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The Repeat Delay setting adjusts how long the keyboard waits before it sends repeat copies of the key being held down. Setting Repeat Delay to a longer time can prevent double letters from appearing if the user is a slower, deliberate typist. A slower Repeat Rate setting gives the user ner control over the number of letters that appear when a key is held down. The Cursor Blink Rate can be adjusted to the users preference.
Control Panel Accessibility Options
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Keyboard Control Panel
Settings
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Figure 8-2: Control Panel Accessibility Options. The StickyKeys setting in the Accessibility Options for the keyboard lets users press key combinations one key at a time, instead of having to hold several keys down at the same time. The FilterKeys setting can be adjusted to ignore common keyboarding errors. The ToggleKeys setting gives an audible signal when keys are pressed while [Caps Lock], [Num Lock], and [Scroll Lock] are set. All three options may be ne-tuned to a users specic needs. Removing selected options can return a keyboard to normal behavior.
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Preventative Maintenance
Disconnect the keyboard from the computer before you attempt any major cleaning. Vacuum the keyboard to remove any loose dust, crumbs, and particles. A small brush can loosen some material so it can be vacuumed out. Do not use compressed air because the powerful air current can force debris under the keys, which can cause more trouble than you already had. Compressed air might be tried if something is already stuck under the keys and wont come loose any other way. Clean the computer keyboard with a mild glass cleaner or isopropyl alcohol. For heavier dirt, a diluted, concentrated, all-purpose cleaner works well. Some harsh solvents may melt the plastic keys or remove the letter symbols from the key caps. Alcohol may remove the letters on some makes of keyboards, so test a cleaner before applying it to the whole keyboard. Apply just enough cleaner to a cloth to make it moist, and then rub the keys gently with the cloth. Give the cleaner time to dissolve the dirt. Do not spray cleaner directly on the keyboard, or soak the cloth so cleaner drips down between the keys. Cotton-tipped sticks dipped in alcohol can clean grime between the keys. Remember to reconnect the keyboard, after it has dried completely, before you turn the computer on again. Take care lining up the pins so the plug enters its socket smoothly and easily, and plug it into the keyboard port, not the mouse port.
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Dirty hands, pet hair, dust, food, and spilled drinks are among the common causes of keyboard problems. The keyboard will last much longer if it is kept clean and safe from spills.
Repairs
The rst repair should always be to disconnect the keyboard, clean it, and reconnect it. Make sure it is plugged into the keyboard port, not the mouse port. Make sure the cord has no major twists or bends in it. If this does not x the problem, swap the bad keyboard with a good keyboard from another computer. If the bad keyboard also fails on the other computer, and the good keyboard works on the original computer, the problem is in the keyboard. Unless the keyboard is customized or unique, it is usually cost-effective to replace the bad keyboard, rather than repair it. Repair shops often charge $40 or more just to look at an item, while a decent keyboard can be purchased for less than that. Your labor and materials might cost the company more than a replacement keyboard. However, if the user insists that the keyboard be repaired, here are some problems and solutions: 1. Problem: The keyboard doesnt work. Cause: The user spilled a can of soda all over the face of the keyboard. Solution: Unplug the keyboard. Since it is useless, you are free to try a risky technique. Try soaking and rinsing the keyboard in clean water. Rinse it several times, get all the water out that you can, and then let the keyboard dry for two or three days. Sometimes this works.
2.
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Solution: Shut down the computer. Disconnect and reconnect the keyboard securely. Check all the keys and remove any items that might be holding a key down. Reboot the machine. If the keyboard is still bad, the computer may ask that you press the [F1] function key to learn why the keyboard is not working. Since the keyboard isnt working, just appreciate the humor of the situation.
Cause: Keyboards rarely fail, so the problem is probably a poor connection where you plug the keyboard into the system board, or a key is stuck down or has something holding it down.
Problem: The computer reports a keyboard error during the boot process. It just keeps beeping. The screen says Keyboard Stuck Key Detected Press <F1> for Setup, <ESC> to boot.
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Problem: The new keyboard wont plug into the same port as the old keyboard.
Standard Keyboard Connectors: 5-pin DIN, 6-pin Mini-DIN
Figure 8-3: Standard keyboard connectors: 5-pin DIN, 6-pin mini-DIN. Cause: Older keyboards use a large 5-pin DIN connector, while new keyboards use a smaller 6-pin mini-DIN connector, also called a PS/2style connector. Following is the function of the pins in the 5-pin DIN keyboard connector. Name
Pin Number
1 2 3 4 5
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Pin Number
1 2 3 4 5 6
CLK DATA No connection GND +5 V
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Name
Following is the function of the pins in the 6-pin mini-DIN keyboard connector. Description
Line for serial data transmission Electrical ground Power source Clock signal for timing
DATA No connection GND +5 V CLK No connection
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Solution: Because the keyboards are the same except for the connector, you can buy an adapter that will allow you to plug the new keyboard into the old port on the system board. Often a new keyboard with the correct connector can be purchased for about the price of an adapter.
4.
Problem: The keyboard works, but what is typed doesnt match what is shown on the screen. Cause: Some keyboards can be programmed to produce special letters, symbols, or combinations of letters when certain keys are pressed.
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Description
Clock signal for timing Line for serial data transmission Electrical ground Power source
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5.
Solution: De-program the keyboard. Check the users manual for instructions specic to the keyboard.
Problem: The keyboard wont work even though I have tried everything up to this point. Cause: Unknown. Solution: It is possible to pry up and remove each key on the keyboard and thoroughly clean all the switches and oil the posts that hold the keys in place. The chance of doing this without breaking a key or causing more damage is very small, so this step is only done out of desperation. Another step that usually destroys the keyboard is to remove the cover and look for broken wires or bad connections. Removing the wrong set of screws can send 101 springs ying around the room, so neither of these procedures are recommended. At this point, you may want to simply replace the keyboard.
Figure 8-4: Remote control keyboard.
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Computer programs simulate a keyboard on the screen which may be activated by touch or a special light source. Foreign language boards have a variety of different keys. Dvorak keyboards re-arrange the keys into a more natural arrangement that makes faster typing possible. A standard QWERTY keyboard layout, named after the keys on the upper-left row, is easily switched to a Dvorak keyboard layout on a special keyboard.
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Dvorak Keyboard Layout
A huge variety of keyboards are available. Natural or ergonomic keyboards usually split the keyboard in half so each hand can comfortably use its own set of keys. Keyboards for children or users with special needs may have enlarged or specially constructed keys. Wireless keyboards may use radio or infrared light to communicate with the computer, and USB boards require a USB port, rather than the standard PS/2 port.
Alternatives
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Remote Control Keyboard
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Figure 8-5: Dvorak keyboard layout.
TASK 8A-1:
Checking the Keyboard
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
Power up the lab computer.
Check that the keyboard is functioning properly by pressing any of the keys in any dialog box or application. When you are satised that the keyboard is working correctly, properly power down the computer.
Power up the computer. Note what response the computer gave because of the missing keyboard. Record the error message and any warning sounds the computer made, and compare your results to your lab partners. Because each BIOS is different, the answers might include Keyboard error or No keyboard present. Some machines may report an error number specic to that machine. Power down the computer. Carefully reconnect the keyboard to the computer.
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Mouse
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7. 8.
Mouse
The mouse, invented by Douglas Engelbart of Stanford Research Center in 1963, and pioneered by Xerox in the 1970s, frees the user from strict keyboard input and makes computers accessible to a much wider audience.
Carefully disconnect the keyboard from the back of the computer.
Setup: The lab computer must be operational and has been powered down.
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Figure 8-6: Mouse.
Function
A mouse or some other point-and-click device is a requirement for Graphical User Interfaces (GUIs.) When the user moves the mouse, the computer detects the direction and amount of motion by electrical signals sent through the mouse cord, and redraws a pointer that mimics that motion on the screen. The computer knows the position of the pointer relative to other objects drawn on the screen. When the user clicks one of the buttons on the mouse, the computer determines what icon or graphic the user was pointing at, if anything, and then performs the action that the icon has associated with a mouse click. An icon may have specic actions programmed to run if the mouse moves the pointer into its area, out of its area, or over its area.
Down. Up. Clicked (pressed and released).
Double-clicked (clicked two times with a short time span between clicks). [Ctrl]-clicked (clicked while the [Ctrl] key on the keyboard is held down). [Shift]-clicked (clicked while the [Shift] key on the keyboard is held down). Used in other combinations.
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Mouse buttons are simple switches that maintain contact as long at the button is held down. The mechanism for detecting motion is a combination of optics and electronics. Most mice have a rubber-coated steel ball that rotates as the mouse is moved over a smooth surface. One roller holds the mouse in place against two other rollers that are at right angles to each other. One of these rotates when the mouses motion has a vertical component to its direction, and the other rotates when the mouses motion has a horizontal component to its direction. The motion-detecting rollers are connected to small disks that have evenly spaced slots cut in them. As these disks spin, the slots repeatedly break a light beam going from an LED to a photo-detector. The number of times the light beam is broken is proportional to the distance the mouse travels. The rate that the light beam is broken tells the computer how fast the mouse is going. Combining the information from both rollers, the computer can tell how fast and in what direction the user is moving the mouse.
The user can drag an icon by pointing at it, holding the mouse button down, andwhile holding the button downmoving the mouse (press and drag). The icon can be programmed to respond differently if the button used is the left, right, or center (if available) mouse button.
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[Alt]-clicked (clicked while the [Alt] key on the keyboard is held down).
If a mouse button is pressed while the pointer is in its area, it may have specic actions programmed to run if a mouse button is:
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Settings
Many times, problems and concerns about the mouse can be alleviated by reviewing the mouse settings in the Control Panel and adjusting them to t the users needs.
Buttons Tab in the Mouse Control Panel
On the Buttons tab in the Mouse Control Panel, you can switch the behavior of the right and left mouse buttons to adjust for right- and left-handed users. In older Windows programs, one click on an object would select it, and a doubleclick would open it or cause some action to happen. The World Wide Web (WWW), on the other hand, allows you to point at an item to select it and click the item once to open it. Since many users prefer the WWW procedure, it is offered as an option for your mouse. The speed for two clicks to be recognized as a double-click can be increased or decreased as needed. New users may have trouble clicking the mouse two times quickly, so a slow speed may be needed.
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Figure 8-7: Buttons tab in the Mouse Control Panel.
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Figure 8-8: Mouse properties.
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The motion of the mouse pointer on the screen is controlled by the motion of the mouse. If you are doing detailed graphics where you need very ne control over the position of the mouse pointer, you would choose to slow the motion down. You may also adjust the pointer to move proportionally faster as you increase the speed of the mouse. Finally, the pointer can automatically appear over the default command button when you open a dialog box.
Common and Not-socommon Mouse Pointers
Figure 8-9: Common and not-so-common mouse pointers. The Mouse Control Panel also lets the user select the style of cursors they want. Sometimes setting the mouse pointer style back to Windows Standard and adjusting the settings so the mouse is behaving as the user expects it to is all the repair that is needed.
Maintenance
The mouse should be cleaned periodically to get rid of the lint and grime that collects on the rollers and on the ball. Turn the computer off and disconnect the mouse from the computer. Turn the mouse upside down and twist the restraining collar until the collar comes off and the mouse ball can be removed. In a Microsoft mouse, the ball cover is turned clockwise in the direction of the arrow, one-quarter turn. Your ball cover may need to be turned counterclockwise. Wash the ball in warm, soapy water, rinse, and dry it completely with a lint-free cloth. Shake any loose material out of the mouse case, and then examine the three axles. Remove any lint that may have built up at the ends of the axles. Often the center part of the axles will be covered with a sticky grime that you can scrape loose with a cotton-tipped swab dipped in alcohol, or with your ngernail.
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Shake out all the debris you scraped off the axles. Replace and secure the mouse ball. Clean off the outer case if it needs it. If the mouse pad is dirty, wipe it off with a damp cloth. If the pad has a cloth texture, you can remove dirt and hair by applying and removing adhesive disk labels or using a lint brush. Keeping the pad clean reduces the build-up of debris inside the mouse. This process will keep the mouse working smoothly and will cure most problems before they get serious.
2.
Problem: The new mouse wont plug into the same port as the old mouse. Cause: Older serial mice use a large 9-pin D connector that connects to the serial port on the back of the computer, while newer PS/2 mice use a smaller 6-pin mini-DIN connector, also called a PS/2-style connector. Solution: A mouse designed for a serial port and one designed for a PS/2-port function differently. Some mice are designed for the serial port but labeled PS/2-compatible. You may buy an adapter specically designed to allow compatible serial port mice to be plugged into a PS/2 port. Often, a new mouse with the correct connector can be purchased for about the price of an adapter. If a port is broken, a bus mouse may be used. The mouse connects to an interface card rather than the serial port or the PS/2 port. If your computer has a USB port, you can install a mouse with the USB-style connector. Adapters for attaching PS/2 mice through a USB port are available.
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Alternatives
Because every Windows-based application is designed assuming that the user has a mouse, many different varieties of mice and mice substitutes are available. The following are a small sample of the devices that can replace a standard mouse.
Solution: Unscrew the mouse case cover. The screw may be hidden behind the serial number label. Carefully remove any lint or dust around the slotted disks. Even a gentle nudge can knock the LED out of alignment, so this repair is risky and is used as a last resort when nothing else works. While the cover is off, check for poor connections and other obvious problems with the cord.
Cause: Enough debris has worked its way inside the mouse case to block the LED.
The mouse, like the keyboard, is usually cheaper to replace than repair. To make sure that it is the mouse that has a problem, exchange the bad mouse with a good mouse that works on a second machine. If the good mouse works on the original machine, and the bad mouse fails to work on the second machine, you know the problem is in the mouse. 1. Problem: The mouse doesnt work.
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Repair
Figure 8-10: Bus mouse with interface card. A bus mouse comes with its own interface card. Older computers without a PS/2 port dedicated to a mouse responded to mice attached to the serial port. Most computers had only two serial ports, and tying one up with a mouse could cause problems for some users. Having a dedicated card for the mouse freed up a serial port for an external modem or other serial device.
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USB ports are now standard on new computers, and on new Macintosh computers, USB mice are even required. Converters will allow users who must use the USB port for a mouse to adapt their favorite PS/2 mouse or a specially designed pointing device for use on their new computers.
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USB Adapter for PS/2-style Mouse Trackball
trackball: A mouse alternative with a ball mounted on top of a stationary base. Rotating the ball moves the pointer on the screen.
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Figure 8-12: Trackball.
Figure 8-11: USB adapter for PS/2-style mouse.
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A common alternative to a mouse is a trackball. A trackball is like a mouse lying on its back. Instead of moving the mouse to move the ball, you move the ball directly with your thumb or ngers. Mouse buttons are built into the trackball case.
Joystick
Figure 8-14: Finger pad.

touch pad: A stationary device that you slide your nger over to move the mouse pointer on the screen.
Mouth-control Mouse Substitute
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A touch pad or nger pad uses the motion of your nger across the surface of the pad to control the motion of the pointer. Buttons are built into the pad case. Some portables come with a pad instead of a mouse or joystick, although you can still alternatively use a mouse or joystick.
Figure 8-15: Mouth-control mouse substitute.
Finger Pad
joystick: A type of hand controller often used in computer games to control the action.
A joystick performs the same functions as a mouse, but this input device is favored by some game players. The position of the pointer is controlled by moving the stick back and forth or side to side. Triggers on the joystick are the equivalent of mouse buttons. Miniature joysticks are built into some portable computers.
Figure 8-13: Joystick.
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Special-needs users have an endless variety of options, including a mouthcontrolled joystick with buttons operated by the users breath. Other button styles are controlled by the users feet or slight head motion. Light pens are pointed at the screen and control the motion of the pointer. Virtual reality sites provide enhanced input from gloves the user wears to full body suits that respond to every movement of the user.
Figure 8-16: Common mouse connectors: 9-pin D and 6-pin mini-DIN. Following is the function of the pins in the 9-pin D mouse connector. Pin Number
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Name
No connection RD TD DTR Signal ground No connection RTS No connection No connection
Description
Serial data from mouse to host Serial data from host to mouse: Negative voltage source for mouse Data Terminal Ready: Positive voltage source for mouse and reset/detection Electrical ground
Following is the function of the pins in the PS/2 6-pin mini-DIN mouse and keyboard connector. Pin Number
1 2 3 4 5 6
Name
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DATA No connection GND +5 V CLK No connection
Request to Send: Positive voltage source for mouse
Description
Line for serial data transmission Electrical ground Power source Clock signal for timing
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Common Mouse Connectors: 9-pin D and 6-pin Mini-DIN
TASK 8A-2:
Cleaning the Mouse
Setup: The lab computer must be functioning and capable of using the mouse. Cleaning materials for the ball and cavity should be made available for this task. 1.
Some mouse ball cleaning materials would be useful here. If none is available, have the student clean the mouse ball with soap and water, dry it with a paper towel, and use compressed air to clean out the cavity.
Remove the mouse cable from its connection at the rear of the computer. Turn the mouse upside down and remove the securing collar from the mouse case. Remove the mouse ball from the cavity.
2. 3. 4. 5.
Clean the cavity and the mouse ball with the proper available materials.
8. 9.
Inspect the cable and the connector for wear.
10. Power up the computer and manipulate the mouse to assure proper functioning.
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Topic 8B
Primary Output Devices

Another category of peripheral devices are primary output devices, including monitors and printers. Different types of monitors and printers are available in todays market, and well look at each type in detail.
CRT-based Monitors
The original personal computers were designed to use televisions as video displays, but televisions are limited to about 40 characters per line. The rst computer monitors could display up to 80 characters per line and 25 lines of text in bright green or white on a black background. As demand for color graphics increased, the monochrome standard of MDA (Monochrome Display Adapter) was replaced by CGA (Color Graphics Adapter), which could show from two to 16 colors at resolutions from 160 x 200 to 640 x 200 pixels (picture elements or unique dots on the screen). The EGA (Enhanced Graphics Adapter) could show up to 640 x 350 pixels. Monitors of this vintage used digital video signalsTTL for transistor-to-transistor logicand are completely incompatible with todays computers.
Reconnect the cable to the computer.
None of these procedures take much physical strength. If it is difcult to remove the cover or ball from the mouse, conrm with the instructor that you are doing it correctly.
7.
Replace the securing collar.
6.
Replace the ball carefully into the cavity.
Check for foreign materials, cleanliness, or build-up of grime in the cavity and on the mouse ball.
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Starting with IBMs VGA (Video Graphics Array) standard, the switch was made to analog color, which uses three continuous signalsone each for red, green, and blue. SVGA (Super VGA) is the current standard and is still evolving.
CRT Display
Figure 8-17: CRT display.
Function
Most televisions and regular computer monitors are based on a CRT (cathode ray tube). The computer output you see on the monitor screen is the result of a carefully controlled stream of electrons hitting the phosphorous coating on the screen and making parts of it glow. Because the phosphorous glows for only a fraction of a second, the electron stream must return and start it glowing again so the image remains on the screen. Color monitors have three guns shooting independent streams of electrons at tiny colored phosphors on the screen that produce red, green, or blue dots. The screen is divided into rows of dots, and each dot has a red, a green, or a blue area within it. The red, green, and blue dots are so close together that your eye cannot see the individual colors; the red, green, and blue blend to make a single color. The whole visible spectrum can be produced using combinations of red, green, and blue.
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To keep the screen glowing with a constant image, the three electron guns spray the electrons from left to right across the screen to get a scan line glowing. Then the guns aim a little lower and scan from left to right again. The guns repeat this until the stream reaches the bottom of the screen; then they jump back to the top and start over. The data from the video card determines the intensity of each of the three electron beams at every point on the screen, so the video output controls the brightness and color of every dot on the screen.
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Figure 8-18: How color monitors work.
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cathode ray tube: Displays images using phosphorous dots with a scanned electron beam.
How Color Monitors Work
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Modern monitors use analog input, which means the intensity of the signals that control the red, green, and blue electron beams can vary continuously from the minimum to the maximum allowed. Digital monitors still require analog signals from the video card, but have digital controls with a menurather than knobs to turn on the front of the screento adjust the pictures brightness and contrast. Practically speaking, most video cards and monitors can display 256 different levels of each color, giving 16 million possible color combinations for each dot.
pixel: The smallest discrete element on a video display.
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Horizontal Scan
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Because the red, green, and blue dots are so small, it is difficult for the electron beam to always hit the center of the right dot. One way to keep the beam from hitting the wrong dot is to use a metal sheet with a tiny hole for each trio of adjacent red, green, and blue dots. This grill is a shadow mask; it keeps stray electrons from bleeding over into other colored dots. Instead of using a shadow mask, other monitors use very thin vertical strips of metal to block the stray electrons from hitting the wrong dots on the tube. These strips form an aperture grill. Monitors using the aperture grill may have a brighter display with a sharper image, but wires used to stabilize the strips form very thin horizontal lines on the screen image. The image on the screen must be refreshed constantly. If phosphors are made so they glow longer, they reduce icker; however, a moving image is smeared because the screen image cant change fast enough to keep up with the motion. Monitors refresh the entire screen from 60 to 75 times per second or 60 Hz to 75 Hz. This is referred to as the vertical frequency, vertical scan rate, frame rate, or vertical refresh rate. A second rate that can indicate the quality of a monitor is the horizontal scan rate. This rate describes the number of lines that can be painted horizontally in one second, and is measured in thousands of lines per second, or KHz. A higher horizontal scan rate means the ability to run higher resolutions. Auto-scan monitors detect the scan rates needed to produce the resolution set by the user, and select the appropriate horizontal and vertical deection circuits, as well as the correct power supply voltages to display the desired screen. Multisync, autosync, panasync, and omnisync monitors also adapt their scan rates to different situations.
Monitor specications can give you an idea of the quality of the monitor, although looking at it is often the best way to make a decision. Dot pitch indicates the distance between groups of red, green, and blue dots on the screen. The closer the dots are together, the smoother the image will be and the ner the detail that can be shown. A monitor with a dot pitch of 0.25 mm will look better than a similar monitor with a dot pitch of 0.40 mm. A television screen has a dot pitch in the range of 0.70 mm, which is why TVs make poor monitors. The dot size determines the maximum resolution of pixels per inch a CRT can display, but the actual resolution also depends on the video card, the computer settings, and even the quality of the video cable.
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The color information for each visible pixel on the screenwhich may be composed of several of the physical dots just mentionedis stored in the video memory. The RAMDAC (Random Access Memory Digital-Analog Converter) on the video card reads the bytes of video data in the cards memory and converts the digital data in memory to continuous analog signals that tell the monitor what to display.
Figure 8-19: Horizontal scan.
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Multiscan and multisync monitors are able to function at a variety of refresh rates. Interlaced monitors and televisions refresh every other line in each vertical pass down the screen, while non-interlaced monitors refresh every line on the screen every time. Televisions have a full-screen refresh rate of 30 frames per second, which makes the image icker too much for most computer uses. Noninterlaced monitors with high refresh rates are generally better.
Working with these numbers, we nd that the actual viewing area is just 12.8 inches wide by 9.6 inches high, or 325 mm wide and 249 mm wide. A dot pitch of 0.28 mm means a maximum of 325/.28 = 1,160 dots on a horizontal line. This is a little below the stated maximum of 1,280 pixels across the screen. If the maximum horizontal scan rate is 70 KHz, and there are 1,024 horizontal lines to scan every time the screen is refreshed, the monitor can refresh the screen 65 time per second at the 1,280 x 1,024 resolution. Since a vertical refresh rate of 70 Hz or higher is desired, the sales data refers to the refresh rate of a lower resolution.
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To relate these concepts toand dig the truth frommonitor specications, look at typical sales data for a monitor: This 17-inch monitor, with a 16-inch viewable area, features 0.28 mm dot pitch with 1280 x 1024 maximum non-interlaced resolution. At a resolution of 1,024 x 768, the 70 KHz horizontal scan frequency and 85 Hz refresh produce a icker-free image.
Monitor Quality
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If you would like to verify the viewable area size, you can use the Pythagorean Theorem, c2= a2 + b2. interlaced: A monitor that builds an image by displaying evennumbered scan lines and then odd numbered scan lines. non-interlaced: A monitor that doesnt use interlacing. It produces less ickering.
Most monitors produce a focused, sharp image at the center of the screen. Better monitors are also just as focused and sharp at the edges of the screen, even when higher-resolution graphics are displayed. Vertical and horizontal lines should be straight at the edges of the screen as well as the center. The screen ratio of width to height should be 4:3 so circles will be round and images will be in proper proportion.
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The brightness of monitors varies from model to model, and monitors can become dimmer over time. The user should choose a monitor that has more than enough brightness to use in his or her particular setting. Glare should be at a minimum, and colors should be represented accurately. If the user does a lot of word processing, black text on a white background should be clear and easy to read.
Monitor Specifications
DB 15-pin High-density VGA Connector
The DB 15 high-density VGA connector is the most common connector for PC monitors. The following diagram shows the pin numbering for the connector at the video card. Pins 4, 11, 12, and 15 receive information from the monitor, while pins 1, 2, 3, 13, and 14 send information to the monitor.
Figure 8-20: DB 15-pin high-density VGA connector.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
RED GREEN BLUE ID2 GND RGND GGND BGND KEY SGND ID0 ID1 or SDA HSYNC or CSYNC VSYNC ID3 or SCL
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Colors
Monono graphics Monowith graphics 2 16
Pin Number
Name
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The following tables summarize the numerical data that is used to describe monitors and their displays. Video
MDA (Monochrome Display Adapter) HGC (Hercules Graphics Card) CGA (Color Graphics Adapter) CGA
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Year
1970s 1982 1981
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Description
Red Video Green Video Blue Video Monitor ID Bit 2 Ground Red Ground Green Ground Blue Ground Key (No pin) Sync Ground Monitor ID Bit 0 Monitor ID Bit 1 Horizontal Sync (or Composite Sync) Vertical Sync Monitor ID Bit 3
Type
Digital (TTL) Digital (TTL) Digital (TTL)
Video Standards
256
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Resolution
720 x 350 720 x 350 640 x 200 160 x 200
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Video
EGA (Enhanced Graphics Adapter) VGA (Video Graphics Array) VGA 8514/A XGA (Extended Graphics Array) XGA TI 34010 SVGA (Super VGA)
Year
1984 1987
Colors
16 16 256 256 256 65,536 256 16 million 16 million 16 million 16 million
Type
Digital (TTL) Analog
Resolution
640 x 350 640 x 480 320 x 200 1,024 x 768 1,024 x 768 800 x 600 1,024 x 768 800 x 600 1,024 x 768 1,280 x 1,024 1,600 x 1,200
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8:5 4:3 4:3 4:3 5:4 4:3
Resolution
320 x 200 640 x 480 800 x 600 1,024 x 768 1,280 x 1,024 1,600 x 1,200
Number of Pixels
64,000 307,200 480,000 786,432 1,310,720 1,920,000
Aspect Ratio
The following table lists the number of pixels for common screen resolutions. The aspect ratio is the ratio of width to height. Most software expects a 4:3 ratio, and the display will look distorted if other ratios are used. The aspect ratio is found by reducing the fraction of the number of pixels across the screen over the number of pixels down the screen. For example, 320 x 200 has an aspect ratio of 320/200 = 8:5.
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Video Resolutions Color Depth
The color depth, or the number of bits used to store the color of a pixel, determines how many different colors can be displayed. For example, 8 bits may store decimal values from 0 to 255, so 8 bits or one byte can represent, at most, 256 different colors.
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4-Bit 8-Bit 16-Bit 24-Bit
Color Depth
Number of Displayed Colors
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Bytes of Storage Per Pixel

0.5 1.0 2.0 3.0
Common Name for Color Depth

Standard VGA 256-Color Mode High Color True Color
16 256 65,536 16,777,216
The colors that a video card can display depends on the resolution and the color depth, as well as its memory. The following table summarizes the video memory required to display some of the common resolutions and color depths. The memory is calculated by multiplying the number of pixels displayed by the number of bytes used to represent the color of each pixel. For example, 800 x 600
Analog Analog Analog
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Analog Interlaced
true color requires a minimum of 800*600*3 = 1,440,000 bytes. Because video memory generally comes in 0.5, 1, 2, 4, and 8 MB congurations, and more than the minimum memory is used, this resolution and color requires 2 MB of video memory. For a given card, the higher the resolution, the smaller number of colors that the card can handle. Resolution
Video Memory Requirements
640 x 480 800 x 600 1,024 x 768 1,600 x 1,200
Number of Colors
256 (1 byte/pixel) High Color (2 bytes/pixel) True Color (3 bytes/pixel) True Color
Memory
Relative Screen Sizes
Display Control Panel
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Figure 8-21: Relative screen sizes.
Settings
Many monitor problems are the result of unwanted settings. Problems with the size of the icons, color of the fonts, aggravating screen savers, and obnoxious wallpaper are all settings that can be changed in the Display Control Panel.
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0.5 MB 2 MB 4 MB 8 MB
Figure 8-22: Display Control Panel.
Windows supplies color schemes that coordinate the appearance of all the windows elements. Any scheme may then be modied to suit the users needs.
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Monitor Distortions Monitor Test Patterns
Figure 8-23: Monitor distortions.
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Depending on the price range and quality of the monitor, there may be a series of controls on a front panel or knobs on the back of the case to adjust some of the distortion problems shown in Figure 8-23. No monitor is perfect, and often xing one type of distortion will increase other problems.
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Figure 8-24: Monitor test patterns.
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To clean the monitor screen: Turn the monitor off. Clean the monitor screen by spraying a glass cleaner on a lint-free cloth. Do not spray a cleaner directly on the screen because excess uid may leak into the monitor case and cause a shock. Wipe the monitor until the glass is dry. You may use special monitor wipes with cleaner embedded in treated paper towels or clothes dryer anti-static sheets.
To clean and maintain the case: Turn the monitor off. Spray a gentle cleaner onto a lint-free cloth. Wipe the case with the cloth to remove ngerprints and general grime. Do not spray the case directly because of the danger of electric shock. If needed, vacuum as much dust and lint as you can from the vents in the case to maintain sufficient cooling air ow. Keep objects that might block the ow of air through the vents away from the monitor. Do not remove the cover of the monitor for any reason because of the danger of deadly shocks.
Maintenance
Many companies make test patterns that are designed to help make the ne adjustments needed to get a perfect display. Patterns tend to bring to light aws in the monitor that were never noticed before, but will now bother the user every time he or she looks at the screen.
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Never spill anything into the monitor.
Monitor Repair
Monitors store high-voltage electricity on large capacitors for long periods of time after the monitor is turned off and unplugged. The 20,000 volts are combined with enough current to kill you. The CRT tube can implode and spray you with shards of glass. The 120 V from the wall outlet are present in parts of the monitor, even when it is turned off. For this reason, all the repairs in the following list can be done without taking the cover off the monitor or sticking anything inside the cover. If you want to repair the inner workings of a monitor, get the special safety training needed to do it safelytraining that is beyond the scope of this course. Repair shops may charge $50 or more to look at a monitor and make an estimate. Often, it is cost-effective to buy a new monitor unless the old monitor was originally of extremely high quality.
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Problem: Ghosts, shadows, or streaks adjacent to vertical edges in the picture.
Solution: Remove any extension cables and ensure remaining cable is good quality. If problem remains, the problem may be inside the monitor. Cause: Magnetization of CRT. Solution: Locate and eliminate sources of magnetic elds. Sources include refrigerator magnets, loudspeakers, other appliances, and even other monitors. Degaussing (de-magnetizing) should be the rst thing attempted whenever color purity problems are detected. Some monitors have a button that triggers degaussing, but all monitors automatically go through a degaussing cycle each time they are allowed to cool down, and are then turned on. To degauss the screen and remove color distortions and blotches, turn the monitor on, turn if off, wait 30 minutes, and turn it on and off again. A highly magnetized screen may require several on-off cycles to clear itself. Commercial degaussers may be needed in extreme situations.
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Problem: Color blotches or other color or distortion problems.
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Cause: Signals can reect in a cable that is not terminated correctly, causing ghost images.
Solution: Remove and re-attach all the cables. If problem persists, replace the cables.
Cause: Bad connections inside the monitor or at the cable connection to the computer or video source.
At times, you will run into monitor-related problems. Some of these possible problems, their causes and solutions are outlined in the following section. 1. Problem: Intermittent changes in color, brightness, size, or position.
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degauss: Remove magnetism from a device.
Do not attempt to perform work inside a monitor unless you have been trained to do so. Monitors retain high voltages even after having been turned off and unplugged.
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The CRT in a monitor will lose half of its brightness at a given setting after 10,000 to 15,000 hours of use. If your monitor is on for eight hours a day, ve days a week, this works out to be about seven years. Chances are you will replace the monitor because of technical advances before it naturally fails. Placing the monitor in an area with subdued lighting will prolong its life because the brightness levels can be lower. Monitors last longer in a cool, dry, dust-free environment that allows adequate ventilation.
To see the effect of magnets, hold a magnet just close enough to the screen to cause a slight distortion. Powerful magnets held too close to the screen can cause permanent distortions and damage the mask or aperture grill. Cause: Electromagnetic interference (EMI) from nearby equipment including and especiallyother monitors, as well as power lines or electrical wiring behind walls.
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Problem: Wiggling, rippling, swimming, snowy, or shimmering images.
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Most experts agree that screen savers are no longer necessary with todays monitors, and that most popular screen savers do not decrease the wear on the CRT. Technical advances in CRT design have practically eliminated burned-in images that screen savers are meant to prevent. Screen savers now are entertainment, not CRT-saving utilities. Leaving the monitor on all the time causes more problems than the process of turning it off and then turning it back on, so a monitor that is turned off is the ultimate screen saver. Cause: Unknown. Solution: Try the monitor on a different computer to be sure the problem is in the monitor. If all external and software adjustments fail to solve the problem, consider buying a new monitor or taking the monitor in for repair by a trained specialist who has the proper equipment to work safely with monitors. Monitors are sensitive to being moved, and even a well-packed monitor can be destroyed by a drop of only a few inches. Be careful that shipping or transporting the monitor does not introduce more problems.
6.
Problem: The monitor still doesnt work.
Solution: The monitor is set to go into standby mode after an amount of time determined in the Display Control Panel. PCs and monitors that meet the EPAs (Environmental Protection Agency) standards for saving energy display the Energy Star logo. Adjust the time to meet the users needs.
Cause: Energy Star-compliant monitors can be put into standby mode to save power and reduce wear and tear on the CRT.
5.
Problem: Monitor keeps turning off after periods of inactivity.
Solution: Relocate the monitor or offending equipment. Shielding is difficult and expensive. The offending equipment might include a TV or other monitor, AC or DC wall adapters, audio equipment, uorescent lamps, motorized appliances, ceiling fans, wireless telephones, power lines, or electrical wiring. Power cords and printer cables next to the video connection can cause problems. Try plugging the monitor into an outlet on a different circuit, or plug it into a line lter. A surge protector or Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) may smooth out the current to eliminate some interference, but the magnetic elds from the UPS may also cause monitor problems.
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Alternatives
LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) at-panel displays are a compact, lightweight alternative to traditional CRT (cathode ray tube) monitors. LCD displays are more expensive than CRT monitors, but the price is dropping rapidly as they become more popular. LCDs now come in large-screen sizes of 17 inches and more, with high screen resolution and high color capability. LCDs have two disadvantages: they are not as bright as CRT monitors, and the user must sit directly in front of the LCD screen to see the display properly. LCDs consume much less energy than CRTs and do not emit electromagnetic radiations as CRTs do.
LCD: A Liquid Crystal Display is a monitor constructed of a liquid crystal solution between two sheets of polarized material.
Comparison of LCD and CRT Monitor Design
Virtual reality games and special purpose imaging needs led to the development of glasses that substitute for a monitor.
Figure 8-25: Comparison of LCD and CRT monitor design.
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Glasses Display Projector
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Figure 8-26: Glasses display. Projectors can ll a wall with an image of the computer display.
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Figure 8-27: Projector.
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If the screen becomes permanently scrambled, press the [F8] function key during the boot-up process and open the computer in Safe Mode. Change the settings back to normal and reboot.
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Select the Settings tab, as shown in the following graphic.
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Right-click on the Desktop and choose Properties. You may also reach the same screen by opening the Display Control Panel from the Settings option in the Start menu.
Setup: The computer is on and the operating system has loaded completely.
Configuring a Monitors Color Depth, Resolution, and Refresh Rate
TASK 8B-1:
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In the Colors eld, select a color depth. The depths available are dependent on the memory on the video card, the capabilities of the monitor, and the current screen resolution. In the Screen Area eld, select a resolution. The resolutions available are dependent on the memory on the video card and the capabilities of the monitor. Changing the resolution may cause changes to the color depth.
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If available, select a refresh rate. Ideally, only settings that your monitor can handle will be displayed. However, if someone has switched monitors without updating the settings, you may have the option to choose a refresh rate that the monitor cannot handle. An incorrect refresh rate scrambles the picture on the screen. Click Apply to test the new settings. Follow the screen prompts and examine the effect of the changes you entered. If the screen is unreadable, do nothing for 15 seconds, and the original settings will take effect. Click OK to close the Advanced Settings dialog box.
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The options shown on the Adapter tab vary according to the display adapter installed.
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10. Try other settings following the same pattern. 11. Close all open windows and dialog boxes.
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Click Advanced, and then select the Adapter tab as shown in the following graphic.
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Click Apply to test the new settings. Follow the screen prompts and examine the effect of the changes you entered. If the screen is unreadable, do nothing for 15 seconds, and the original settings will take effect.
Printers
Often it is necessary to have a hard copy of your data. This is where printers come in. The data sent to a printer from a computer may be ASCII codes for letters, or raw data for graphics. Printer ROM stores the bit-mapped patterns for the different letters. Macs and Mac-compatible PCs using ImageWriters print the entire page of text as if it were one large graphic; thus, the user has more font options than just those stored in printer ROM. There is usually feedback from the printer to the computer if there is a paper jam or if it is out of paper.
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Most printers can print a built-in test page even when they are not connected to the computer. Since you dont want to waste ink by printing test pages by accident, the printer control buttons you need to push to start the test page are usually obscure and inconvenient. On one HP printer, the Resume button has to be held down until the Resume light starts to ash. Other printers require that a specic button be held down when the power is turned on. Check your printer manual for instructions. If the test page looks good, the problem is not with the printing mechanics but somewhere before the printer in the chain from the application to the printer. If the test page will not print, make sure the printer has power, that the ink cartridges have ink or the printer cartridge has toner. Check that there is paper in the tray and that there isnt a printer jam (paper stuck inside of the printer). If the test page still refuses to print, the problem is in the printer. Printer-specic problems will be covered in later sections. Open the Printers Control Panel and select the printer with the problem. On the General tab, there is a button that will start a test page printing. Windows has an online troubleshooting guide to help you. If the test page prints correctly, the problem is not with the connecting cables or with the print driver. If the page does not print correctly, turn off all the power to the computer and the printer, disconnect and reconnect all the cables, and restart both the computer and the printer. Just
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Print a test page from the Printers Control Panel.
Problem: Nothing will print from any application. 1. Print a test page to see if the printer hardware is working.
Solving problems with printers requires imagination and skill, as well as organization and logic. The following list is a step-by-step approach to isolate possible printer problems.
General Printer Troubleshooting
Printing problems can come from many different sources. There may be something physically wrong with your printer, like a clogged inkjet printhead or stripped gear in a laser printer. The printer driverwhich converts printing requests from Windows into the raw data that the printer can understandmay be faulty or outdated. The printer settings made in the Printers Control Panel may contain unwanted values. Page Setup specications in the application that is trying to print may not match the printers capabilities or the users expectations. Before narrowing problem-solving and repair techniques down to a particular type of printer, you will learn general solutions that will work with all types of printers.
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rebooting the system can chase some printing gremlins away. Make sure the printer is online if that is an option. Try the printer cable on another printer you know is working correctly. If the problem moves with the cable, replace or repair the cable. If the cable is good, try replacing the problem printer with a good printer. If the good printer works, the problem is between the cable connection and the electronics inside the problem printer. If the test page fails to print on the good printer with the good cable, the problem is before the cable connection to the printer.
Test Page Dialog Box
Figure 8-28: Test Page dialog box. 3. Check the print driver.
Print drivers are the software responsible for sending the raw print data to the computer. The les can become corrupted and outdated. Download the latest drivers for the printer, uninstall the printer, and re-install it using the new drivers. The installation can be accomplished in the Printers Control Panel. Make sure all the options match your system setup. If the newly installed printer still fails to print, you may have a problem with the parallel connector on the system board. Interface cards can be inserted that offer additional parallel connections for your printer. If you still cant print a test page from the Printers Control Panel, but the test page under printer control still looks good, you denitely have a perplexing problem.
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Problem: The printer works, but not as effciently as, or in the manner the user would like.
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In the Printers Control Panel, the Advanced Settings tab sets general print parameters. Check that these settings are appropriate for the printer.
Advanced Printer Options for an Apple Laser IIg
Figure 8-29: Advanced printer options for an Apple Laser IIg. A printer that seems to be very slow to start printing a large document may be sending the entire document to spool or storage le before it starts to print. While this is not an error, the user may prefer to have it start printing immediately.
Page Setup Options from Microsoft Word
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Figure 8-30: Page Setup options from Microsoft Word. Most applications have a Page Setup dialog box that is customized for the application. Check that these settings are correct before attempting to repair the printer.
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Most printers have three types of problems: processor, sensor, and mechanical. The RAM, ROM, and microprocessors in the printer may go bad and need replacement. Check that the chips are seated in their sockets and that all the connections look good before replacing anything. Sensors can be mechanical switches or optical sensors that tell if the printer is out of paper, and where the printhead is on the bar. Jammed paper and debris can keep the sensors from reporting accurately. Belts and gear trains are used to move the printhead back and forth, and to move paper through the printer. Jammed bits of paper and dirt can inhibit the function of these things. Worn parts, like rollers and paper guides, wont keep the printer from working, but will bring the quality down. Paper jams usually occur where the paper is picked up from the paper tray. Look for problems at the leading edge of the paper as it moves through the printer. Most printers have some way to let you know that something is wrong, and what it probably is. In more sophisticated printers, it may be a little screen where messages appear. Sometimes the message will be printed on a sheet of paper. Some printers will use a combination of ashing Power and Resume lights to alert you. Check your manual to determine your printers method of communication.
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Error messages.
Laser Printer Function
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Laser printers print a page at a time using a combination of electrostatic charges, toner, and laser light. The laser printer has several FRUs (eld replaceable units), including the toner cartridge, laser scanning assembly, high-voltage power supply, DC power supply, paper transport assembly, transfer corona assembly, fusing assembly, and the formatter board.
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How a Laser Printer Works
laser printer: A type of printer that forms images on paper by using a laser beam and an electrophotographic drum. Produces high-quality output. FRU: Stands for eld replaceable unit. Term used in reference to laser printers, and refers to printer components that can be replaced as part of maintenance procedures.
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Figure 8-31: How a laser printer works.

Electrostatic Photographic (EP): Describes the type of drum used in laser printers. These drums depend on electrostatic charges to hold toner that is moved over to paper during the transfer step.
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Charging or Conditioning. The EP drum is given a negative charge of about -600 volts by the primary corona wire. Writing. A laser beam writes to the EP drum causing portions of the drum to become almost positively charged. Developing. Toner is attracted to the areas of the drum that were hit by the laser light. Transferring. The transfer corona wire charges the paper with a positive charge. The EP drum turns as the paper runs beneath it and loses its toner to the paper. Fusing. The paper runs through the fusing assembly that is heated to 350 degrees F. The fusers high temperature and pressure fuse or melt the toner into the paper.
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In a service-friendly laser printer, the eld replaceable units can be pulled out and replaced easily without any tools beyond a screwdriver and a pair of pliers. These units are usually not repaired because the repair expense is greater than replacement costs. The following information shows how the major FRUs relate to the printing process.
This is the process the laser printer uses to produce the nished printed page: 1. Cleaning. The Electrostatic Photographic (EP) drum is cleaned with a rubber blade.
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The EP toner cartridge is a single, replaceable unit that helps in steps 1, 2, and 4. The cartridge includes the cleaning blade which scrapes used tonera ne black powderoff the photosensitive print drum. The charging corona wiring inside the cartridge adds a powerful, negative electronic charge to the print drum, which holds the charge until it is hit by light. The spots that are hit by laser light lose the charge and attract the toner. When the drum rotates, the toner is attracted to the drum in a pattern that matches the printer page. The laser scanning assembly contains the laser which, in step 3, shines its light on certain parts of the printer drum. The pattern made by the laser on the drum attracts toner as the drum is rotated. The paper transport assembly moves the paper through the printer. It is a series of motors and rollers that makes sure the right area of the paper is under the print drum to receive the toner from the drum in step 4. The transfer corona assembly charges the paper with a positive charge as it moves through the printer in step 5. It is the high, positive charge on the paper that pulls the toner off the photosensitive drum.
toner: An electrically charged dry ink substance used in laser printers.
corona wire: The wire in the corona assembly that charges the paper.
Settings
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Figure 8-32: Advanced printing options for a laser printer.

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The quality of the printed output is affected by options selected in the Printer Control Panel. Before you attempt to repair a problem, make sure it cannot be resolved by changing one of the settings.
The fusing assembly, also known as the fuser, applies pressure and heat to the paper to seal the toner particles to the paper, as described in step 6. In the process of fusing, there is a halogen lamp which heats up to about 350 degrees F. The fuser is very hot and will burn you if you touch it. If you use transparency sheets not meant for laser printers, they will melt into a sticky blob because of the fusers temperature. A formatter board assembly built into laser printers processes all the data received from the computer and coordinates the steps needed to produce the nished page.
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fuser: The laser printer device that uses two rollers to heat toner particles, melting them onto the paper.
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Advanced Printing Options for a Laser Printer
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Maintenance
Laser printer print density is user-adjustable. To nd out how to adjust print density, check your printers documentation. This setting is independent of all other computer settings and should be checked from time to time. When you receive a message that toner is low, you might not have to immediately replace the toner cartridge. Gently removing the toner cartridge and rocking it from side to side can often coax several hundred more usable copies out of an old cartridge. Another thing to consider is that the drum and toner often do not age well, so buying many cartridges in advance is not a good idea. Also, very dry or very damp paper will take on poor electrical qualities and will affect the print quality. The corona wire in the cartridge may be cleaned with a special brush supplied with the printer. The ozone lter should be replaced during maintenance. Dust, debris, pet hair, liquids, and all other culprits should be kept away from the printer. The fuser requires adequate ventilation so it wont overheat the printer.
Repair
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Problem: Smeared output, or output rubs off the paper. Solution: The heat from the fuser melts the toner into the paper. If the fuser roller is uneven or the paper path has a problem, the image will be distorted. If the fuser is not hot enough, or if the paper has too much texture, the toner will not melt into the paper and will rub off. Cause: Might be in any of the steps because they all involve creating an image. Solution: Poor-quality paper may not accept a charge from the transfer corona, so the transfer will not take place. Good paper will not be charged enough if the transfer corona is dirty or faulty, or if the power supply that charges the corona has a problem. Along that line, a faulty primary corona or high-voltage power supply will not give the print drum the charge it needs to create a distinct image. Cause: One of the rollers in the paper path has a problem. Solution: Compare the distance between repetitions of the lines to the circumferences of the rollers to nd which may have the problem. Clean all the rollers before attempting to replace any of them. A good cleaning can x many problems. A warped or worn fuser roller or a scratched print drum are possibilities. Cause: Problem with the charge wires or the drum. Solution: If debris was caught between the wipe blade and drum, it could scratch a circle around the drum so it would not attract toner. If a portion of either the primary or transfer corona is covered with dust or
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Problem: Low-quality image.
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Problem: Repeat horizontal lines or white spaces.
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Problem: Repeat vertical lines or white spaces.
Cause: A fuser problem.
Laser printers contain chemicals, high voltages, and high-temperature areas that can hurt you. Make sure the printer is off and the parts are cool before you attempt to work on the machine. Some of the exposed wires are very thin and can be damaged easily, so treat the printer gently.
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bits of paper, it will not send out an even charge as the paper goes by, and a vertical defect will appear in the printed image.
Inkjet Function
Inkjetalso known as bubble jettechnology has been developing since the late 1970s. Three-color inkjet printers are now so inexpensive that they are thrown in free with some computer package deals. The major appeal of inkjets over laser printers is that an inkjet can print color while a comparably priced laser prints black-and-white. The basic price of an inkjet is low compared to a laser printer; however, the cost of the print cartridges is quite high (per copy) compared to laser printers.
inkjet printer: Printer that forms images by spraying ink on paper.
Figure 8-33: How an inkjet printer works.
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In the inkjet printer, liquid ink is forced out of carefully aimed nozzles onto the paper. With a color printer, cyan, magenta, and yellow inks are combined with black ink to form all the colors in the image. The printhead moves back and forth across the paper, printing one row, several dots wide, of the image at a time. The paper advances after every row until the page is covered. The printhead can produce at least 300 distinct dots per inch (dpi) using less that 1/5000th of a second for each dot. Some printers claim a resolution of 1200 dpi or more and produce almost photographic-quality images. The amount of ink shot onto the page is determined by the driver software that controls where and when each nozzle deposits ink.
Some inkjet printers use thermal technology, which forces ink out the nozzle and heats it to create a bubble that bursts and shoots ink onto the paper. The heat is turned off, the element cools, and more ink is sucked into the nozzle when the bubble collapses. Each thermal printhead has about 300 to 600 nozzles that shoot blobs of ink holding about eight to 10 picolitres (10-12 liters) that create dots about 60 microns (10-6 meters) in diameter.
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How an Inkjet Printer Works
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Inkjet technology is changing quickly. New printers use six ink colors to improve the image quality, adding light cyan and light yellow to the standard four colors. Printers can now combine 29 ink drops in a single drop so the color is produced by layering the inks, rather than having small dots of different colors side by side that the eye sees as different colors.
Settings
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Figure 8-34: Advanced settings in the Printers Control Panel for an inkjet printer.
Maintenance
Inkjet printers usually have cartridges that combine the printhead and the ink reservoir. When a cartridge runs out of ink, you can replace it or rell it. Manufacturers prefer that you replace it, but an entire industry now makes rell packages. Some cartridges have cyan, magenta, and yellow reservoirs, so if one
Advanced Settings in the Printers Control Panel for an Inkjet Printer
The choice of paper is critical for quality output from inkjet printers. The quality of the paper has the greatest effect on the appearance of the printed image. Inkjet printers will not offer their photographic-quality output unless you specify that you are using a coated matte or glossy photo paper. The best print quality results in much slower printing speeds than normal or draft quality, and uses a great deal more ink that can leave cheap paper feeling soggy.
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Piezo-electric technology: Inkjet printing technology that uses a piezo crystal that exes when current ows through it. This changes the shape of the crystal and thus forces a drop of ink out of the nozzle and onto the paper.
Piezo-electric technology uses a piezo crystal that exes when current ows through it. When current ows to the crystal, it changes shape just enough to force a drop of ink out of the nozzle and onto the paper. Because there is no heating and cooling cycle, this technology can be faster than thermal technology. Piezo-electric technology uses cyan, magenta, yellow, and black ink, but offers greater control over the size and form of the dots. If the printhead makes two passes, a resolution of 1440 x 720 dpi is possible. Special inks that dry quickly and are absorbed before they spread give excellent results.
color runs out, you have to replace the entire cartridge and throw the remaining colored ink away. Many printers have automatic self-cleaning cycles to keep dried ink from clogging the printhead, as well as cleaning cycles you can trigger from utility programs that come with the printer. Its not recommended that you keep the printer clean and free of dust. Strong cleaners and alcohol can damage the printer and should not be used. Small vacuums can be used to remove dust, but compressed air and powerful vacuums can create ESD problems. The carriage rod that the printhead slides back and forth on should not be cleaned or lubricated because the cleaners and oils usually cause more problems than any dried ink or dust.
Repair
Most problems unique to an inkjet can be solved by replacing the print cartridge and using good-quality paper. Except for very high-end models, it may be more cost-effective to replace rather than repair the printer.
Dot-matrix Function
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Figure 8-35: How a dot-matrix printer works.
Dot-matrix printers are still used today, in spite of their slow speed and low quality, because they can print on a continuous roll of paper, as well as multi-part forms that use carbon or NCR (no carbon required) paper. The dot matrix printhead has a vertical column of small pins that are controlled by an electromagnet. The pins shoot out of the printhead and strike an ink-coated ribbon. The impact of the pin transfers ink from the ribbon to the printed page. This physical impact is responsible for the printers ability to print multiple-layer forms.
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dot-matrix printer: Forms images out of dots on paper. Dot patterns are created by a set of pins that strike an inked ribbon.
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How a Dot-matrix Printer Works
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Settings
The print setting options found in a printers properties differ from printer to printer. Make sure the selected options are applicable and address the users needs.
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Figure 8-36: Advanced Options for a dot-matrix printer.
Maintenance
Keep a fresh, well-inked ribbon in the printer when it is in use. The ink contains the lubricants needed to keep the pins moving freely in the printhead. Keep the mechanical parts of the printer free from dust and debris. Physically blocking the motion of the printhead can damage the gears and belts that control its motion. Never move the paper while printing because a printer pin may be caught by the paper and bent. Do not lubricate the printhead as part of preventative maintenance.
Repair
Dot-matrix printers are known to be rugged and dependable. Most repairs are limited to the printhead, which may be hot after a long period of use. 1. Problem: Horizontal lines appear in the print so parts of characters are missing. Cause: A pin in the printhead is stuck.
Advanced Options for a Dot-matrix Printer
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NLQ: Stands for Near Letter Quality. Term used for dotmatrix printers that use two or more passes over a line of text. This improves dotmatrix print quality.
After a set of pins has red, an electromagnet pulls them back in, the printhead moves a fraction of an inch across the page, and another set of pins is red. The dots created on the page become the printed text or graphics. Print quality is increased by decreasing the size of the pins and increasing the number of pins in the printhead. NLQ (Near Letter Quality) dot-matrix printers use two or more passes over a line of text to increase the number of dots used per letter. This connects the dots to form sharper and clearer letters. The two common head styles contain nine and 24 pins.
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Problem: Flecks and smudges on the paper. Cause: The ribbon is not aligned correctly, not feeding correctly, or is over-inked. Solution: Reposition the ribbon. If the problem remains, try a different ribbon. The time and effort to repair a ribbon cartridge is rarely costeffective. If the new ribbon does not advance, the problem may be in the gears in the printer that cause the ribbon to move. Make sure they are clean and lubricated.
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Problem: Poor print quality.
Other Kinds of Printers
Solid-ink printers use wax sticks that are melted. The colored wax is squirted onto a drum that then transfers the ink to the paper one page at a time. Because of the danger from melted wax, these printers are usually kept in isolated areas and shared over the network. Dye-sublimation printers are special devices widely used in demanding graphic arts and photographic applications. The paper requires four different passes, getting all the yellow on the page rst, then cyan, magenta, and nally black. The ink is on large rolls of lm. A heating element boils away a tiny dot of the ink that diffuses into a specially manufactured papers surface where it mixes with other ink to form a colored area. The temperature controls the amount of ink added to the paper, so variations in the temperature setting can control the quantity of each colored ink added to every location on the paper.
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Thermal wax is very similar to dye-sublimation but uses plastic lms covered with colored wax. A heater melts dots of the wax onto a special thermal paper. This technology is excellent for making transparencies.
Thermo autochrome uses special paper that has cyan, magenta, and yellow layers. A printer uses a specic temperature to activate the colors on one layer at a time. Ultraviolet light xes the color before the next layer is heated.
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Solution: Set the thickness to match the paper you are using. Also, use good-quality paper for the best-looking output.
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Cause: The printer adjustment for paper thickness is set to an incorrect value.
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Solution: Attempts to repair a printhead can damage it beyond hope. Try cleaning the printhead with a lubricant like WD-40 or alcohol. Remove any visible grime. If this fails, the pin may be bent, rather than just stuck. You can open the printhead and look at the pins, but this is only done as the last resort before buying a new printhead because this step often causes permanent damage to the head. Getting 24 microscopic pins back into line, along with their springs, is a major challenge.
TASK 8B-2:
Identifying the Phases of the EP Print Process
1. Identify the description on the left with its matching term on the right. d a f c Toner is attracted to the neutral parts of the drum. Light erases the image on the drum. Heated rollers bond the toner to the paper. The laser is turned on and off as it sweeps across the drum. Positively charged paper pulls the toner off the drum. A high-voltage negative charge is applied to the drum. a. b. c. d. Cleaning Charging/conditioning Writing Developing
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Transferring
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Fusing
Connecting Printers
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To be able to print, you must create a connection between the printer and the computer. You can do this by either directly attaching the printer to a computers parallel port, or USB port, or by connecting the printer to a network. Serial port and infrared port connections are also possible, but not as common. Printers that are attached directly to a port on a stand-alone computer can only be accessed from the PC to which they are attached (although its possible to share a printer attached in this manner with one or more other computers via a switching device). Printers that are attached to a network (by either attaching the printer to a networked computer, a network le server, or directly to the network cable) can be accessed by any computer on the network. Network-attached printers bring down the cost of operations, as its not necessary to buy a separate printer for every user of the network. In the early days of networking, printer-sharing, along with le sharing, was one of the main reasons to have a network. The most common way to connect a printer directly to a computer is by connecting the printer to the computers parallel port using a parallel cable. The 25-pin male connector of the parallel cable attaches to the computers parallel port and the Centronics connector of the parallel cable attaches to the printer. The data transfer rate for a parallel connection is 150 KB, which is slow compared to USB and network connections. Refer to Lesson 5 for more detailed information on parallel ports. More recently, USB printers have become available. These offer faster data transfer rates compared to parallel connections, and enable you to attach the printer as one of the devices attached to a USB hub, if you need to connect multiple USB devices. If you have a parallel printer, and want to attach it to a USB port, you can do so by getting a USB-to-parallel adapter cable, which converts the parallel signal to a USB signal. Refer to Lesson 5 for more detailed information on USB ports.
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TASK 8B-3:
Connecting and Adding a Local Printer with the Add Printer Wizard
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Choose StartSettingsPrinters, and double-click on Add Printer. In the rst dialog box that appears, click Next.
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In the next dialog box, verify that Local Printer is selected, and click Next. If your printer were a network printer, you would select Network Printer here.
If you have a printer available to you, connect the parallel cable to the correct ports on the printer and the computer, and plug in and turn on the printer. The Centronics end of the cable plugs into the port on the printer, the 25-pin male end of the cable plugs into the computers parallel port.
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If you have a printer available for each student, all students will be able to perform this task. If you only have one or a few printers available, make sure that all students can see the procedure involved in connecting a printer.
If you dont have a printer available to you, your instructor will ensure that you will be able to follow the procedure for connecting a printer. You will still be able to add the printer in Windows, even if you dont have a printer.
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To add a printer to a Windows computer, you will use the Add Printer Wizard. This wizard guides you through the steps of specifying the type of printer you want to use, and assigning a printer name and port. You can also specify whether you want to use the printer as the default printer. After youve installed the printer, you can congure it through the printers properties.
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In a network, you will see one of the following scenarios: Printers that are attached to a networked computers local port, printers that are attached directly to a network le servers local port, or printers that are attached directly to the network cable. To be able to attach a printer directly to the network cable, the printer has to be equipped with a network interface card (NIC) appropriate for the topology used in the network (for example, Ethernet or Token Ring). This type of connection provides the fastest throughput and easiest way to share a printer on a network. Data going to a networked printer is either sent directly to the printer, or routed to a print queue on the server before being sent to the printer.
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Advise students of the appropriate printer manufacturer and printer.
In the list of manufacturers on the left, select the appropriate printer manufacturer. In the list of printers on the right, select the appropriate printer, and click Next. Your instructor will provide you with manufacturer and printer information. In the next dialog box, select the port you want to use, and click Next. Typically, this is LPT1.
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If you have a printer, verify that Yes (Recommended) is selected, and click Finish. A test page will print after the printer installation is complete. If you dont have a printer, select No and click Finish. A test page wont be sent to the printer. If necessary, click OK and provide the path to the Windows 98 cab les or to the Windows 98 CD-ROM. Click OK again.
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10. In the Printers folder, locate the printer you installed. The check mark indicates that the printer is the default printer.
11. Close the Printers folder.
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Enter a name for the printer into the Printer Name text eld. If another printer was already installed, specify that you want to use this printer as the default printer by clicking on the Yes radio button. If this is the rst printer, it will automatically be created as the default printer. Click Next.
Topic 8C
Other Input/Output Devices
Scanner
A scanner captures graphic images and printed text and then converts them to digital form for editing and manipulation in a PC. The scanner reects light off an image or object and converts it into 0s and 1s, a computer-readable format. The image is recorded pixel by pixel; generally, the higher the resolution, the better quality of the resulting image. A high-end scanner will use high-quality glass optics that are color-corrected and coated for minimum diffusion. Lower-end models will typically skimp in this area, using plastic components to reduce costs. Some devices have automatic document feeders, to save the user from manually putting each sheet of paper into the scanner.
Sheetfed scanners are for reective material, such as documents, which are fed past the image sensor. Film scanners are used for negatives and slides; they usually have holders to help load the lm. Photo scanners scan printed photographs and may also be equipped to handle negatives and slides.
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Interface with the computer may be accomplished by: Parallel port, which is easy to use but slow; a connector can hook the scanner directly to the printer.
Other scanners are smaller than the atbed; they take up less desk space and may have special functions: Handheld scanners are inexpensive, manually operated, and have a limited scanning width.
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Flatbed scanners are the most versatile and popular format. They are capable of capturing color pictures, documents, pages from books and magazines, andwith the right attachmentstransparent photographic lm. They have a at surface to hold material, which can be at or three-dimensional, such as a book or other object. The image sensor moves across the material to scan it. Scanning areas vary by model.
Figure 8-37: Flatbed scanner.
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Scanner
scanner: A device that can convert printed images into a computer readable format.
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In addition to the input/output devices we looked at in the previous topics, other input/output devices are available and commonly in use today, such as scanners, digital cameras, still/video capture devices, DVD players, microphones, speakers, and so on. Lets take a look at these in more detail.
SCSI port, which transfers data more quickly than the parallel; this is important for scans of high resolution. USB port, which is very exible and easy to use, thanks to its Plug and Play capability; it is slower than SCSI.
Digital Cameras
Digital Camera
Figure 8-38: Digital camera.
Serial cable, which is time-consuming and requires a power source. Infrared, which does not use cables but is slow and requires a power source. SCSI cable, which uses a high-speed bus cable system. USB cable, which is much faster than serial or parallel cable. External drive, which requires installation and software. This method is also signicantly faster than a serial connection. PC Card; adapters hold small memory cards.
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Video Capture
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The digital le may then be resized, touched-up, recolored and labeled with image-editing software. Output options include: Viewing on the monitor. Printing on special photographic paper. Printing on special transfer sheets for application to fabric. Posting on the Web. Attaching to email. Importing into documents.
Still/Video Capture
Desktop digital cameras capture still or video images directly through the PC.
Parallel cable, which is faster than a serial connection.
Downloading to the hard drive is accomplished by: Floppy-disk drive; adapters hold small memory cards.
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Digital cameras are increasingly popular as their quality improves, prices drop, and consumers become more computer and Web knowledgeable. Unlike lm cameras, the image is captured digitally and stored as a le on a oppy disk or removable memory card. Some printers accept digital les on memory cards directly.
Video digitizer, which captures a video sourcefrom a camcorder, laser disc, TV, or DVD playerand turns it into a photo or video on the PC. Network camera, which is part of a small group of cameras which connect directly to a network or deliver images through a modem without using a computer. Using a network connection or phone line, it offers good image quality and frame rates. The high price is offset by the fact that a computer is not necessary to support the network camera.
3D Image
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3D imaging provides realistic three-dimensional images through stereo viewing on systems ranging from PC screens to large-screen projections. Using a special eye-wear receiver, the user views data on the screen and can manipulate it with a high degree of accuracy. Stereo viewing enables the viewer to see left- and righteye views virtually simultaneously, the way you see in the real worldwith both eyes. The viewer sees the left image on the display while the right lens is closed; then the right image on the display is viewed while the left lens is closed. Because this happens a minimum of 120 times per second, the viewer perceives left and right views simultaneously.
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Video capture device, which is more expensive and offers a higher frame rate (24 to 30 frames per second). This device provides live video broadcasting through the Web, still photography, emailing videos and images, and videoconferencing. Some styles may be mounted on a portable computer.
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3D Glasses
These cameras include: Plug and Play still camera, which is inexpensive, easy to install, and provides high -quality images. It is usually connected through a serial, parallel, or USB port.
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Figure 8-39: Video capture.
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Figure 8-40: 3D glasses. 3D viewing applications include: Virtual environmental design CAD/CAM/CAE Animation Global information mapping Virtual prototyping
Screen refresh in stereo mode to provide icker-free operation. Plug and Play, with a simple cable to connect the emitter to the monitor. Receiver using infrared signal; lack of connecting cables allows for multiple users and freedom of movement. Lightweight, comfortable, and worn over eyeglasses. Large eld of view. Long battery life. Automatic bright mode, where user can easily read, write, or observe a nonstereo monitor without removing eyewear.
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DVD: Stands for Digital Video Disc. A data-storage medium that can store more information than compact discs.
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DVD Player
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DVD
Technology constantly strives to store very large amounts of data on single, inexpensive storage media, such as the Digital Video Disc (DVD). Like a CD, a DVD uses patterns of tiny pits on the discs surface to represent data, which is then read by a laser beam. DVDs are able to store more information than CDs because they use a shorter wavelength laser which can read smaller, more densely packed pits. Also, the DVD has a second, opaque layer, which holds additional information.
Some important considerations with this type of system include: Sharp, bright image with realistic, high-resolution, ghost-free color display.
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Figure 8-41: DVD player. The PCI controller card decodes the information stored on the disc and separates it into sound and video data. It then sends the sound data to be converted to an analog sound signal for the speakers, while sending the video data to the video controller card for the monitor.
CD-R/CD-RW
Microphones
Speakers
Multi-function Machines
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The increase in small home offices has brought about a demand for compact machines that perform several functions. Multi-function machines often combine the capabilities of a scanner, a printer, a copier, and a fax machine. Most reports say that each component is slightly lower in quality than if it were purchased individually. If one component fails, the entire machine must be repaired or replaced. Because the price is usually quite reasonable, most users are willing to accept these conditions in exchange for ease of use and the compact size.
While some users hook their computer up to a stereo system, others use smaller desktop speakers. Because speakers contain large electromagnets, specially shielded speaker cabinets are used for sound systems that will be placed near monitors. The better the speakers, the better the sound, until you reach a quality that is limited by the sound card and the source.
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Microphones change sound energy into electrical energy that sound cards turn into digital information. Computers can store, manipulate, and play back this digital information. Microphones are useless without functioning sound cards.
CD players are now a requirement for computer systems because almost all software is sold on CD-ROMs. CD-R (CD Recordable) drives can play CDs as well as record them; the CDs can be recorded on only once. CD-RW (CD Re-Writeable) drives record on CDs that may be rewritten many times. The price of a CD-RW has dropped from thousands of dollars to below $200 in the last few years. As new technologies come on the market, like DVDs, CD-ROM drives will have new capabilities and higher speeds than those in existence today.
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Be careful when working with DVDs, as they could become scratched, which would render them unusable. Always keep them in a protective cover when not in use, and touch only the edges of the DVD disc when you handle it.
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TV Tuners
Expansion cards can be attached to your video cable or an antenna and convert the TV signals into a picture you can see on your monitor. It can ll the whole screen or just one corner. Software that comes with the card allows you to record your favorite shows until you ll up your hard drive, which happens very quickly.
Troubleshooting Peripheral Devices

Each device in this section has its own unique set of problems. On the other hand, one set of general guidelines applies to almost all computer peripherals. Following is a summary: 1. Check the system requirements before you attempt to attach the equipment. If you are asked to repair a peripheral, conrm that it could work on the system if there were no problems. Specications often include: 2. Operating system Microprocessor type and speed Memory requirements Hard-disk space CD-ROM speed
Monitor resolution and color capabilities Color printer Modem
Internet connection Available port
Special application software
Peripherals must have a source of power to function. Many broken peripherals have been magically cured as soon as the power was turned on or they were plugged in. Surge protectors protect equipment, but they, too, must be turned on before the device will work. Pressing the ON button is also a critical step in the process. Dead or almost dead batteries are a major problem for portable devices.
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3.
Peripherals require some way to communicate with the computer. This might be through infrared or radio, as well as wires and ber-optics. Use the correct cables with the correct connectors and the correct wires attached to the pins in the connectors. Just because one end attaches to the computer and the other to the device doesnt mean it is the correct cable for the job. Place the cables where interference from appliances and other wiring wont be a problem. Keep the length of the cables below the maximum allowed length. Keep the distance and environment limitations of radio and infrared communications in mind when you place the peripheral.
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Connect the peripheral to the proper port.
Sound card, speakers, and microphone
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Because there is a limited number of designs for ports and cables, it is possible to attach the peripheral to the wrong port. Never connect or disconnect devices while the power is turned on. Never force a cable into a socket. A single broken pin can cost more to repair than some of the peripherals cost to begin with. Check that the computer agrees that the port you are using is free of conicts and is available for use. All peripherals require some type of software support to function fully. Usually the support comes with the device. As you upgrade your computer, you may need to download compatible, updated software from the Internet, or write to the manufacturer for the latest software version. Even Plug and Play devices may have settings that need to be adjusted before they can function at their best. Optimal settings may depend on the speed of your computer, available memory, and many other considerations.
Install the required support software.
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Set all options and values as directed during the installation process.
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Reboot the system before making any major changes or repairs.
Identifying the Function of Various Peripheral Devices

1. For each peripheral device in the following table, indicate its primary function.
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Digital camera Video capture device TV tuner Multi-function machine CD-R/CD-RW
Microphone Speaker Scanner
Peripheral Device
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TASK 8C-1:
Primary Function
Lets you capture sound and save it as a le on your computer. Lets you hear sounds played on your computer. Lets you convert paper documents and pictures into electronic documents and images. Lets you snap pictures and save them as images on your computer. Lets you capture real-time video and play the clips back on your computer. Lets you watch TV programs on your computers monitor. Combines the capabilities of a printer, fax, scanner, and copier into a single device. Lets you save data les, music, and video on a CD.
In spite of software manufacturers claims, systems can crash or malfunction through no fault of your own or the attached equipment. Turning everything off and starting all over can sometimes x the problem.
For example, volume settings set too low make the microphone or speaker appear not to be working.
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Summary
In this lesson, you examined the most common peripheral devices found on PCs today. In particular, you learned to identify the technical characteristics of keyboards, mice, monitors, printers, and various other special-purpose devices. You learned general troubleshooting techniques as well as how to solve some of the problems found in specic devices.
Lesson Review
8A Compare the keyboard layout and connectors of older keyboards to new keyboards available today.
Older keyboards had only 10 function keys. Newer keyboards have 12 function keys, as well as keys dedicated to Windows functions and/or Internet functions. Older keyboards use a 5-pin DIN connector while newer keyboards use a smaller 6-pin PS/2 connector.
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The monitor refresh rate must match the display adapters refresh rate. Early monitors had a xed refresh rate. Today, however, most monitors are said to be multisyncing; that is, they will automatically adjust to the refresh rate produced by the display adapter. For each of the printer types in the following table, indicate the main advantage it has over other printers, the main disadvantage it has compared to the other printers, and a possible safety hazard. Printer Type
Dot-matrix Inkjet
8B Describe the relationship between the display adapter refresh rate and the monitor refresh rate.
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Advantage
Standard mice are available in serial, bus, PS/2, and USB versions. Most computers are useless without a functional mouse, so a variety of mouse connections that can bypass or avoid any resource conicts or port shortages are available.
Describe the connectors that may be used for mice. Why are so many options available?
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Slow with low quality Supplies are expensive
Disadvantage
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Laser
Print multilayered forms Inexpensive printer with color capabilities High quality with low cost per copy
Color expensive and initial cost is high
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Safety Hazard
Touching a hot printhead. Ink could splatter in your eyes.
Touch any number of hot parts inside the printer; looking at the laser could damage your eyes.
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What are common ways to connect printers? Common ways to connect printers include parallel port and network connections. Additionally, you can connect printers via the USB port, serial port, or infrared port.
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Answers will vary, but might include: Does the computer system meet the minimum requirements for the peripheral? Does the new device have a functional power source? Are the proper cables connected to the appropriate ports on both the device and the computer? Has all the software that came with the device been installed? Has the entire setup been turned off, and then rebooted?
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8C A user has tried unsuccessfully to install a peripheral you have never heard of, and expects you to troubleshoot over the phone. What questions and suggestions might you make until you nd more details about the new equipment?
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Portable Computing
Overview
Portable computers are becoming more and more popular. This trend is driven by an increasingly mobile working population, the spread of the Internet and intranets, and falling prices in portable computers. The expanding market will require repair and replacement services of up to $1 billion. This lesson focuses on the technology you will nd in portable systems. You will examine those unique components that distinguish a portable from a desktop, including displays, PC Cards, and battery power systems.
LESSON
9
Data Files none
Objectives
9A
To acquire skills for servicing and maintaining portable systems, you will: Identify the unique components found on portable computers.
While both portable and desktop systems share similar components, the portable has distinctive features. In this topic, you will identify the internal system components, input devices, displays, and peripherals that are unique to portable systems. 9B Examine the technical characteristics of PC Cards.
9C
Describe the technical characteristics of common battery systems and identify power management standards.
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In this topic, you will examine the methods for using and managing power to a portable system. You will identify types of batteries, common power states, and methods for conserving power.
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PC Cards expand the technical functions of the portable computer. In this topic, you will examine the PC Card architecture and dene the technical characteristics of PC Cards.
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Lesson 9: Portable Computing 291
Lesson Time 2 hours
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Topic 9A
Components of Portable Systems
portable systems
Portability Concerns
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Figure 9-1: Portable computer. Although a portable has components and functions that are similar to a desktops, its construction is different enough to make repairs and upgrades difficult. You will be challenged by the conned spaceespecially the heightwhich sacrices convenience and limits accessibility and exibility. In general, the logic and reasoning used to isolate and dene problems in desktop systems also apply to portables, except swapping components may be more difficult or impossible, in some cases. In troubleshooting, repairing, or retiring a portable, you are obligated to follow your companys guidelines and municipal regulations regarding disposal of electronic equipment and parts.
A Portable Computer
The unique feature of a portable computer is its portability, made possible by its lightweight, self-contained power source, and small size. This featurewhich makes the computer available almost anytime and anywhereunfortunately presents its own set of problems. The nature of the technology, in striving for lightness and compactness, dictates the systems design. However, in its travels to different settings, the portable computer is subjected to much wear and tear. The leading causes of damage are being dropped and liquid spills. The keyboard, hard-disk drive, and LCD are particularly susceptible to damage. The average cost to repair a portable computer, including the cost of repairs, lost productivity and worker downtime, can range up to $1,400.
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The portable computer is not just a small desktop in a case. In this topic, you will identify the internal system components, input devices, displays, and peripherals that are unique to portable systems.
Types
Portable computers currently fall into three categories, determined by the general uses of each: Desktop replacement. The largest of the portables, it generally weighs over 6.5 pounds and usually has the most features, including large screen, large hard drive, CD-ROM drive, multimedia capabilities, modem, and printer. It is expensive; however, it can serve as both a desktop and a portable without many compromises. Notebook. It usually costs less than a desktop replacement because it has fewer features. It is used primarily as a satellite to a network or desktop system, such as a college student or sales representative might require. It usually has a smaller display, slower processor, smaller hard drive, and slower peripherals. Sub-notebook. It weighs less than ve pounds; the ultra-light weighs in at less than three pounds. To keep weight down, it has a minimum of features including a small display and small keyboard. Manufacturers are attempting to increase its functionality while maintaining its convenient size. Battery life tends to be good. The sub-notebook is built primarily for inputting text and retrieving data from a remote computer.
Types of Portables
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Portable computers can use battery power for all their functions. Batteries limit the length of time users can work on the computer, and they are expensive to replace or to keep as backups. For these reasons, many users rely on an AC adapter in place of the battery whenever regular electric power is available.
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Processor Packaging
Due to the limited space in portable systems, different CPU packaging is used for processors for portable systems. All of the packaging types address the need for lightweight, small footprint processors. Examples of mobile CPU packaging include Tape Carrier Package (TCP), Ball Grid Array (BGA) and BGA2 (BGA and BGA2 packaging uses solder balls rather than the metal leads found in PGA packaging), Micro PGA and Micro PGA2, and Mini-Cartridges.
DC Controllers
Three Examples of BGA Packaging
Courtesy of XeTel Corporation. Photo by Robert Lawrence.
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An excellent source for detailed processor information is www.sandpile.org.
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The processor can be problematic, as it draws a considerable amount of power, which drains the battery and produces a noticeable amount of heat. To help with this problem, DC controllers are used in portable computers. A DC controller enables stepping down a higher input voltage to a lower output voltage. As an example, Linear Technologies LTC1771 DC/DC controller enables stepping down an input voltage of 2.8 V to an output voltage of 1.23 V, and an input voltage of 20 V to an output voltage of 18 V. Output voltages are programmable. Using DC controllers, power can be conserved, which is essential for batterypowered devices, such as portable computers.
Processor
Pentium processors you will encounter in portable computers include: Intel Mobile Pentium (with voltage reduction). This mobile processor runs at 75 MHz, 100 MHz, or 120 MHz, 133 MHz, and 150 MHz. It has 3.3 million transistors, and is designed based on Intels advanced, low-voltage BiCMOS silicone technology. It operates at a core (internal) voltage of 2.9 V, and an external voltage of 3.3 V. The CPU is 32-bit, and the data bus is 64-bit. The Intel Mobile Pentium has two on-chip 8 KB Level 1 caches. The Intel Mobile Pentium processor features SL Enhanced Power Management, including System Management Mode (SMM), and clock control. This processor is packaged in a TCP package. You will nd this processor in older Pentium portable computers. Intel Mobile Pentium MMX. Also known as the Tillamook, this processor is often found in mobile units. Although being surpassed by the Pentium II,
Ball Grid Array (BGA): CPU packaging used for portable computer processors. Has a small footprint to accommodate the space restrictions of portable computers. In this design, solder balls are used rather than metal leads found in PGA packaging.
Sockets and slots used in portable computers include the BGA socket, Micro PGA socket, Mini cartridge Connector, Mobile Module Connector 1 (MMC-1), and Mobile Module Connector 2 (MMC-2).
Figure 9-2: Three examples of BGA packaging.
Tape Carrier Package (TCP): CPU packaging used for portable computer processors. Has a small footprint and is produced using a process called tapeautomating bonding. Chips produced with this packaging weigh less than one gram and are thinner than a dime. Core voltage is 2.45 V.
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Intel Mobile Pentium II. The latest Intel Mobile Pentium II uses a 64-bit data bus, and runs at speeds from 233 MHz to 400 MHz. It is packed in either a BGA package, or a Mini-Cartridge package. It has two integrated 16 KB L1 caches, and an integrated 256 KB cache. Internal voltage is between 1.5 V to 1.9 V, and its external voltage is 2.5 V. It supports MMX, and uses Quick Start and Deep Sleep modes for low power dissipation. It also features an integrated math coprocessor. Another model of the Mobile Pentium II processor runs at 233, 266, and 300 MHz. These processors feature a 512 KB L2 cache, and Dual Independent Bus (DIB) architecture. These processors are packaged in a Mini-Cartridge package.
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Figure 9-3: Intel Mobile Pentium MMX processor. Intel Mobile Celeron. Two Intel Mobile Celeron processor types exist. Both use a 64-bit data bus. The earlier Intel Mobile Celeron runs at speeds ranging from 266 MHz to 466 MHz, and is offered in PGA and BGA packaging. It has two on-die 16 KB L1 caches, and an on-die 128 KB L2 cache. Internal voltage is between 1.5 V and 1.9 V, and the external voltage is 2.5 V. It features an integrated math coprocessor, support for MMX technology, and Quick Start and Deep Sleep modes for low power dissipation. The later Intel Mobile Celeron processor runs at speeds ranging from 400 MHz to 700 MHz. This processor is available in a low-voltage conguration at 400 and 500 MHz. Internal voltage for regular voltage models is 1.6 V, and for lowvoltage models, it is 1.35 V. External voltage is 3.3 V. It has two on-die 16 KB L1 caches, and one on-die 128 KB L2 cache. It features an integrated math coprocessor, and support for MMX, and Streaming SIMD extensions. Packaging is either Ball Grid Array 2 (BGA 2), or Micro-PGA2. It also supports Quick Start and Deep Sleep modes for low power dissipation.
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Quick Start: Power-saving mode supported by many Intel Mobile processors. Deep Sleep: Drastically reduced power mode entered into after certain conditions (such as prolonged inactivity) have been met.
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Intel Mobile Pentium MMX Processor
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it is still used, especially in ultra-lights, where limited heat production is an important consideration. The Intel Mobile Pentium with MMX is socketcompatible with the Intel Mobile Pentium if its packaged in a TCP package. The CPU is 32-bit, and the data bus is 64-bit. The Intel Mobile Pentium MMX has two on-die 16 KB Level 1 caches, and uses low-voltage CMOS silicone technology. Its internal voltage is 2.45 V, and its external voltage is 3.3 V. The Intel Mobile Pentium MMX can operate at 133, 150, and 166 MHz.
on-die: Integrated onto a processor chip.

SpeedStep: Technology that enables two different performance modes, Maximized Performance Mode, and Battery Optimized Mode. In Maximized Performance Mode, the processor runs at its highest speed and normal internal voltage. In Battery Optimized Mode, the processor runs at a reduced speed and a reduced internal voltage.
Processor
Intel Mobile Pentium
Clock Speeds
75 MHz, 100 MHz, or 120 MHz, 133 MHz, and 150 MHz 133 MHz, 150 MHz, and 166 MHz 266 MHz, 300 MHz, 333 MHz, 433 MHz, and 466 MHz 400 MHz, 450 MHz, 500 MHz, 550 MHz, 600 MHz, 650 MHz, and 700 MHz 233 MHz, 266 MHz, 300 MHz, 333 MHz, 366 MHz, and 400 MHz
Data Bus Width

64-bit
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Internal/ External Voltage Cache
Two on-die 8 KB L1 2.9 V/3.3 V 2.45 V/3.3 V Two on-die 16 KB L1 1.5 V to 1.9 V/2.5 V Two on-die 16 KB L1, and an on-die 128 KB L2 1.35 V to 2.6 V/3.3 V Two on-die 16 KB L1, and an on-die 128 KB L2 1.5 V to 1.9 V/2.5 V Two on-die 16 KB L1, and an on-die 256 or 512 KB L2
AMD K6-2. This desktop processor is used in some portables due to its compatibility with system boards, lower cost, and power efficiency. It is used by some manufacturers to create a newer model by removing an older, slower CPU and replacing it with the K6-2, rather than redesigning the system.
Intel Mobile Pentium III. The Intel Mobile Pentium III uses a 64-bit data bus, and runs at speeds ranging from 500 to 850 MHz. The Intel Mobile Pentium III uses a technology called SpeedStep which offers two performance modes: a Maximized Performance Mode, and a Battery Optimized Mode. When in Maximized Performance Mode, the processor runs at its designated speed using an internal voltage of 1.6 V. When in Battery Optimized Mode, the processor runs at a reduced speed and an internal voltage of 1.35 V. For example, the 850 MHz processor runs at 700 MHz in Battery Optimized Mode. The remaining SpeedStep increments are: 800 or 650 MHz, 750 or 600 MHz, 700 or 550 MHz, and 600 or 500 MHz. External voltage is 3.3 V for the Intel Mobile Pentium III. It has two on-die 16 KB L1 caches, and one on-die 256 KB L2 cache. This chip is packaged in BGA2 and Micro-PGA2 packaging. It supports MMX technology, and Streaming SIMD extensions. Finally, it uses Quick Start and Deep Sleep modes for low power dissipation, and features an integrated math coprocessor.
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64-bit TCP 64-bit BGA, or Micro-PGA 64-bit BGA2, or Micro-PGA2 64-bit BGA, or Mini -Cartridge
Intel Mobile Pentium MMX Intel Mobile Celeron (earlier models)
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Intel Mobile Celeron (later models)
Intel Mobile Pentium II
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CPU Packaging
TCP
Processor
Intel Mobile Pentium III
Clock Speeds
500 MHz, 550 MHz, 600 MHz, 650 MHz, 700 MHz, 750 MHz, 800 MHz, and 850 MHz
Data Bus Width

64-bit
Internal/ External Voltage

1.6 V or 1.35 V/3. 3V
Cache
Two on-die 16 KB L1, and an on-die 256 KB L2
CPU Packaging
BGA2, MicroPGA2
Generally, processors are not upgradeable by the user. Most of them are soldered onto the system board, making them shock-proof but resistant to adaptation. Processors produce heat, and systems can get hot. Manufacturers attempt to make systems that dont become too hot to touch, although they may avoid fans, which are a power drain. Older portables may contain variations on desktop processors, which can rapidly drain batteries and overheat. If the system becomes too hot to touch, the overheating may be caused by a desktop processor.
The hard drive for a portable is generally smaller than a desktop hard drive. It usually has 2.5-inch platters and measures approximately 4 inches in length. Heights range from 8.5 to 9.5 mm for ultra-lights to 12.5 to 7 mm for subnotebooks and slim notebooks, to 17 to 19 mm for larger desktop replacements. Storage capacity of portable hard drives is up to 25 GB. Portable hard drives run more slowly than those used in desktops, averaging 4200 rpms.
Storage Systems
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Hard Drive for a Portable
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Figure 9-4: Hard drive for a portable.
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Many hard drives, especially on newer portables, are replaceable. This requires nding the right size, getting into the system, taking out the old, snapping in the new, and attaching it to the connector. Not only may the hard drive be replaced by another hard drive, but other types of drives may be substituted as well.
Parallel Port Portable Hard Drive

PCMCIA: Stands for Personal Computer Memory Card International Association. An association of organizations that establishes standards for PC Cards.
PCMCIA slot for a hard-disk drive card.
Memory
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Custom Memory for Portable Systems
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Some portables may use either SIMM (Single In-line Memory Module) or DIMM (Dual In-line Memory Module) memory, much as you would see in larger systems. Most portables, however, require proprietary memory that is custom designed for each system. For example, memory that works in an IBM ThinkPad may not be compatible with a Toshiba Tecra. The system will prescribe the type of memory required, the total memory it can support, and the increments in which it can be added. Because the memory is manufactured in smaller quantities than standard SIMMs and DIMMs, memory for portables is more expensive and may be hard to nd for obscure makes and models.
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Interchange oppy disk or CD-ROM drive with a second removable hard drive.
If the hard drive is difficult to access or upgrade, removable storage can be added in several ways: Existing port, for example, to add a Zip, Jaz, or tape drive. A portable hard drive may be attached to the parallel port; a pass-through connection allows a printer to still function off the port.
Figure 9-5: Parallel port portable hard drive.
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Display
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The passive display or passive matrix, while less expensive and less powerhungry than the active display, is often limited to 256 colors and has a much poorer image than a CRT. The passive display has two groups of transistors, one along the top edge with one transistor for each column of pixels, and another along the left side with one transistor for each row of pixels. Wires forming a matrix interconnect the rows and columns. The pixels at each junction darken when powered by the transistors. This dual scan image is drawn line by line and can be up to ve times slower than a CRT display. Improvements have included dividing the display into sections, increasing contrast, and enhancing power efficiency. The passive display is not suited for video presentations or other tasks, such as video games, requiring fast motion on the screen.
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The active display or active matrix (AM) is often called a TFT (Thin-lm Transistor). It is the best display presently available and compares favorably to a CRT. The AM has one transistor for each pixel; it creates a very clean image, has a wider viewing angle, and updates quickly. Due to the large numberhundreds of thousandsof pixels, some transistors may be defective, leaving dots stuck in one color (usually red, green, or blue or black). This is more noticeable when the screen is all one color but should not be distracting during a normal display. In addition, all those transistors require power; an AM display can discharge a battery in a couple of hours.
The LCD is one of the most expensive parts of a portable and is the most fragile. The display is frequently not covered under warranty and is difficult to replace other than through the manufacturer. If a replacement is needed immediately, it may be more economical to buy a new portable than to wait for repairs.
active matrix: An LCD in which transistors actively maintain the state of pixels between scans.
The portable uses a Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) because it requires less power than the CRT monitor and can be congured into a at panel. The quality of the image will depend on the size, type of display, pixel size, and resolution. Recent LCDs produce images which are comparable to the CRT.
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passive matrix: An LCD relying on persistence to maintain the state of pixels between scans.
LCDs are covered with a thin sheet of plastic, so clean them gently. Use a soft, lint-free cloth dampened with distilled water, lens cleaner, mild detergent, or very diluted alcohol. Be sure to avoid ammonia-based products and abrasive cleaners.
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Figure 9-6: Custom memory for portable systems.
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Keyboard
The keyboard for a portable will, of necessity, be smaller than a desktops. Most portables feature an embedded keypad with 85 to 88 keys. Keying should be quiet, as many portables are used in public places, including conference rooms and libraries. Some keys do double-duty, and function keys may be reduced in size. A distance of 3/4 inch from the center of one key to the center of the next is recommended, as well as a vertical movement of 2 to 3 mm. Space at the forward edge of the portable may provide a palmrest. Some small portables have a full-size keyboard that can be unfolded when the portable is opened. It is possible to connect a full-size keyboard to the portable when typing ease, not carrying ease, is important.
While the portable can accept an external mouse or other pointing device, it generally uses one of the following:
Trackpad
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Trackpad. The trackpad is an electromagnetically sensitive pad that tracks the movement of a nger to move the mouse pointer. Mouse clicks can be simulated by tapping the pad. Accidentally touching the pad while typing will make the pointer move unexpectedly; in addition, some users have noticed that dampness will cause the pointer to jump. Sometimes called a touch pad, this input device contains a two-layer grid of electrodes which are connected to an integrated circuit (IC) mounted under the pad. The upper layer contains vertical electrode strips while the lower layer is composed of horizontal electrode strips. Capacitance from each of the horizontal electrodes to each of the vertical electrodes is measured by the IC. A nger near the intersection of two electrodes changes the capacitance between them because a nger has very different electrical properties from those of the air. The touch pad sends this position information to the computer, which then moves the mouse pointer on the screen to match the motion of the nger over the trackpad. Trackpads may be built into the design of the computer or added as an accessory.
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Trackpoint. The trackpoint is a small, eraser-shaped button on the keyboard that works like a very short joystick. It points accurately and allows the user to move the pointer without moving the ngers from the keyboard. Some typists nd that it interferes with striking the neighboring keys. This pointing device was originally used on Toshiba, AST, and IBM notebook computers.
Trackball. The trackball is a small ball that moves the mouse pointer when it is rolled in various directions. It is known for its accuracy and lack of interference with keystrokes. It is being surpassed in popularity because it takes more room on the keyboard and requires cleaning.
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Figure 9-7: Trackpad.
Peripherals
Most computer users expand their systems productivity and exibility with peripherals such as scanners, external drives, network connections, printer, video cameras and modems. The desktop user opens the case and adds expansion cards inside the computer using available ISA or PCI slots to provide any needed connections for new peripherals. The portable computer user cannot add expansion cards inside the computer, but an alternative approach is available. The solutions for portables include the PC Card and the docking station, as well as ports. The portable will accept the same type of peripherals as a desktop, of course adding to the weight and bulk of the computer, if they can be attached to its serial, parallel, keyboard, mouse, video, or USB ports. Some peripherals that use low power and are very compact are sold specically to portable owners. PC Card slots in portable computers accept miniature peripherals such as modems or network cards specically designed for low-power, lightweight computing.
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Printer Designed for Portable Computers
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Figure 9-8: Printer designed for portable computers.

docking station: A desktop unit that portable computers connect to. Port replicators contain standard desktop expansion cards, additional drives, and ports for other desktop peripherals.
Docking Stations
port replicator: Device that contains typical PC ports to enable users of portable computers to travel between multiple locations and attach to non-portable peripherals such as monitors and printers. Similar to a docking station, but does not provide slots for expansion cards.
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Figure 9-9: Docking stations. Similar to docking stations are port replicators. A port replicator contains typical PC ports and enables users of portable computers to travel between multiple locations and easily connect at each location to non-portable peripherals, such as monitors and printers. To connect to the port replicator, and thus the devices attached to the port replicator, you slide the portable computer into the replicator, and a connection is made through the port replicator port on the portable. The difference between a port replicator and a docking station is that a port replicator does not offer the ability to add expansion cards. Port replicators are offered by the manufacturers of portable computers for specic portable computer models.
If full-power, heavy-duty peripherals are constantly required, the portable computer may be attached to a docking station that makes use of a special connection on the back of the portable and gives the portable control over regular desktoptype peripherals and expansion cards. The docking station, also known as a multiport, is used when the portable becomes a desktop replacement at a permanent location. The portable slides into the station and makes contact through the docking port. The portable acts like the brains of a desktop computer and can access a desktops larger monitor, keyboard, mouse, printer, and other peripherals. The docking station typically contains slots for expansion cards, bays for storage devices, and connectors for peripheral devices. There is no standard for docking stations, so you must purchase one that is made specically for your type of portable computer.
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TASK 9A-1:
Comparing Portable and Desktop Computers
1. For each of the components listed in the table, describe how it differs from a typical desktop equivalent. Component
Display Hard-disk drive Pointing device Expansion Removable media
Portable
LCD technology Typically smaller and slower; almost exclusively IDE Built-in trackpoint or trackpad; external mouse connectivity PC Cards and docking stations Usually one bay where you can swap multiple media devices
Desktop
CRT technology Large capacity; fast access times; uses IDE and SCSI External mouse connectivity Internal ISA and PCI buses Usually multiple 3.5 and 5.25 bays for permanent devices
Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs)
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Information is usually entered into a PDA via a pen-based interface rather than a keyboard (which takes up too much space). The user uses a device called a stylus, that is shaped like a pen, and writes information on a touch-sensitive screen that is integrated into the PDA. This type of screen uses handwriting recognition to transfer the written information into the PDA. The movements of the stylus on the screen are recognized and converted into digital signals. PDAs often
PDAs were rst introduced in 1980 by Psion, and revolutionized in 1993 by Apple Computer, with the Newton MessagePad. Todays most popular PDA is the Palm Pilot by 3Com. Other PDA manufacturers include HP, Psion, Casio, and Sony. Some examples of available PDAs are the Palm Pilot, the Handspring Visor, the Pocket PC, the vtech Helio, the WinCE HPC, and the Newton.
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Another category of portable computer is the PDA (Personal Digital Assistant). This type of portable computer serves the needs of users who travel a lot, and who need some computing power when even using a laptop or notebook computer isnt feasible. Another name for PDA is palmtop. These devices are small and handheld, many of them not weighing more than 7 or 8 oz, and they have dramatically risen in popularity in the last few years. They consist of a display/ input area (which can be monochrome or color), a processor, and RAM. Common uses for PDAs include the ability to keep an electronic calendar and address book, maintain a to-do list, use a calculator, send and receive email, send and receive faxes, and take notes on the go. Some can also function as cellular phones and pagers. Newer models also include the ability to browse the Web via wireless access, and typically you can install other applications, such as word processing, spreadsheet, and nancial management applications. Some models even support audio functions, such as voice recording, and storing and playing audio les.
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PDA: A personal digital assistant is a very small computer that can be handheld. Often used to keep an electronic calendar and address book, get email, send faxes, and take notes on the go. stylus: Pen-shaped device used to enter information into a PDA.
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TASK 9A-2:
1.
Reviewing Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs)

What are the main characteristics of a PDA? PDAs are handheld, and lightweight, so that they can easily be carried around. Typically, they use a pen-based input system using handwriting recognition, although keyboard systems are also available. 2. What types of functions can you perform using a PDA? Typical functionality includes a calendar, address book, to-do list, calculator, and email and fax capability. Newer PDAs also support Web browsing, paging, and cell-phone functionality, as well as the ability to add application software, and use audio capabilities. 3. How do you synchronize data between a PDA and a regular PC? Either via a serial cable or infrared connection, or via a special docking station.
PDAs use various types of batteries as their power source. Note that its extremely important to keep spare batteries on hand and to change batteries as they run down, or to recharge batteries if theyre rechargeable. Typically, the operating system will advise you when you need to change or recharge batteries. If the batteries run completely out, you can easily lose all of your stored information.
PDAs typically have an interface the user can use to transfer information between their PDA and their organizer application on their regular PC (desktop or portable). This enables the user to keep information synchronized between all of their computing devices. For example, a user may enter a new address into their address book on their desktop PC, and they can then transfer the information from the PC to the PDA. This synchronization takes place either via a serial cable connection, or an infrared port or special docking station.
Microsoft has written its CE operating system for both keyboard-based and penbased devices. Other available PDA operating systems include the PalmOS by Palm Computing, EPOC by Symbian, and Microsofts Pocket PC (a scaled down version of Windows 95/98). Memory requirements vary from one PDA to another, and depend largely on the operating system, and the type of functionality supported by the PDA. RAM in a PDA typically ranges from 4 MB to 32 MB. Some models enable you to add memory.
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Grafti: A handwriting system used by PDAs. It provides a simplied alphabet the user uses to input data into a PDA.
use the Graffti handwriting recognition system that uses a simplied alphabet to make data input easier for the user. The user will have to learn this system to correctly enter information into the PDA. Other handwriting recognition systems are also available. Although pen-based devices are probably more popular, keyboard-based devices also exist. These are referred to as Handheld PCs, or HPCs. These devices use small keyboards (that sometimes fold out) for data input. In addition to the keyboard, these devices also use a at screen similar to that of a laptop or notebook computer. Essentially, they look and act like miniature laptop computers.
Topic 9B
PC Cards
PC Card: The credit card-sized devices which are used in portables instead of desktop expansion cards.
PC Cards have become very popular with the rise in portable computing and the demand for access to standard peripherals. PCMCIA is a group of 500 organizations founded in 1989 which establishes standards for these cards that are sometimes called PCMCIA cards. These credit card-sized devices connect to and draw power from the portable through a male/female 68-pin arrangement. The cards were originally designed just to add memory to portable computers. The rst cards were Plug and Play devices which used a 16-bit socket and a 68-pin connector. With these cards, the user can access the same devices that a desktop system would use, including modems, SCSI adapters, sound cards, Ethernet adapters, and video cameras.
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PC Card A Representation of the PC Card Connection
Figure 9-10: PC Card.
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Figure 9-11: A representation of the PC Card connection.
Types of PC Cards
PC Cards currently come in three types. Each is about 75 mm long and 55 mm wide; they differ only in thickness. A thinner card can be used in a thicker slot, but a thicker card cant be used in a thinner slot. A Type I slot can hold one Type I card. A Type II slot can hold one Type II card or two Type I cards. A Type III slot can hold one Type III card or a Type I and Type II card. You will nd the
These cards can be inserted and removed while the system is still running; this procedure is called hot-swapping. This is because the power and ground contact pins are the longest contacts, ensuring that disconnect signals disengage rst, preserving data integrity. Additionally, PC Cards are interchangeable and independent of the operating system, so they work with all the versions of Windows that function on your portable, for example. The cards are self-conguring so you do not have to set any jumpers or switches or use software programs to congure the card.
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PC Card Interface
You can learn more about PC Cards at www.pc-card.com/.
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The Personal Computer Memory Card International Association (PCMCIA) is an alliance of members who promote interchangeability and compatibility among portable computers. The alliance denes the standards for the PC Card, which offers additional memory and peripherals to portable computers. PCMCIA also denes the standards for Socket Services and Card Services, the software elements of the PCMCIA specication.
PC Card slots on either the right or left side of the portable. To insert a PC Card, slide it into the appropriate slot until it is rmly in place. To remove a PC Card, typically you have to push on a lever that protrudes next to the PC Card slot. This pushes the card out of the slot somewhat and you can then pull the card out the rest of the way. Each card has features that t the needs of different applications:
Type II cards: 5.0 mm thick. These slots have two rows of sockets and are typically used for memory, I/O devices such as data/fax modems, NIC, LAN adapters, and SCSI connections. These cards usually have a pop-out connector for an RJ-11 or RJ-45 connector.
Extended cards allow the addition of components which must remain outside the system, such as antennas for wireless applications.
Figure 9-12: PC Card with an external port. At startup on a portable computer, Card and Socket Services are loaded into memory. This software comes with the PC and with the cards. These two layers of software detect and support a PC Card when it is inserted into the portable. They also manage hot-swapping and pass changes in events to higher-level drivers written for specic cards. Socket Services interacts with the BIOS to identify the number of sockets available. It can be built into the BIOS or added through software. When the system is turned on, it also detects when a PC Card is inserted or removed. Socket Services works with Card Services above it, and also communicates directly with the PC Cards controller chips. Card Services automatically assigns system resources when Socket Services has identied that a PC Card has been inserted. Card Services manages system resources required by the PC Card like IRQs, memory, and I/O addresses. This software management interface also works in conjunction with upper-level software, such as hardware drivers, that may need to be loaded to work with the PC Card.
Socket Services: Device driver software for PC Card.
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External Drive Connected to a Portable Through a PC Card
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Card Services: Assigns resources for PC Cards and detects when a card is inserted or removed.
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PC Card with an External Port
Type III cards: 10.5 mm thick. These slots have three rows of sockets and are most commonly used to install hard-disk drives or support adapters for external CD-ROM, DVD, and tape drives.
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Type I cards: 3.3 mm thick. These slots have one row of sockets and are used primarily to add memory, such as RAM and ROM.
Figure 9-13: External drive connected to a portable through a PC Card.
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Zoomed Video (ZV) is a connection between a PC Card and host system that allows the card to write video data directly to the VGA controller. The data is transferred with no buffering requirements because it is transferred over the ZV bus and not the system bus. This new bus was designed by the PCMCIA to enable portable computers to connect to real-time multimedia devices such as video cameras.
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CardBus allows PC Cards and hosts to use 32-bit bus mastering and to operate at speeds up to 33 MHz. More recently PC Card slots have adopted the CardBus standard, which allows faster data throughput and 32-bit access rather than 16-bit. The CardBus operates at speeds up to 33 MHz. The bus mastering option allows the card to communicate directly with other cards on the bus without going through the CPU. This improves performance because the CPU is free to do other things. New computers are using the CardBus technology. CardBus has advanced power-management features that allow the computer to take advantage of CardBus cards designed to idle or turn off in order to increase battery life.
New technologies are changing the abilities and characteristics of PC Cards. The following are some important advances over the original standards. A fourth type of PC Card (16 mm thick) is evolving from Toshiba, but it has not been officially standardized.
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Zoomed Video (ZV): A connection between a PC Card and the host system that allows the card to write video data directly to the VGA controller.
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Figure 9-14: Interface for using PC cards on desktops.

Interface for Using PC Cards on Desktops
Identifying PC Card Characteristics and Uses
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PC Card
Type I Type II
1.
For each of the PC Cards listed in the following table, complete the missing information: Thickness Primary Use
ROM or RAM memory I/0 devices, e.g. LAN, modem, and external disk drives Rotating mass storage devices like hard drives
Type III
Topic 9C
Power Management
Although one of the great assets of a portable computer is the ability to run it using battery power, portables naturally can also be powered by traditional power sources. You wont always be using your portable computer on an airplane, or on the road, but will often use it where wall outlets are readily available. Any portable computer you buy will come with an AC adapter to convert the outlets AC
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3.3 mm 5.0 mm 10.5 mm
TASK 9B-1:
PC Cards can be a major investment in spite of their small size. Adapters that allow the cards to function in desktop computers add to the cards exibility and therefore to its value.
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power to the DC power the computer requires, or, on some newer models, will have an internal means of converting the AC power to DC. You can typically also purchase a car adapter for your portable computer, to be able to power it, and charge its battery, through your cars 12 V power outlet. If an AC adapter fails, you will have to buy a new one. Freedom from the wall outlet means depending on another source of power, in this case, batteries. The portable computer has methods for managing power, usually a software battery monitor, which reports the reserve power of the battery. The management system may also detect when the computer isnt being used and put it in a suspend mode to conserve power. Conserving the batterys power and extending its life are much preferable to replacing the battery.
Figure 9-15: Variety of portable computer batteries.
Batteries
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Battery life is a major factor in judging a portables value for the user. Most batteries will typically last anywhere from two to six hours, although this varies depending on how you are using the computer. The weight and expense of backup batteries make choosing the right battery an important decision. Several types of batteries are used: NiCad (Nickel Cadmium). The original standard of portables is the heaviest and least expensive. It uses a nickel and cadmium plate and potassium hydroxide as the electrolyte. It has a relatively short life of three to four hours and recharging can take up to 12 hours. The NiCad lasts 700 to 1,000 charge/recharge cycles. Its major problem is a so-called memory effect in which the battery seems to remember how full it was when you last charged it, and it doesnt go past that point the next time. To avoid problems from this effect, NiCad batteries should be completely drained periodically to maintain the longest charge.
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Types of Batteries
NiCad: Portable computer battery made of nickel and cadmium with a three to four hour life. NiMH: Environmentally friendly battery for portable computers.
NiMH (Nickel Metal-Hydride). This rechargeable battery is environmentally friendly because it doesnt contain heavy metals which can be toxic. It uses nickel and metal hydride plates with potassium hydroxide as the electrolyte. It doesnt hold a charge as well as NiCad when not in use, but it does provide up to 50 percent more power than NiCads for the same weight and doesnt suffer from memory effect. It is more expensive and has a shorter charge/recharge life (400 to 500 cycles) than NiCad.
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Variety of Portable Computer Batteries
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Li-Ion: Portable computer lithium battery with a long life.
Li-Ion. Lithium, a lightweight metal, provides a light, long-life battery, holds a charge well, and cant be overcharged. It was introduced in portable computers in 1993, and has grown in popularity to become the widely used battery technology in new portables. Li-Ion batteries hold twice as much power as NiCad for about half the weight and provides higher power for heavy-duty requirements. Because it is expensive, it is usually found on higher-end systems. It lasts about 400 charge/recharge cycles. Lithium Polymer. Introduced in 1998, this rechargeable battery is similar to Li-Ion in power rating, but it uses a jelly-like material as an electrolyte instead of liquid. This jelly characteristic allows lithium polymer cells to be manufactured in various shapes and sizes for custom requirements. To prevent any leakage, batteries like Li-Ion and NiMH with liquids for electrolytes must be in protective steel cans that restrict possible shapes. Zinc Air. A rechargeable battery technology that provides more charge per pound than Nickel Cadmium or Nickel Metal-Hydride and does not suffer from the memory effect. It uses a carbon membrane that absorbs oxygen, a zinc plate, and potassium hydroxide as the electrolyte.
Lithium Polymer: Portable computer battery using a jelly-like material.
Zinc Air: Portable computer battery that uses a carbon membrane that absorbs oxygen.
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Advanced Power Management (APM): Application programming interface (API) for batterypowered computers that provides several powersaving options.
Suspend to RAM. Also known as Sleep Mode or Instant On. The system writes data to memory and shuts everything down while keeping the data alive with a minute amount of power from the battery. The system is immediately accessible by using certain keystrokes. This method uses a small amount of power, so data could be lost if the battery dies. Suspend to disk. Also known as Hibernate. The system writes data to disk and shuts off completely; no power is used, so no data can be lost. The system, while not needing to be rebooted, turns on more slowly than suspending to RAM. Slowing the processor. The system is on but not involved in heavy-duty calculations. The processor slows down to a point where it can still handle the users needs, but does not waste energy trying to process data at an unnecessarily high rate.
Advanced Power Management (APM) is an application programming interface (API) from Intel and Microsoft for battery-powered computers. It provides several power-saving options, including shutting off the display or hard drive, suspending to RAM, suspending to disk, and slowing the processor.
Advanced Power Management
Given their longer life and lighter weight, the newer battery technologies would appear to be clearly the battery of choice if money were no object. Even the best batteries will die after an hour or two if the portable has many power-hungry features, such as a large display. Because different types of batteries require different recharging techniques, follow the directions supplied with the battery. Environmental regulations must be followed when disposing of batteries.
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Symbol
S0 S1
State
Fully on and operational Sleep
Power Use
Full power Slight reduction; processor and bus clocks off Processor loses all power so data in its cache is lost Processor and some system chips lose power
Software Resumption
Not stopped Control restarts where left off Starts from processors restart vector Starts from processors restart vector
Hardware Latency
Not stopped 2 seconds
System Context
Not stopped All retained
S2
Deeper sleep
S3
Much deeper sleep
2 seconds or more
S4
Hibernate
Power to all devices turned off
Restarts from saved software le
S5
Shut down
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Power off
Must reboot
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A system cannot switch between sleep states directly, but must always rst go back to state S0 and be fully on before transitioning to another sleep state. Some devices, like a modem with an incoming call, can wake a system from a sleeping state. There is some variation in the details of how different makes and models of computers actually enforce the different states. If the power is turned off with the computer in the hibernate state, the computer can recover and resume operation because the hibernation le stores the information the system needs to return to the condition before hibernation started. If the other sleep states are used, you must reboot the computer if power is lost because information about the state before going to sleep was in RAM and has been lost. System Power Policy determines when the computer switches to the different states. If the computer is using AC power, the emphasis is on performance, while if it is using battery power, the emphasis is on conservation. If AC is available, the computer operates using AC power and also uses it to recharge the battery.
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Long; must power up everything Long
2 seconds or more
CPU context and system cache contents are lost Only system memory is retained; CPU context, cache contents, and chip set context are lost Operating system context; however, is maintained in a hibernate le (an image of memory) None retained
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The latest power management system, ACPI (Advanced Conguration and Power Interface), has six states. States S1 to S4 are called sleeping states. More and more of the computer is shut down as the numbers get higher. No computation is being done, and the computer looks to be turned off in all the sleep states. This power management system denes several properties for each state. These include power use (how much power is being supplied to the system), software resumption (where the software is started from when the system restarts), hardware latency (how long the system takes to come back up), and system context (what CPU and memory information is retained). The following table summarizes the states and their effect on the computer.
ACPI: Stands for Advanced Conguration and Power Interface. Power-saving interface that has six separate power-saving states (S0 through S5). With each state, more computer components are turned off to increase power savings.
Smart batteries have built-in circuit boards that give the computer an accurate estimate of how much battery time is left. To help conserve power independently of the APM, some processors have a built-in ability to slow down and reduce power consumption under certain conditions.
TASK 9C-1:
Identifying Battery Power Characteristics
1. For each type of battery shown in the following table, identify an advantage and a disadvantage. Battery Type
NiCad
Advantage
Holds charge very well; inexpensive; lasts 700-1000 charge/ recharge cycles 50% longer life than NiCad; environmentally friendly Holds a charge well when not in use; lightweight; long life
Disadvantage
NiMH
Li-Ion
Summary
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In this lesson, you learned about portable systems and the unique components that distinguish them from desktop systems. You examined their technical characteristics, their strengths, and their weaknesses. You also learned about the PC Card interface and methods of providing a power source to portables.
Lesson Review
9A List the components found on a portable system that arent typically found on a desktop system.
Trackpoint, trackpad, docking connector, AC adapter, infrared port, PC Card slot, integrated LCD display, and rechargeable battery.
9B List some devices you can connect via a PC Card.

Answers will vary, but may include: SCSI controller, TV tuner, network adapter, and modem.
Short life if not charged and discharged properly; heavy; contains toxic metals Dont hold a charge well when not in use; more expensive than NiCad; shorter charge/recharge life Expensive; found only on high-end systems; shorter charge/recharge life
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9C Why is power management so important with portable computers, and what are some of the procedures used to conserve power?
A set of batteries will supply the power for two to six hours of computing, depending on the tasks you are doing. The more the portable conserves power, the longer you can keep working. Portables can enter different levels of sleep states to conserve power, and processors can slow down to conserve power.
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Networking
Overview
The Internet is an interconnected network of networks. In this lesson, you will learn how networksthe building blocks of the Internetare classied based on geographical boundaries and the characteristics of different network topologies. You will then learn about the hardware devices and software entities commonly found on networks. Lastly, you will identify the characteristics of Internet bandwidth technologies and look at some common problems that can occur on the network.
LESSON
10
Data Files none
10A
Learn about the general characteristics of computer networks.
All computer networks, no matter how large or small, share certain characteristics. In this topic, you will learn to identify and classify those characteristics, and to recognize these common attributes in a variety of different network scenarios. 10B Gain an understanding of the purpose of each layer of the OSI Model.
10C
Learn how connection devices, media, and protocols work together to build a functional network.
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The seven layers of the OSI model of networks organize the function and responsibilities of the components that make up the network. In this topic, you will study the components in Layers 1 to 4 in detail.
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You will examine the importance of the individual layers of the OSI model. Application, Presentation, Session, Transport, Network, Data Link, and Physical are the seven layers in the model.
To understand the basic components that comprise a network, you will:
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Lesson 10: Networking 315
Objectives
Lesson Time 2 hours
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Topic 10A
Network Concepts
A computer network is a collection of hardware and software that enables a group of computers to communicate with each other, and enables network users to share resources. Each computer on the network is called a node.
computer network: A collection of hardware and software that enables a group of computers to communicate with each other.
server: A computer on a network that manages resources for other computers on the network.
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client: A computer on a network that makes use of the resources managed by a server.
A server is a computer on a network that manages resources for other computers on the network. For example, a le server stores les, a Web server sends out Web pages, and an email server organizes email. In some cases, the word server refers to the actual computer, and sometimes it refers to the software that performs the server function on the computer. A client is a computer on a network that makes use of the resources managed by a server. Client may refer to the computer or the software running on it. An email client retrieves messages from an email server for a user. Client machines are usually single-user personal computers or workstations, while servers are often high-end machines that may serve no other purpose than to manage resources. Computer networks are everywherefrom a simple, two-node home setup to the vast number of computers on the Internet. But any computer network includes certain basic components, regardless of which operating system youre using. Heres a quick run-down on the common denominators that dene computer networks. The following table lists some of the common hardware and software components you will nd on virtually any computer network. Component
Server Client
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Shared resources can be data, like les or mail messages; software applications, like a word processor or spreadsheet program; or hardware, like printers or modems. Most organizations use networks because a network makes it easy to share these valuable resources among its users.
Common Network Components
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Denition
A Simple Computer Network
Figure 10-1: A simple computer network.
Any computer that makes resources available to other computers on the network. Server computers run network server software. Any computer that uses the resources of a server. Client computers run network client software.
node: A generic term for any computer on a network.
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Network Terminology
Component
Media
Denition
The physical means of communication between network computers. The network medium is often a specialized cable or other media such as infrared transmission or radio signals. The data, applications, and hardware provided by network servers for use by network clients. A network interface card that enables two computers to send and receive data over the network medium. A specialized electronic language that enables network computers to communicate. The physical layout of a network. This often includes specications for the types of media, adapters, and protocols the network can use.
Resources Network adapter Network protocol Network topology
At the most basic level, you can make a network out of two computers, two adapter cards, and a segment of cable. At the other end of the scale, thousands of large networks containing thousands of computers can combine using telecommunications technology, satellite transmissions, and long-distance cable connections to form the vast global network known as the Internet.
Network Scope
Network scope refers to the extent to which a network provides coverage. There are two major divisions of network scopeLocal Area Networks and Wide Area Networks.
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network scope: The effective coverage area of a network, such as local area network or wide area network.
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Figure 10-2: Network scope.
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Network Scope Types of Network Scopes
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LAN: Stands for Local Area Network. A computer network contained in a clearly dened geographic area, such as in a single building or single campus.
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VAN: Stands for Value-Added Network. A computer network that provides services above and beyond the transmission of data.
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SAN: Stands for Storage Area Network. A computer network consisting of large-capacity storage devices.
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MAN: Stands for Metropolitan Area Network. A computer network conned to a single municipality that uses highspeed media like ber-optics or dedicated digital lines.
There are other, more specialized scopes used to describe networks. Here are some of the ones you might encounter: A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is a mini-WAN or a giant LAN thats typically conned to a single municipality. A company might use a private MAN to link several different office buildings together within the same city. Computers on a MAN are linked using high-speed media like ber-optics or dedicated digital lines. A Storage Area Network (SAN) is a specialized LAN that links several network servers that are dedicated to storing large amounts of data in a centralized, secure repository. The servers in the SAN manage large banks of hard disks or tape drives and are connected to each other by reliable, highspeed media. SANs are useful to rms that need extremely large data storage capacity, high reliability, and fast retrieval. A Value-Added Network (VAN) is a public network utility that provides both network access and additional proprietary services that are available only to its users. For example, America Online (AOL) is a VAN. It provides its subscribers with standard network services such as Internet access and email, and also offers additional features such as private AOL chat rooms, message boards, and news summaries.
Note that the key characteristic of a LAN or a WAN is not how big it is, but rather the technologies used to connect the computers. Two computers in neighboring buildings that communicate through a satellite link would be on a WAN, for example.
WAN: Stands for Wide Area Network. A computer network that spans large geographic areas like countries and continents.
A Wide Area Network (WAN) can span large geographic areas like countries and continents. WANs often contain two or more LANs. In a WAN, at least some of the connections rely on long-distance communications media such as satellite links, long-distance ber-optic cable, or specialized high-speed telephone lines. These media are expensive; companies normally share the links or lease capacity from a public carrier such as a telecommunications company. But WAN technologies are essential to link all the computers in a multi-site or multi-national enterprise in a reliable way. WANs can be enormous; the Internet is the ultimate WAN.
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A Local Area Network (LAN) consists of any number of computers that are linked directly together and that are housed in a clearly dened geographic area, such as in a single building or single campus. A LAN can only be as large as the physical limitations of the cabling you use, which varies depending upon the cabling type. Usually the computers linked together in a LAN are workstations or personal computers that can access data on computers on the same LAN, and use devices like printers that are connected to the LAN. Computer users can send email and set up chat sessions over the LAN.
An Enterprise-Wide Network (EWN) is any private network that connects all of an organizations computers, no matter what operating system they run or where theyre located. The EWN will probably incorporate several different LANs and WANs.
Server and Network Operating Systems

A network operating system (NOS) refers to the software that manages all the resources accessible over the network. One piece of the network operating system resides in each client machine and another resides in each server. There are several different network operating systems that todays networks are built on: Microsofts Windows 2000 Server and its predecessor, Windows NT Server, are completely self-contained network operating systems that may also be used to run just a single client machine. Novells NetWare is also a self-contained system that functions only as a NOS. NetWare cannot function as a desktop operating system. The UNIX family of operating systems, including Linux, are completely self-contained network operating systems that may also be used to run just a single client machine. LAN Server is not independent and must be combined with IBM OS/2 to function. Apple Computers OSX ServerWorks with the MacOS system to network Macintosh computers.
EWN: Stands for Enterprise-Wide Network. A computer network that links all the computers in an organization.
In addition to providing basic network services, some network servers can serve specialized functions, too. Some of these dedicated functions include: Print server, which is dedicated to managing network printers and print jobs.
LANtastic is not independent and requires DOS to function.
Database server, which stores large databases and runs database applications. Applications server, a generalized term for any server that runs an application for access across a network. Mail server, which provides access to email services, as well as storing and forwarding email messages.
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Internet or Web server, which provides a wide variety of information to the public Internet or to private intranets (private, internal Internet-type networks).
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Communications server, which manages access to modems or other types of communication links.
NetWare is the only operating system in this list that cant also be used as a desktop operating system. However, NetWare does require DOS on the boot drive.
NOS: Stands for network operating system. Computer software that manages all the resources accessible over the network.
Network Operating Systems
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Workstation and Client Operating Systems

An operating system (OS) refers to the software on a node, usually a personal computer, that lets it run applications, control peripherals, and communicate with other computers. There are several different operating systems that todays personal computers use: Windows was originally a graphical user interface (GUI) developed by Microsoft that allowed users to send commands to the Microsoft Disk Operating System (MS-DOS), controlling their machines by mouse clicks rather than text instructions. Later versions of Windows became independent operating systems. As Windows became more powerful, networking capabilities were built into the basic system. Client operating systems include Windows 3.x, Windows 9x, Windows NT Workstation, and Windows 2000 Professional.
Many operating systems have built-in networking capability.
Client Operating Systems
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Operating systems can be grouped by their capability to do more than one thing at a time. For example: Multi-user, which supports two or more users running programs at the same time. Multiprocessing, which supports running a program on more than one CPU. Multitasking, which supports more than one program running concurrently. Multithreading, which supports different parts of a single program running concurrently.
UNIX is an operating system developed by Bell Labs in the early 1970s. Because UNIX was written in the programming language C, it could be run on any computer that could run C programs. UNIX was low in cost, exible, portable, and powerful, so it was used in workstations. Early PCs did not have the power to make use of UNIX. Linuxan implementation of UNIX developed initially by Linus Torvaldis free, runs on many platforms, and is a popular alternative to the Windows operating system. Because UNIX is run on many of the servers connected to the Internet, Internet users and administrators need to be familiar with the restrictions and requirements that UNIX/Linux places on lenames and notation.
The Apple Macintosh Operating System is designed specically for Macintosh computers. The hardware differences between Macintosh and IBM-compatible PCs are signicant. Software that runs under the MacOS will not function in Windows. Software programs now allow Macs and PCs to imitate each other so both machines can run both PC and Mac software. The MacOS is popular because of its innovative use of graphics and its userfriendly controls.
OS: Stands for operating system. Also referred to as desktop operating system.
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TASK 10A-1:
Identifying Operating System Applicability
1. For each operating system listed in the following table, indicate whether its most suitable as a client operating system or as a network operating system. Client Operating System
MS-DOS Windows 3.x/Windows for Workgroups Windows 95/98 Windows NT Workstation Windows NT Server Windows 2000 Professional Windows 2000 Server NetWare Linux MacOS Mac OS X Server Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes No No Yes Yes No
Network Operating System

No No No No Yes No Yes Yes Yes No Yes
Network Models
A network model refers to the degree of centralized control thats built into the network. Most networks can be categorized as one of two typespeer-to-peer networks and client-server networks:
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network model: A description of the amount of centralized control found on a network. Examples include client-server and peer-to-peer. peer-to-peer network: A network where all computers connected to the network can act as a provider (server) or consumer (client) of network resources.
Peer-to-Peer Architecture
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In a peer-to-peer network, any computer can act as both a server and a client. Any computer can share resources with another, and any computer can use the resources of another, given proper access rights. Creating a peer-to-peer networkby linking two or three computers in your home officecan be a simple and relatively inexpensive way to add storage space, share information, and share access to expensive peripherals such as a CD-ROM drive tower or a color laser printer. You dont need a centralized server, and you dont need a centralized administrative staff, although you will need to have some networking knowledge and expertise in order to maintain and troubleshoot the network.
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A Peer-to-peer Network
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Figure 10-3: A peer-to-peer network.
Its harder to optimize your computer hardware needs, because each computer needs to be available to support the needs of the local user as well as users who connect to it across the network. With a more centralized network, you can concentrate the hardware resources where theyre neededfor example, putting the biggest hard disk on the le server. Lots of different people are responsible for maintaining, controlling, and administering different parts of the network. These tasks may be done inconsistently; you will probably also need to provide each user with some additional training to give them the skills they need to manage their portion of the network. Security isnt centralized, which makes the network harder to administer and less secure. Each shared resource on a network computer is linked to a user account that exists on that computer, or is protected by a single password. You must either coordinate multiple, duplicate user accounts, or make sure passwords are set, maintained, and protected appropriately.
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Nonetheless, a simple peer-to-peer network can be a great solution for a small office, home office, or departmental workgroups networking needs. You can implement a peer-to-peer network with any Windows, Macintosh, or UNIX/Linux computers.
Peer-to-peer networks have a few limitations: For practical reasons, they cant be very big. Generally, once you get beyond 10 computer users, administering a decentralized network becomes too complicated.
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Client-Server Architecture
In the client-server network model, at least one centralized server manages shared resources and security for the other network users and computers. Generally, the network servers are not used as clients; they are dedicated to their network services and are usually physically secured by being locked in a server room to prevent casual access. With a client-server network, you will need to invest time, money, and training to create and maintain the central server and to develop a qualied administrative staff.
client-server network: A network where one or more computers act primarily as providers of network resources (servers), and one or more computers act primarily as consumers of network resources (clients).
Figure 10-4: A client-server network.
You can support many more users than in a peer-to-peer network. Clientserver networks can scale, or expand, to support thousands or even millions of users. This network model enables you to administer your resources centrally, using a dedicated, specially trained team. This provides more consistency and reliability. Storing data centrally makes it easier to secure, monitor, and back up. Centralizing security makes security more consistent and protects the network better.
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You can use any Windows NT Server/2000 Server, Novell NetWare, Macintosh, or UNIX/Linux to create a client-server network.
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Here are some of the advantages of client-server networks: You can concentrate your resources on optimizing the computer that will be used as a server so that it can meet the processing and storage needs of the network users.
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Combination Networks
As the name implies, combinationor hybridnetworks combine both clientserver and peer-to-peer network elements. As a matter of fact, most large networks today are likely to have some peer resource-sharing existing alongside the centralized system.
A Combination Network
These networks can be very exible. However, they are also potentially difficult to administer and monitor.
Hierarchical Networks
Less common in todays PC computing landscape are the completely centralized networks known as hierarchical networks. In this scheme, all the resources and processing power exist on a large, powerful, central computer. This can be a powerful network server running an operating system like Windows 2000 or UNIX, or a dedicated mainframe (mainframes usually run specialized, proprietary operating systems provided by the computer manufacturer). Users work at dumb terminals that have no processing power of their own. The terminals only permit the user to perform a specied set of tasks. They are not independent clients and cant function at all if theyre detached from the network.
A Hierarchical Network
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hierarchical network: A network where one or more central computers, such as a mainframe, provides all processing power and resources to all other network nodes.
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Figure 10-5: A combination network.
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Figure 10-6: A hierarchical network. A banks network of Automated Teller Machines (ATMs) is a hierarchical network you are familiar with. ATM terminals have very limited, pre-programmed functionality which doesnt permit any general work. All the information entered at the ATM is processed at a central server to ensure that only authorized persons can use the ATM and that all the transactions are posted promptly and accurately.
TASK 10A-2:
Comparing the Advantages and Disadvantages of Different Network Models
Ease of administration Scalability Number of users Resources Security
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Need
Peer-to-Peer
Administration becomes more difcult as the number of nodes increases. Limited growth potential. Recommended for 10 users or fewer. Each node manages its own resources. Each node is responsible for its own security.
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Complete the following table, indicating how each network model meets the corresponding need. Client-Server
Because administration is performed centrally, you can support hundreds of nodes efciently. Can be expanded as needs dictate. Recommended for hundreds or even thousands of users. All resources are managed centrally. Centralized security.
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Network Topologies
A network topology refers to the layout of the transmission medium and devices on a network. Topologies use either a point-to-point or multipoint connection scheme. A connection scheme indicates how many devices are connected to a transmission media segment or an individual cable. An example of a point-topoint connection is a printer or modem connected to your computer. Another example is two computers connected directly to each other to use le-transfer software such as LapLink, MacLink Plus, or the Microsoft Windows direct cable connection. An example of a multipoint connection is a star, bus, or cellular topology network. All of these topologies will be dened in this topic.
Physical Topology
network topology: The layout of the transmission medium and devices on a network.
Each network has a connection scheme that describes, in general terms, the transmission media layout. Each network also subscribes to at least one physical topology, which describes the networks entire physical structure. In networks that use media cable, the topology denes the cables actual physical conguration. Physical topologies include:
physical topology: A networks entire physical conguration.
Star Topology
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The star conguration is often combined with bus or ring topologies to make a star-bus (Ethernet hubs) or star-ring (MSAUs or Token Ring) network.
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multipoint connection scheme: Connection of three or more devices by a communication channel.
point-to-point connection scheme: Two devices are connected by a single communication channel.
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Students may encounter terms that arent dened until later in the lesson. Ask students to reread earlier concepts as necessary.
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Figure 10-7: Star topology. Bus. A topology for a LAN where a single main bus cable, sometimes called a backbone, transmits data to all nodes on the network. Every node on a bus network has a direct connection to the main bus cable. In many bus networks, the bus is a series of wire segments. Each segment runs from the network interface card on one computer to the network interface card on the next computer down the line. The network cards on the rst and last computer on the bus are connected to only one other card. To function properly, the card needs two connections, so a terminator is attached to each end of the cable to substitute for computers in the line. A break or faulty piece of cable anywhere on the segment prevents all of the computers on the segment from being able to communicate.
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Bus Topology
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bus topology: A physical topology where a single main cable called the bus or backbone carries all network data. Nodes connect directly to the bus.
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Star. A topology for a LAN where all nodes are connected individually to a central computer, multiport repeater, concentrator, or hub. Signals travel from the nodes to the central computer which then sends the signals to other nodes on the network. You may add and remove nodes from a star topology network easily, and if a computer fails, it will not affect the rest of the network. However, if the hub or central computer fails, the entire network fails. More cabling is required because a separate cable must run from each node to the hub or central computer.
star topology: A LAN physical topology where all nodes individually connect to a central computer or other device such as a multiport repeater, concentrator, or hub.
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token: A device used in ring networks to ensure that only one node transmits data at any one time. If a node doesnt hold the token, it cant transmit data until it does hold the token.
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ring topology: A physical topology where all nodes are connected in a continuous loop, and nodes relay information around the loop in a round-robin manner.
Ring Topology
Figure 10-8: Bus topology. Ring. A topology for a LAN where all the nodes are connected in a continuous loop with no end points and no terminators. Workstations relay signals around the loop in a round-robin fashion. This topology is used by a Token Ring network, where a packet called a token is passed from station to station. Only the machine holding the token can transmit data over the network, so no other machine can send signals that might interfere or conict with the signal from the machine with the token. If a node on the ring goes down, no other stations on the ring are affected.
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Figure 10-10: Mesh topology.

Hybrid Topology
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Figure 10-9: Ring topology. Mesh. A full mesh topology occurs when every node on the network has a separate wire connecting it to every other node on the network. It provides each device with a point-to-point connection to every other device in the network. A full mesh topology is redundant because if any one node of connection fails, all remaining nodes can continue communicating. Full mesh is expensive to set up and modify. Adding a new node to a full mesh topology of ve computers requires installing an additional ve cables, one to each existing computer in the mesh. A partial mesh topology has only some of the nodes fully connected, while other nodes are connected to just one of the nodes on the full mesh portion of the network.
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Mesh Topology
mesh topology: A physical topology where each node has a direct connection to all other nodes on the network, providing dedicated, permanent pointto-point communication paths.
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hybrid topology: A physical topology where two or more of the basic physical topologies, such as bus, ring, star, and mesh, are combined.
Hybrid. A topology for a LAN that combines two or more different topologies.
Figure 10-11: Hybrid topology.
TASK 10A-3:
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Comparing Fault Tolerance of Different Network Topologies

1. For each network topology, describe the extent to which it offers fault tolerancethe ability to ignore or overcome problems. Topology
Bus Star Ring Mesh
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A single break in the cable can bring the whole network down. A defective hub can bring down all the workstations connected to that hub. Very fault tolerant, because removing a node from the ring does not affect the ring. Extremely fault tolerant because every node has a path to every other node.
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Infrared Communications
Another way to connect network devices is by using infrared technology. Infrared devices use infrared tranceivers that are compliant with the Infrared Data Associations (IrDA) standards. With infrared communications, there is no physical connection between the devices that communicate over the infrared link. Instead, data is sent over a beam of light. Most commonly, infrared technology is used to connect printers to computers (typically portable computers, such as laptops or palmtops), but it can also be used to connect workstations in a network. Data transfer speed ranges from 9.6 Kbps (slow IrDA) to 4 Mbps on newer devices (fast IrDA). Infrared communication uses line-of-sight technology, and the distance between the devices must be minimal (no more than approximately three to nine feet). With the example of a printer, the computers infrared port must be in the line of sight of the printers infrared port and the two must be positioned relatively close to each other. In addition, to be able to communicate over an infrared connection, you will also have to enable and congure it in Windows. Infrared communications are supported under Windows 2000, Windows 98, and Windows CE. To do so, you will rst need to run the Add Infrared Device Wizard, which youll access by using the Add New Hardware Wizard in the Control Panel and specifying that you want to install an infrared device. The wizard will guide you through the device installation steps. During the installation, you will have to decide which ports (COM and LPT) to assign to the infrared port, unless youre installing a Plug and Play device, in which case port assignments will be made automatically. Note that you can also assign an IR port to a virtual serial port or a virtual parallel port, however, the actual communication is more like a serial communication regardless of the port assignment. Once youve run the wizard, you will have to follow these steps to enable infrared communications: 1. Open the Infrared Monitor by double-clicking on the Infrared icon in Control Panel.
You can nd more information about IrDA standards at www.irda.org.
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fast IrDA: Infrared standard that uses a transfer speed of 4 Mbps.
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Select the Options tab. Click OK.
Check Enable Infrared Communication.
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infrared: Technology that uses a beam of light to transmit data, rather than cables, using line-of sight technology.
slow IrDA: Infrared standard that uses a transfer speed of 9.6 Kbps.
Using the Infrared Monitor to Enable Infrared Communications
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OSI model: Stands for Open System Interconnection. A model that describes network communications as consisting of seven layers that work together to provide network services.
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The OSI Model
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Topic 10B
Introduction to the OSI Model
The OSI (Open System Interconnection) model of networking provides a standard, organized way to look at network communications. The model does not change how computers work, but it does help humans picture how the networking hardware and software cooperate.
Problems you might encounter could be caused by device failure, an object being in the line of sight, the devices being too far away from each other, and bad or incompatible drivers. You can use and congure the Infrared Monitor in Windows to obtain status information on infrared devices that come into range, and when communication is interrupted.
Youre now ready to send and receive les, print les to IrDA-compliant printers and access a network over an infrared connection. Other devices that use infrared communications include keyboards, mice, and modems.
Figure 10-12: Using the Infrared Monitor to enable Infrared communications.
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Figure 10-13: OSI model.
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Application Presentation Session Transport Network Data Link Physical
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Control is passed from one layer to the next. Communication begins with the Application layer on one end (for example, a user opening an application and typing a request). The communication is passed through each of the seven layers down to the Physical layer (which is the actual transmission of bits). On the receiving end, control passes back up the hierarchy.
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Layer
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Responsible for program-to-program communication Manages data representation conversions Responsible for establishing and maintaining communications channels Responsible for end-to-end integrity of data transmission Routes data from one node to another Responsible for physically passing data from one node to another Manages putting data onto the network media and taking the data off
Originally the ISO (International Organization for Standardization), which developed the model, hoped that different computer makers around the world would incorporate the details included in the model so all systems from all vendors would be able to communicate with each other. The seven layers had seven sets of standards which tried to isolate problems to certain layers. People working on some aspect of network design could assume that the layers above and below their area of development followed the OSI standards, and would make sure their work followed OSI standards so it would have worldwide compatibility. The following table summarizes the seven layers in the OSI model.
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Layer 1: The Physical Layer

The Physical layer is responsible for passing bits onto and receiving them from the connecting medium. This layer has no understanding of the meaning of the bits, but treats them as voltages, currents, or ashes of light passing through copper, radio waves, ber-optic, or some other medium. The Physical layer deals with the functional electrical and mechanical characteristics of the signals and signaling methods.
The Physical Layer
Figure 10-14: The Physical layer.
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The Data Link Layer
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Data Link layer: A layer of the OSI model that manages node-to-node transmission. Also referred to as Layer 2 of the OSI model.
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The standards developed for this layer, and the devices that function on this layer, have to solve several problems. How do you transmit strings of zeros and ones at faster speeds over longer distances? How do you transmit a long series of just zeros that can be detected at the other end?
Layer 2: The Data Link Layer

The Data Link layer is responsible for node-to-node validity and integrity of the transmission. The Data Link layer detects and may correct errors in data packets caused by problems in the Physical layer. The Physical layer is responsible for sending signals through a medium as reliably as possible. The Data Link layer examines the signals and determines if the transmitted data is accurate.
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Physical layer: A layer of the OSI model that provides rules for the transmission of bits over the network medium. Also referred to as Layer 1 of the OSI model.
Figure 10-15: The Data Link layer.
Layer 3: The Network Layer
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The Network layer establishes the route between the sending and receiving stations. The Network layer, the Data Link layer, and the Physical layer are all technology-dependent and have to work together. The Network layer establishes the communication path between two nodes on the network, the Data Link layer ensures the data sent through that path is accurate, and the Physical layer places the proper electrical signals on the media that make up the path.
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The standards developed for this layer, and the devices that function on this layer, have to solve several problems. How do you frame a long string of bits so it is clear where each message begins and ends? How do you detect an error in a corrupted message, or conrm that the data is accurate? How do you tell the sender to retransmit the corrupted message so the error can be corrected? How do you control the ow of messages to prevent overwhelming the physical capabilities of the receiving computer?
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Network layer: A layer of the OSI model that provides internetworking for the communication sessions. Also referred to as Layer 3 of the OSI model.
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The Network Layer
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This layer has its own set of problems. How can a link in the network carry several messages at the same time, keep the messages separate, and deliver them to the proper end node on the network? How can a node address a message so it goes to the intended end node, and how can the sending node determine the best path to use to send a message to another node on another network? The OSI standards and hardware at the Network level try to solve these problems.
Layer 4: The Transport Layer

The Transport layer is responsible for overall end-to-end validity and integrity of the transmission. The Transport layer works with the three layers below it to make sure the nal le or message is complete and accurate. For example, the Physical layer puts bits on the wire, the Data Link makes sure the data packets a node receives are accurate, the Network layer sets up the path of communication between the sending and receiving node, and the Transport layer examines all the packets and makes sure that they can be reassembled into the complete, exact message that was sent. The Transport layer is network technology-independent and deals with the quality of the service provided by the bottom three layers, not the actual operation of the layers.
The Transport Layer
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Transport layer: A layer of the OSI model that provides end-to-end management of the communication session. Also referred to as Layer 4 of the OSI model.
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Figure 10-16: The Network layer.
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Figure 10-17: The Transport layer.
Layer 5: The Session Layer
The Session layer creates, maintains, and terminates communication sessions in an orderly manner. It also marks signicant parts of the transmitted data with checkpoints to allow for fast recovery in the event of a connection failure.
Session layer: A layer of the OSI model that initiates and manages the communication session. Also referred to as Layer 5 of the OSI model.
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An error on the Network level can instruct the Data Link level to send a packet of data to the wrong address. The packet arrives and is exactly what was sent, thanks to the Data Link layer, but it is in the wrong place. The Transport layer has to resolve this problem. The chances of sending data over a network and never getting an error are very small. The more time and money spent on equipment and error checking, the smaller the chance of an undetected error slipping through the system. The Transport layer is a practical compromise between the quest for perfection and the cost of perfection.
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The Session Layer
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Figure 10-18: The Session layer.
Layer 6: The Presentation Layer

The Presentation Layer
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Presentation layer: A layer of the OSI model that provides conversion of codes and formats for the communication session. Also referred to as Layer 6 of the OSI model.
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The Presentation layer negotiates and manages the way data is represented and encoded when data is transmitted between two nodes. This layer is responsible for le compression and encryption. This layer determines the best encoding system for data, taking into consideration the bandwidth, speed of the computers, and security requirements.
The Session layer provides guidelines for operating in two-way alternate mode (TWA), when two nodes take turns sending messages to each other, and in twoway simultaneous mode (TWS), when both nodes can send and receive at the same time. This layer also provides guidelines for setting checkpoints so that if a transmission is interrupted, it can resume from an intermediate point, rather than starting from the beginning again.
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Figure 10-19: The Presentation layer.
The time spent to compress a le might speed up the overall time needed to transfer a le sent over a slow connection, while the compression process might take up more time than is saved when the le is sent over a high-speed connection. The Presentation layer also makes sure that the receiving computer can understand the encoding of the message.
Layer 7: The Application Layer
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The Application layer denes the language and syntax that programs use to open, close, read, write, request, and transfer les. It determines how programs communicate with other programs, like an email client program with an email server program.
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Application layer: A layer of the OSI model that provides the starting point of the communication session. Also referred to as Layer 7 of the OSI model.
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The Application Layer
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Figure 10-20: The Application layer.
A Network in Action
A Network in Action
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As mentioned previously, the protocols in the OSI model layers communicate with each other to complete tasks. It is similar to sending a letter to a friend. The communications involved in that transaction extend well beyond you and your friend. For example, when you place the stamped and addressed letter in your mailbox, you communicate to the postal carrier that you want the letter taken to the post office for sorting and eventual delivery to your friend. The postal carriers placement of the letter in a bin at the post office communicates to the postal clerk that the letter needs to be sorted. Several other transactions need to occur before your letter reaches its destination.
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Figure 10-21: A network in action.
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Figure 10-22 depicts a simple exchange in which a network node requests a le from a le server. Network components are shown in relation to the OSI reference model. As shown here, it is not unusual for some components to span more than one layer of the OSI model to accomplish the communication task at hand.
File Transfer and the OSI Model
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Figure 10-22: Components in a simple exchange between a workstation and a le server, shown in relationship to the layers of the OSI model.
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A. B.
An application running on the workstation requests a le that is stored on the network. Redirection software on the workstation determines that the request is for network services. It directs the request to the communication protocol for transmission on the network. The communication protocol determines the best route through the network and passes the request to the LAN driver, along with instructions that the message should be delivered to the le server. The LAN driver copies the request into frames (bundles that can be moved across the network) and sends the frames to the network adapter for transmission.
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The le servers LAN driver takes the message out of the frames and sends a conrmation to the workstation that it has received the frames.
By separating the tasks necessary for network access into a number of distinct layers, the OSI model enables the upper layers to work independently of the lower layers. For users, this translates (at least theoretically) to network transparency. Due to layering, your application should work as well over an Ethernet network as over a Token Ring or ARCNet network. Other than speed differences, the networks should work identically because the OSI model enables the components (the implementations of a layer or layers) to work independently. Again, in theory, on a workstation to switch from an Ethernet to a Token Ring network, you should have to switch only the network interface card (which takes care of the Physical and some of the Data Link functions) and some of the drivers (to take care of the remainder of the Data Link layer). The rest of the layers, and the drivers that implement them, should be able to remain in place without modication. The ISOs publications describe the specics of each layer in great detail. Even so, variations exist between network implementations that purportedly follow the OSI model. Only your testing can ensure that OSI-compliant systems are truly compatible for your environment. However, on their own, the ISOs detailed specications go a long way toward ensuring compatibility.
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The Benefits of the OSI Model
The network operating system receives the request and acts on it. The network operating system will use the layers of the network to transfer the requested le from a network hard disk to the workstation.
The communication protocol veries that the message was received intact, and it passes the message to the network operating system.
The le servers network interface board receives the frames and passes them to its LAN driver.
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The workstations network interface board transmits the frames across the network.
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TASK 10B-1:
Identifying the Role of Each Layer in the OSI Model
1. Match the OSI layer on the left with its description on the right. c e g a d b f Application layer Presentation layer Session layer Transport layer Network layer Data Link layer Physical layer a. Manages error and ow control. b. Arranges data into chunks called packets. c. Responsible for program-to-program communication. d. Routes the data from one node to another. e. Determines how the data is represented. f. Places network data on the media. g. Allows different computers to establish a virtual conversation.
The IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers) is an international professional association for electrical and electronics engineers that sets standards for telecommunications and computing applications. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) has accepted the IEEE 802 series of Local Area Network (LAN) standards under ISO 8802. Manufacturers who follow these standards help make network communication reliable between different makes and models of computing devices. The IEEE 802 standards include: Standard
IEEE 802.1 IEEE 802.2
System
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IEEE 802 Standards
The term 802 came from the committee convening Feb (2) of 1980 (80).
Network Architecture Standards
IEEE 802.3
IEEE 802.4 IEEE 802.5 IEEE 802.6 IEEE 802.7 IEEE 802.8 IEEE 802.9 IEEE 802.10 IEEE 802.11
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High-level InterfaceStandards related to network management. Logical Link ControlGeneral standard for the Data Link layer in the OSI Reference Model. The IEEE divides this layer into two sublayersthe Data Link Control (DLC) layer and the Media Access Control (MAC) layer. Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detect (CSMA/CD) Denes the MAC layer for bus networks that use CSMA/CD. This is the basis of the Ethernet standard. Token BusDenes the MAC layer for bus networks that use a token-passing mechanism (Token Bus networks). Token RingDenes the MAC layer for Token Ring networks. Metropolitan Area Networks. Broadband LANs. Fiber-optic LANs. Integrated Data and Voice Networks. Security. Wireless Networks.
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While the IEEE 802 standards and the OSI model do not match perfectly, they are as compatible as possible. The IEEE 802 standards splits the second layer of the OSI model, the Data Link layer, into two sub-layers: the LLC (Logical Link Control) and MAC (Media Access Control). The LLC provides a common interface to the MAC layers, which specify the access method used. All of this theory and talk about standards becomes more applicable when you realize that the standards are describing two of the common network architectures used to link PCs. The Ethernet and Token Ring will now be described in detail.
Ethernet Description
Ethernet Standards
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10Base2: Ethernet standard that uses 50 ohm coaxial cable (RG-58 A/U). Also called Thinnet. Transfer speed is 10 Mbps. Uses BNC connectors.
10BaseT: Ethernet standard that uses twisted-pair cable. Also called twisted-pair Ethernet. Operates at 10 Mbps. Uses RJ-45 connectors.
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10Base5: Ethernet standard that uses coaxial cable and supports transfer speeds of 10 Mbps. Also called thick Ethernet, Thickwire, or Thicknet.
10Base2 standard (also called Thinnet) uses 50 ohm coaxial cable (RG-58 A/U) with maximum lengths of 185 meters. This cable is thinner and more exible than that used for the 10Base5 standard. The RG-58 A/U cable is both less expensive and easier to place. Cables in the 10Base2 system connect with BNC connectors. The network interface card (NIC) in a computer requires a T-connector where you can attach two cables to adjacent computers. Any unused connection must have a 50 ohm terminator. The 10Base2 system operates at 10 Mbps. 10BaseT standard (also called twisted-pair Ethernet) uses a twisted-pair cable with maximum lengths of 100 meters. The cable is thinner and more exible than the coaxial cable used for the 10Base2 or 10Base5 standards. Cables in the 10BaseT system connect with RJ-45 connectors. A star topology is common with 12 or more computers connected directly to a hub or concentrator. The 10BaseT system operates at 10 Mbps.
10Base5 is the original cabling standard for Ethernet that uses coaxial cables. The name derives from the fact that the maximum data transfer speed is 10 Mbps, it uses baseband transmission, and the maximum length of cables is 500 meters. 10Base5 is also called thick Ethernet, Thickwire, and Thicknet.
There are currently several Ethernet standards in use:
Ethernet is by far the most popular LAN technology in use today, ensuring a large market for competitively priced Ethernet equipment. Ethernet is easy to use, reliable, and an open technology that anyone can incorporate in their hardware and software. The vast majority of computer vendors today equip their products with 10/100 Mbps (million bits per second) Ethernet attachments. This makes it possible to network all manner of computers with an Ethernet LAN.
Ethernet: The most widely used LAN access method, which is dened by the IEEE 802.3 standard.
Ethernet is a Local Area Network (LAN) protocoldeveloped by Xerox Corporation in cooperation with DEC and Intel in 1976that uses a bus or star topology. The IEEE 802.3 standard is based on the original Ethernet specications. The standard was rst published in 1985, with the formal title of IEEE 802.3 Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) Access Method and Physical Layer Specications. The IEEE standard has since been adopted by the ISO, which makes it a worldwide networking standard. All Ethernet equipment since 1985 is built according to IEEE 802.3.
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Fast Ethernet (100BaseT) supports data transfer rates of 100 Mbps. There are several different cabling schemes that can be used with 100BaseT, including 100BaseT (two pairs of high-quality twisted-pair wires), 100BaseT4 (four pairs of normal-quality twisted-pair wires) and 100BaseFL (ber-optic cables). Officially, the 100BaseT standard is IEEE 802.3u. Gigabit Ethernet supports data rates of 1 gigabit (1,000 megabits) per second. The rst gigabit Ethernet standard (802.3z) was ratied by the IEEE 802.3 Committee in 1998.
Ethernet Function
A real-life Ethernet network system consists of three basic elements: 1. 2. The physical medium used to carry Ethernet signals between computers. A set of media access control rules embedded in each Ethernet interface that allow multiple computers to fairly arbitrate access to the shared Ethernet channel. An Ethernet transmission consists of a standardized set of bits used to carry data over the system.
3.
Every computer on an Ethernet network has embedded in its circuits a Media Access Control (MAC) mechanism that uses a system called Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) to ensure that all computers on the network can have an equal chance to transmit data over the wires.
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CSMA/CD: Stands for Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection. System that enables dealing with packet collisions in an Ethernet network. Computers transmit when the channel is free. If two computers transmit at the same time, a collision occurs and is detected (by the Collision Detection mechanism). Both computers stop transmitting and retransmit at a random point in the future.
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In this system, a station listens to data traffic on the channel. When there is no traffic, the computer is free to transmit a frame or packet of data. If two computers start to transmit data at the same time, the Collision Detect portion of CSMA/CD stops both transmissions and assigns a random time to each computer for checking to see if it can send.
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Figure 10-23: Ethernet collision. Every Ethernet network interface card has a unique, 48-bit address assigned to it by the manufacturer of the card. The IEEE determines the rst 24 bits of the address by assigning a different Organizationally Unique Identier (OUI) to every company that makes Ethernet cards. The company then uses another 24 bits to assign a different number to every card it manufactures. The 48-bit address is called the MAC (Media Access Control) address and is different for every Ethernet card in the world. Ethernet relies exclusively on the MAC address to
Gigabit Ethernet: Ethernet standard that supports transfer rates of 1 gigabit per second.
Ethernet Collision
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Fast Ethernet: Ethernet standard that supports transfer rates of 100 Mbps. Also called 100BaseT. Uses two pairs of twisted-pair wire. Other implementations include 100Base T4 (uses four pairs of twisted-pair wires), and 100BaseFL (uses ber-optic cables).
identify the receiving and sending nodes. To t in the OSI model for networks, LLC (Logical Link Control) is the Ethernet portion of the Data Link layer that connects the network software in Layer 3 to the Media Access Control (MAC) sub-layer, which then connects to the bottom Physical layer of the OSI model.
Token Ring
Token Ring
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Token Ring networks use Multi Station Access Units (MSAUs), also referred to as MAUs, to connect network stations. An MSAU is similar to a hub, with 8 port-to-connect stations, and a Ring In and a Ring Out port to daisy-chain MSAUs. If regular ports on an MSAU fail, the network is not affected. However, if a Ring In or Ring Out port fails, stations connected to that MSAU wont be able to communicate.
All stations on a Token Ring network must transmit at the same speed, otherwise the ring wont work at all. That means that if you want to upgrade a ring from, for example, 4 Mbps to 16 Mbps, you will have to replace all of the network cards in the entire network. Some Token Ring cards have dip switches to set the speed. If youre ring doesnt work at all, you might suspect an incorrect dip switch setting on a NIC.
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Token Ring: A computer network connected in a loop conguration so that only the computer holding the token can communicate.
Token Ring is a type of computer network in which all computers are connected in a continuous loop (ring topology). All computers on a Token Ring network send messages over the same cable, so some system had to be developed to keep two computers from using the cable at the same time. A token is a special bit pattern that is sent around the loop from computer to computer. Only one token exists on any Token Ring network. Before a computer can send a frame, it must wait until it can catch the token. It captures the token, which keeps all other computers from attempting to send frames. The computer with the token then sends a frame around the loop until the destination computer grabs the frames. The computer then releases the token so another node on the network can send its frame. This network protocol was developed by IBM, and the IEEE wrote standards for it in IEEE 802.5. Transmission speeds for Token Ring can be 4 Mbps, 16 Mbps, or 100 Mbps (High Speed Token Ring, IEEE 802.5t). Implementations of 1 GB Token Ring are also available (IEEE 802.5v).
Figure 10-24: Token Ring.
ARCNet
AppleTalk
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AppleTalk is a Local Area Network protocol developed by Apple Computer, Inc. in 1985 and is built into all Macintosh computers and Apple LaserWriters. AppleTalk supports Apples proprietary LocalTalk cabling scheme, as well as Ethernet and IBM Token Ring. With the proper additional hardware, PCs, UNIX, and VAX computers can connect to an AppleTalk network. Current implementations include LocalTalk, a 235 Kbps (kilobyte per second) Local Area Network, and EtherTalk, a 10 Mbps Local Area Network.
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ARCNet (Attached Resource Computer Network) is a network developed by the DataPoint Corporation in 1968 and is one of the oldest, simplest, and least expensive LAN technologies. ARCNet can connect up to 255 nodes in a star topology using twisted-pair or coax cable and originally could transmit data at a rate of 2.5 Mbps. Like a Token Ring network, ARCNet passes a token to control access to the network. Until the late 1980s, ARCNet had about as large a marketshare as Ethernet among small businesses, but its popularity has decreased since then. ARCNet Plus has a data transfer rate of 20 Mbps. ARCNet is a Data Link protocol and functions at the Physical and Data Link layers of the OSI model (1 and 2).
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ARCNet: Connects up to 255 nodes in a star topology at a transmission rate of 2.5 Mbps.
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AppleTalk: Apple computers network protocol.
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TASK 10B-2:
Identifying IEEE 802 Standards
1. Match each IEEE 802 standard with its corresponding description. h d b c e g k j a i f Fiber-optic LANs Token Bus Logical Link Control Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Token Ring Broadband Wireless Security High-level Interface Standards Integrated Data and Voice Metropolitan Area Networks a. IEEE 802.1 b. IEEE 802.2 c. IEEE 802.3 d. IEEE 802.4 e. f. g. h. i. IEEE 802.5 IEEE 802.6 IEEE 802.7 IEEE 802.8 IEEE 802.9
j. IEEE 802.10 k. IEEE 802.11
Network Connection Devices
Hubs
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A Hub
hub: A central connecting device in a network that joins communication lines together in a star conguration.
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A hub is an electronic device that connects several computers or networks together. In a network using the star topology, a hub is the center device that all the nodes connect to. The hub must have enough ports to accommodate all the nodes in the star. Different types of hubs can provide different functions.
Figure 10-25: A hub.
Many devices can connect computers to networks, and networks to networks. The following classications that are listed help organize some of the devices, even though several items do not t neatly into any one category.
Network Connectivity
Topic 10C
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A passive hub simply forwards network messages. It can be the center of a star network. A passive hub does not process, modify, or regenerate signals in any way. An active hub, or repeater, regenerates and amplies the data bits in order to maintain a strong signal that might otherwise deteriorate over a long distance. Adding an active hub allows computers on the network to be physically farther apart. Active hubs are also called multiport repeaters. All the signals that come into an active hub are regenerated and sent out to all the nodes on the network.
passive hub: Connecting units that add nothing to the data passing through them.
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Figure 10-26: A repeater. An intelligent hub is a central connecting device in a network that provides intelligent functions as well as forwarding signals. An intelligent hub can provide bridging, routing, and switching, and even more complex functions such as network management and LAN emulation. The functions of an intelligent hub can also be performed by the group of specialized devices described in the follolwing sections.
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A bridge controls the ow of information between LAN segments or networks, even if they are different types of networks using different communication protocols. A bridge allows a message to cross from one network to another if it is addressed to the other side. Local messages are not sent across to the second network, which makes the traffic ow more efficient. Bridges build and maintain address tables of the nodes on the network to speed up the ow of data.
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Bridges
Bridges with more than two ports (multiport bridges) perform a switching function. LAN switches are really multiport bridges that can switch at full wire speed.
active hub: A connecting unit that regenerates the data bits in order to maintain a strong signal. Also referred to as a multiport repeater.
repeater: A communications device that amplies or regenerates the data signal in order to extend the transmission distance. Also referred to as active hubs.
multiport repeater: A connecting unit that regenerates the data bits in order to maintain a strong signal. Also referred to as an active hub.
A Repeater
intelligent hub: A connecting device that forwards signals and provides other functionality such as routing and bridging.
bridge: An electronic device that controls the ow of information between LAN segments or networks, even if they are different types of networks using different communication protocols.
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For example, if the bridge shown in Figure 10-27 receives a data unit from Segment 1, it examines the destination node address for that data unit. If the data unit is destined for a node on Segment 1, the bridge ignores the data unit; the data unit has already found its way to the correct network segment. If the data unit is destined for a node on another segment, then the bridge forwards the data unit to the next segment.
Bridges can Filter Intersegment Trafc
Figure 10-27: Bridges can lter inter-segment trafc.
router: A device that determines the best path for a data packet to be sent from one network to another and forwards the message along that path.
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Routers
A router determines the best path for a data packet to be sent from one network to another. A router rst stores the electronic message, next reads the network destination address stored in the message, and then examines all possible paths to the destination address, chooses a path based on current traffic and number of other routers, and nally sends the message along that path. A router can also be used to balance traffic and lter traffic for security and management purposes. Specially designed routers can handle several different protocols. Software on a server can make it function like a router. A router functions much like a bridge; however, there are important differences aside from whether you transmit data between segments or networks. A router is more intelligent than a bridge. It requires more time to determine a datapath, so its processing speed (the time it takes to forward data blocks, or packets) is typically slower than a bridges. However, a bridge cant determine the most efficient datapath like a router can. The decision to use one or the other should be based on network needs and environment.
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In this scheme, traffic local to a particular segment is conned only to that segment; however, internetwork traffic is allowed to pass through the bridge. You can use bridges when you need to restrict traffic across network segments.
Brouters
A brouter is a communication device that functions as both a bridge and a router, depending on which function is needed. A brouter functions like a router, relaying data transmissions between networks. When it encounters a data unit that uses a protocol with which it is unfamiliar, it works like a bridge and forwards the data to the next segment by using a physical address. Because of this ability, you can use a brouter for networks on which there is mixed-protocol traffic and for networks that use protocols that do not support routing, such as NetBEUI.
Gateways
A gateway is a protocol converter that supports communication between networks that use different protocols. A gateway completely converts a message in one protocol to a message in a second protocol that is used on the destination network. A gateway allows different makes and models of computers on completely different networks to communicate with each other. For example, a gateway might connect PCs on a LAN to a mainframe. A mail gateway converts messages containing email to the protocol needed by the receiving station. Some common gateway types are described in the following table. Gateway Type
Protocol Format Address
Connects Networks That Use Different

Protocols Encoding schemes (for example, ASCII and EBCDIC) File systems and directory structures
Channel Service Unit/Digital Service Unit
Sometimes public service organizations require their customers to use Channel Service Units/Digital Service Units (CSU/DSU) in the interest of safety. The units are designed to shield network users from electric voltages as well as electrical interference. They also ready data for transmission by adhering to any network rules. Both units are parts of a data communications equipment (DCE) device and are collectively referred to as a CSU/DSU. A CSU/DSU operates like a modem; however, it is a digital-to-digital device rather than digital-to-analog. It readies digital signals and guarantees that they have sufficient strength and the proper format to be transmitted over digital WAN links. Typically, a CSU/DSU connects to a router or remote bridge.
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Because the installation and upkeep of large quantities of transmission media can become very costly, you might choose to use a public or private service organization for your transmission media needs. By using one of these organizations, you can connect to their media and save yourself the installation and maintenance of your own.
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CSU/DSU: Stands for Channel Service Unit/Data Service Unit. Combines the functions of CSU and DSU in one device. The CSU terminates a digital circuit. The DSU terminates a data circuit to the Data Terminal Equipment and converts customer transmission data into a bipolar format. rewall: A method for keeping a network secure.
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Firewalls
Firewalls control access between networksboth inbound traffic (entering your network) and outbound traffic (leaving your network). Firewalls can be used to prevent unauthorized access between intranets and the Internet or an extranet (an intranet external to your intranet). You can also congure rewalls to prevent access to other intranets within your company (for example, keeping marketing users out of the R&D intranet).
gateway: A computer that performs protocol conversion between different types of networks or applications.
Common Gateway Types
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brouter: A communication device that functions as both a bridge and a router, depending on which function is needed.
Controlling inbound access protects servers and resources on your intranet from access by unauthorized Internet users. Controlling outbound access can be used to limit your users access to Internet resources (for example, allowing access only to work-related sites). Firewalls contain packet-ltering routers, circuit gateways, application gateways, or a combination of these components. A combination is most effective because each component provides access control at different levels.
All-in-One Solutions
Many companies combine the software and hardware capabilities of several network connection devices into one physical box. This reduces both the cost and the complexity of the network connections.
www.intel.comIntels home page
www.networking.ibm.comIBM networking page
Figure 10-28 summarizes where the different connection devices t into the OSI model.
OSI Model and Connection Devices
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Figure 10-28: OSI model and connection devices.
OSI Model and Connection Devices
www.cisco.comCiscos home page
Because new products appear daily, the Internet is the best source of current information on network connection devices. Relevant sites include:
An example of a multi-function network appliance is the Intel InBusiness Small Office Network. It connects PCs and provides shared access to les, printers, and the Internet. This device includes an 8-port hub, 13GB of storage space, POP3 client email, optional mirroring, built-in modem, two network adapter cards, rewall software, and embedded operating system all in one box.
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TASK 10C-1:
Identifying the Purpose of Common Connection Devices
1. Match the connection device on the left with its functional description on the right. d a f b e c Repeater Hub Bridge Router Brouter Gateway a. b. c. d. e. f. Connects several computers together at a central point. Determines the best path for sending data. Connects dissimilar networks. Extends the maximum length of a network by amplifying signals. Routes one protocol while bridging another. Divides network into segments to increase performance.
Network Media
Next, lets take a look at the media used to communicate between systems. Many different types are available.
Twisted Pair
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Twisted-pair cable consists of two independently insulated 22- to 26- gauge wires twisted around one another. One wire carries the signal while the other wire is grounded and absorbs signal interference. In LAN cables, several sets of twistedpair wires are wrapped in one protective outer layer. Twisted-pair is the least expensive type of LAN cable. UTP (unshielded twisted-pair) cable has two unshielded wires twisted around each other. Because shielding is omitted, the
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twisted-pair cable: A thin-diameter wire (22 to 26 gauge) commonly used for telephone and network cabling. The wires are twisted around each other to minimize interference from other twisted pairs in the cable. UTP: Stands for unshielded twisted-pair. Twisted-pair cable that has two unshielded wires twisted around each other. This type of cabling is inexpensive, but electrical interference can be a problem.
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price is low, but electrical interference can cause a problem. STP (shielded twisted-pair) cable is a twisted-pair cable that is wrapped in a metal sheath to provide extra protection from external interfering signals.
STP: Stands for shielded twistedpair. Twisted-pair cable that is wrapped in a metal sheath. This reduces the possibility of problems caused by electrical interference.
Twisted-pair
RJ-45 Connectors on Twisted-pair Cables
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Figure 10-30: RJ-45 connectors on twisted-pair cables.
RJ-45: Stands for Registered Jack45. Connector with eight wires that is used to connect computers onto Local Area Networks that use twistedpair cabling.
RJ-45 (Registered Jack-45) is an eight-wire connector used to connect computers onto Local Area Networks that use twisted-pair cables. RJ-45s, which look like oversized modular phone connectors, are slightly wider than RJ-11 connectors and used for connecting telephone equipment. The 10BaseT and 100BaseT Ethernet standards are based on twisted-pair cables.
Figure 10-29: Twisted-pair cable.
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Cat-5 (Category 5) describes network cabling that consists of four twisted-pairs of copper wire terminated by RJ-45 connectors. Cat-5 can be used for Token Ring, 1000BaseT, 100BaseT, and 10BaseT networking. Cable categories with lower numbers have a lower data transmission rate, while cable categories with a higher number support a higher transmission rate.
Coaxial
Coaxial cable consists of a single conductor which is surrounded by insulation and a conductive shield, with a heavy protective covering over the shield. The shield is usually a braided wire that is connected to an electrical ground and prevents the cable from picking up or emitting electrical noise. Coax cable is more expensive than standard phone wires, but it can carry much more data and is more resistant to interference. Cable TV companies now use the same coax cable that brings cable stations into a home to bring in a high-speed Internet connection.
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Figure 10-31: Coaxial cable.
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BNC connectors (British Naval Connector) or (Bayonet Nut Connector) are used to join coaxial cables like RG-58 A/U into a network. Each cable end has a male BNC connector with a center pin connected to the center cable conductor and a metal tube connected to the outer cable shield. A rotating ring outside the tube locks the cable to any female connector. T-connectors are female devices for connecting two cables to a network interface card (NIC), and a BNC barrel connector allows two cables to be connected. 10Base5 and 10Base2 are the Ethernet networking standards that use coaxial cable.
Cat-5: Stands for Category 5. Type of cabling that consists of four twisted-pairs of copper wire terminated by RJ-45 connectors. Can be used for Token Ring, 1000BaseT, 100BaseT, and 10BaseT networking.
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Figure 10-32: BNC connectors.
coaxial cable: A high-capacity cable used in communications and video, commonly called coax. It contains an insulated solid or stranded wire surrounded by a solid or braided metallic shield, wrapped in a plastic cover.
Coaxial Cable
BNC connector: The type of connector most commonly used to join coax cables in a network.
BNC Connectors
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As standards for twisted-pair cabling developed, they were given category numbers. Category 5 is the most recent standard for highquality, reliable cable.
Fiber-optic
All ber-optic cable consists of a number of substructures including:
ber-optic cable: A cable that transfers pulses of light instead of electrical signals.
Core of glass, ranging from 50 micrometers (m) to 1,000 m in diameter, carries the light. Cladding surrounds the core, bends the light, and connes it to the core. Substrate layer of glass (in some bers) surrounds the cladding, does not carry light, and adds to the diameter and strength of the ber.
Primary buffer coating surrounds all the other layers and provides the rst layer of mechanical protection.
Secondary buffer coating surrounds the primary buffer coating, while protecting the relatively fragile primary coating and the underlying ber.
A Single Fiber-optic Strand
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Fiber-optic Cable with Many Conductors
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Figure 10-33: A single ber-optic strand. Fiber-optic cable carries pulses of laser light which are encoded with digital signals. Twisted-pair and coax cable, which carry electrical signals through metal wires, are subject to electrical interference and give off electromagnetic radiation that can be tapped by remote-sensing equipment. Fiber-optic cable, which carries digital signals in light waves through bundles of glass or clear plastic threads no thicker than a human hair, is not affected by electrical interference and gives off no electromagnetic radiation. Even though ber-optic cable is much thinner and lighter than metal wire, it can carry much more data than wire cables over longer distances at high speed. The huge bandwidth of ber-optic cables makes up for the fact that they are more fragile than wire cables, more expensive to install, and more difficult to maintain. Phone companies are replacing traditional copper wire with ber-optic cable, and many predict it will be the medium of choice in the near future. Computers in the future may use ber-optics and light circuits rather than metal wires and electrical circuits.
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Figure 10-34: Fiber-optic cable with many conductors.
FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface) is a set of ANSI protocols for sending digital data over ber-optic cable. FDDI networks are token-passing networks and support data rates of up to 100 Mbps. FDDI networks are typically used as backbones for Wide Area Networks. Additional FDDI protocols standardize voice transmission and higher data rates.
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FDDI: Stands for Fiber Distributed Data Interface. An ANSI standard token-passing network that uses beroptical cabling and transmits at 100 Mbps up to 10 kilometers. Pronounced fuddy or ddy. wireless communication: Data transmission that does not require a physical cable.
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Wireless communication refers to networks that are not connected by wires. Wireless communications are enabled by packet radio, spread spectrum, cellular technology, satellites, and microwave towers, and can be used for voice, data, video, and images. Sometimes wireless networks can interconnect with regular computer networks. Infrared light is also considered a wireless medium. Wireless modems connect computers to the wireless data networks.
Wireless
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Dish Used in Wireless Communication
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Figure 10-35: Dish used in wireless communication. CDPD (Cellular Digital Packet Data) is a data transmission technology that uses unused cellular channels (in the 800 to 900 MHz range) to transmit data in packets. This technology offers data transfer rates of up to 19.2 Kbps, quicker call setup, and better error correction than using modems on an analog cellular channel. MMDS (Multichannel Multipoint Distribution Service or Microwave Multipoint Distribution Service) is a digital wireless transmission system. The sending and receiving stations must be visible to each other, and the distance separating may be up to 30 miles. Originally designed for cable TV, MMDS now can provide data and Internet services to subscribers. LMDS (Local Multipoint Distribution Service) is an extremely fast digital wireless transmission system that requires line of sight between transmitter and receiving antenna, which can be from one to four miles apart. In large cities and areas where installing copper or ber-optic cable is too expensive, LMDS transmitters can bring a high-speed connection from a network to any building in sight.
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LMDS: Stands for Local Multipoint Distribution Service. A fast digital wireless transmission system that requires line of sight between the transmitter and the receiver.
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MMDS: Stands for Multichannel Multipoint Distribution Service or Microwave Multipoint Distribution Service. A digital wireless transmission system.
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CDPD: Stands for Cellular Digital Packet Data. A datatransmission technology that uses cellular channels to send data.
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TASK 10C-2:
Identifying Network Cabling
1. In the following table, provide a brief description of the type of cabling used for each Ethernet standard. Ethernet Standard
10Base5 10Base2 10BaseT
Description of Cabling Used

Coaxial cabling with a maximum length of 500 meters. Coaxial cabling with a maximum length of 185 meters. Twisted-pair cabling with a maximum length of 100 meters.
A typical Ethernet NIC ts into either an ISA or PCI slot on the computers system board. It can send and receive data at 10 Mbps and/or 100 Mbps. The media through which it will connect to the network may be twisted-pair and/or coaxial cable and/or ber-optic cable. More expensive cards have more built-in exibility and can communicate at both speeds over a variety of media.
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Typical Ethernet Network Interface Cards
Network adapters provide services at the Data Link layer of the network (OSI Layer 2) and connect directly to the cable carrying the electronic signal throughout the network (OSI Layer 1). The most common adapters will connect a computer to an Ethernet or Token Ring network. Sometimes the adapter is built into the system board circuits, and sometimes it is a separate printed circuit board that is inserted into a slot on the system board. There are network adapters that can connect a computer to the network through the parallel port, and portable computers have a special PC Card that connects them to a network. A transmission medium, such as twisted-pair, coax cable or ber-optic cable, interconnects all the adapters in the network. A network adapter is commonly called a NIC, or network interface card. Most NICs are designed for a particular network and medium. The following description is limited to cards designed to connect to an Ethernet network, but cards with electronics specic to Token Ring and other networks follow a similar pattern.
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network adapter: A printed circuit board that plugs into both the clients (personal computers or workstations) and servers and controls the exchange of data between them. Also referred to as network boards, network cards, and NICs (network interface cards).
Network Adapters
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Figure 10-36: NIC with RJ-45, BNC and AUI connectors.

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NIC with RJ-45, BNC, and AUI Connectors
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transceiver: Device built into NICs that enables sending and receiving data over the network cable.
NICs have an internal, integrated transceiver built into the board that lets it send and receive data over the network cable. The cards also have software to support the Medium Access Control (MAC) data link protocol built into rmware on the card. Every card has a permanent, unique Ethernet address burned into a PROM on the card. The electronics on the card determine what media the card will connect to. If the card supports the original 10Base5 (thick Ethernet) Ethernet standard, it will have a 15-pin AUI (Attachment Unit Interface) that connects to an external transceiver that then connects with a one-half-inch thick coax cable.
If the card supports 10BaseF or 10BaseFL, the card will have a socket to which a ber-optic cable is attached. This cable runs from the computer to a hub or repeater. Fiber-optic cable can handle more data over longer distances than coax or twisted-pairs. Advances in technology, like the VF-45 connector, are bringing down the price and making ber-optic networks easier to install.
VF-45 Connectors for Fiber-optic Network Cables
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Figure 10-37: VF-45 connectors for ber-optic network cables. A wireless interface card has no jack or sockets to plug cables into because it transmits data using radio waves. A receiver must be installed as a connection to a standard Ethernet conguration for the computer to be on the network. Wireless cards go into slots on the system board and have an antenna built-in. Maximum distances range from 30 feet to 200 feet, depending on the environment.
AUI: Stands for Attachment Unit Interface. Connects to an external transceiver that then connects to a one-half-inch thick coaxial cable. Used with 10Base5 (Thicknet).
Cards that support 10BaseT have an RJ-45 connector that uses unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) cables. RJ-45 can attach up to eight wires or four twistedpairs bundled in one cable to the computer. 10BaseT uses only two of the four possible twisted-pairs in the cables that plug into the RJ-45 socket. The twistedpair cables usually go to a hub or repeater, rather than to another computer. Newer and more expensive cards may have built-in electronics that use the same RJ-45 to support other Ethernet standards. 100BaseTX supports 100 Mbps through two pairs of wires in Category 5 (high-speed) twisted cable. 100BaseT4 supports 100 Mbps on four pairs of wires in Category 3, 4, or 5 cable.
rmware: A combination of software and hardware, such as ROMs, PROMs, and EPROMs that have programs or data recorded on them.
If the card supports 10Base2 (thin Ethernet), it will have a BNC connector. A T-connector is usually attached to the BNC connector on the interface card. Computers in the middle of the network have cables from two other computers connected to each side of the T. Computers at the end of the network bus need a terminator attached to the unused side of the T.
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Other Ethernet Adapters

Ethernet adapters can communicate with the computer through the USB port and the parallel port. PCMCIA cards the size of credit cards allow portable computers to join an Ethernet network.
USB Adapter, PC Card, and Parallel Port Network Adapter
Figure 10-38: USB adapter, PC Card, and parallel port network adapter.
TASK 10C-3:
Installing a Network Interface Card
1. 2. 3.
Turn the computers power off.
Locate an available expansion slot (ISA, EISA, or PCI) that matches your NIC. If necessary, congure the NIC according to the manufacturers instructions. If your NIC isnt Plug and Play, you will need to set jumpers or DIP switches on the card to congure its IRQ, DMA, and I/O settings. Consult the NIC conguration manual for instructions specic to your card. Insert the NIC into the slot.
4. 5. 6. 7.
Secure the NICs mounting plate to the computer chassis. Turn on the power.
8.
Click Device Manager.
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When you see the Windows 98 desktop, right-click on My Computer and choose Properties. If Windows 98 detects your NIC, but cant locate suitable drivers, you will be prompted to insert your NICs drivers disk.
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Setup: Youve been provided with a network interface card (NIC), its drivers disk, and the NIC conguration manual.
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Expand Network Adapters.
11. Close all open dialog boxes.
Half Duplex and Full Duplex Communications
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full duplex: Communication type in which communication can occur in two directions at the same time.
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half duplex: Communication type in which communication can occur in two directions, but only in one direction at a time.
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Data on a network can be transmitted using half duplex, or full duplex communications. Half duplex means that its possible to transfer data in two directions, but only in one direction at a time. In other words, a device can either send or receive data, but not do both at the same time. This is analogous to communications via a CB radio. In full duplex communications, data can be sent and received over the network medium at the same time, greatly increasing communication speeds. This is analogous to having a telephone conversation, where both parties can speak at the same time (though that may get confusing). To ensure successful communication in a full duplex Ethernet network, CSMA/CD is typically used to deal with data transmission collisions.
10. Conrm that your network adapter is congured correctly. If not, consult your NICs conguration manual for troubleshooting steps.
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Network Protocols
Now that you have a NIC and network medium, you need a way for computers to communicate. That is the role of a network protocol.
TCP/IP
TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) is the suite of communications protocols used to connect hosts on the Internet and is now the global standard for communications. TCP/IP is built into the UNIX operating system and almost all other network operating systems support TCP/IP. TCP/IP is a routable protocol, which means that all messages contain not only the address of the destination station, but the address of a destination network. This allows TCP/IP messages to be sent to multiple networks within an organization or around the world on the Internet. In Windows, the TCP/IP stack or set of protocols is put into use by the Winsock DLL (Dynamic Link Library). TCP/IP uses several protocols, including two Transport protocols. TCP provides transport functions, which ensures that the complete message is received correctly at the other end.
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An IP address is made up of 4 bytes, or 32 bits. To help humans cope with the numbers, each of the four bytes is written in its decimal equivalent and separated by periods. A typical IP address has the form 145.231.76.139. Because of the popularity of the Internet, this address scheme is running out of possible addresses. A new scheme dened by the Internet Engineering Task Force is called IPng (IP Next Generation) or IPv6, and uses 16 bytes instead of just 4 bytes. This scheme can create trillions of addresses for every individual on the planet. The Internet was designed to support classes of IP addresses. These classes are implemented by using varying portions of the four bytes of the IP address to identify networks and hosts. For example, a Class A IP address uses only the rst byte of the IP address to identify the network address and the remaining three bytes to identify hosts. In contrast, a Class B IP address uses the rst two bytes
An IP address identies a computer or device on a TCP/IP network. Networks using the TCP/IP protocol route messages based on the IP address of the destination node. Because the Internet is one huge TCP/IP network, every computer on the Internet must have a unique IP address. To avoid duplication, IP addresses in North and South America, the Caribbean and sub-Saharan Africa are assigned by the ARIN (American Registry for Internet Numbers), an organization founded in 1997 to dispense IP addresses. This was previously handled by Network Solutions, Inc., InterNIC, which manages domain names. The European and Asian counterparts of ARIN are Researux IP Europeens (RIPE) and Asia Pacic Network Information Center (APNIC).
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IP (Internet Protocol), a major part of the TCP/IP suite, species the format of packets, also called datagrams, and the addressing scheme. A datagram has the addresses of its source and destination, the data being sent, error checking, as well as elds that dene the length of the datagram and whether the datagram is or can be fragmented. IP depends on TCP to make a connection between the sender and the source and to make sure that all the packets in the IP format are received correctly.
UDP (User Datagram Protocol) is an alternate transport that does not guarantee delivery. For example, UDP is used for real-time audio and video traffic where lost packets are simply ignored because the sound or video contained in the last packet is useless after a certain point in time.
TCP/IP: Stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol. The protocol suite used to connect hosts on the Internet and other networks.
UDP: Stands for User Datagram Protocol. A protocol within the TCP/IP protocol suite that is used in place of TCP when a reliable delivery is not required.
IP address: A unique 4-byte number that identies a node on a TCP/ IP network. IP addresses are commonly written in dotted decimal format, such as 128.0.0.1.
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For detailed information on all networking-related protocols, check out www.protocols.com.
of the IP address to identify the network and the remaining two bytes to identify hosts. Thus, a Class A IP address supports only a small number of network addresses and a large number of hosts, while a Class B IP address supports a larger number of network addresses, but not as many hosts as a Class A. The Internet was designed to support ve classes of IP addresses, A through E. Microsoft TCP/IP supports only classes A, B, and C for host addressing.
C
128 to 191 192 to 223 224 to 239 240 to 255
Address Class
A
Value of Highorder Bit(s) in First Byte

First bit must be 0
Range of Values for First Byte in Binary

00000001-01111111 Note: A value of 0 for the network address is not permitted 10000000-10111111
Range of Values for First Byte in Decimal
C D
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First 5 bits must be 11110
The IP address does not have to be permanent. Users who dial into an Internet service provider (ISP) may receive a different IP address every time they sign on. It is up to the ISP to make sure that they do not assign an IP address taken from their list of possible addresses to two clients at the same time. An IP address assigned by an ISP stays the same throughout a users session until sign-off. Compare the IP address to the MAC address which is built into every Ethernet card when it is manufactured. The MAC address is permanent and never can be changed. Some users and systems have a single IP address assigned to every computer on the network that does not change from day to day.
First 2 bits must be 10 First 3 bits must be 110 First 4 bits must be 1110
1 to 127 (127 is reserved for testing purposes)
11000000-11011111 11100000-11101111
11110000-11110111
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Example
1.net.host.host to 127.net.host.host 128.net.host.host to 191.net.host.host 192.net.net.host to 223.net.net.host This range of addresses is reserved for multicasts and is not supported for host addressing by Microsoft This range of addresses is reserved for experimental purposes and is not supported for host addressing by Microsoft.
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The number of bits reserved for the network and host IDs is different for classes A, B, and C. The rst bit(s) of the rst byte of the IP address are specic for each address class. Since the rst few bits of an address are specied by the InterNIC, the decimal value of the rst byte can be used to identify the class of IP address. The following table explains the rules for calculating the network addresses for each network class.
Each network segment requires its own unique network address, just as each street in your town requires its own unique street name. In the TCP/IP environment, network segments are called subnets if each network segments address must be derived from a single IP network address. This situation often occurs if your companys network IP address is assigned by the InterNIC; if your network has multiple physical segments, you must create multiple network addresses from the single Internet IP address. The process of subdividing a single network address to allow for unique network addresses on each subnet is called subnetting. To subnet, use a custom subnet mask to borrow bits from the host portion of the network address. (A subnet mask distinguishes the host portion of the IP address from the network portion.) Use the borrowed bits to create subnetwork addresses. If your network doesnt connect to the Internet, then you may assign any unique network address to each network segment and use the default subnet mask for the appropriate IP address class. Although you will commonly hear this procedure described as subnetting, it is more properly called segmenting because theres no need to subdivide a single network address. There are many reasons for subnetting or segmenting your network. They include: Reducing traffic by dividing a large network into smaller segments using routers. Each segment then has fewer hosts, requiring less bandwidth on the segment. Congestion is reduced if hosts communicate mostly with other hosts on the same segment.
Helping with troubleshooting by minimizing the impact of a subnet problem on other subnets. Increasing security by limiting sensitive network traffic to one network. Additionally, the networks structure wont be visible outside of an organizations network, as the route from an Internet host to a registered IP address in the internal network stays the same.
To be able to assign unique network addresses to each network in your organization, you will use subnet masking. Subnet masking enables you to restructure how each IP address in your organization is divided between the network portion and the host portion. The Internet will see the rst byte as the network address. In your internal network, you will use the second byte of available host addresses as a part of the network address. The following table shows the appropriate decimal subnet mask for each IP address class (A, B, and C), based on how many bits are used in the subnet address and how many subnets are required. Note that highorder bits within each mask dene a subnet. You can use the default subnet mask when your network does not require subnetting.
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Connecting different topologies, such as Ethernet, Token Ring, and FDDI, together via routers.
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Decreasing CPU load. The fewer hosts on the network, the fewer broadcasts, which results in decreased CPU load. Note that hosts must always listen to broadcast messages to gure out whether the broadcast is meant for them or not, which uses CPU resources.
Avoiding physical limitations, such as maximum cable lengths or exceeding the maximum number of computers on a segment. You can add routers and create subnets if youve reached the physical limitations of your network. You can then use the additional network address this process creates and add more hosts to the network as needed.
subnetting: The process of subdividing a single network address to allow for unique network addresses on a subnet.
subnet mask: Distinguishes the host portion of an IP address from the network portion.
subnet masking: Lets you restructure how each IP address in your organization is divided between the network portion and the host portion of the address.
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subnet: A network segment that derives its address from a single IP address.
Address Class
Class A Class B Class C
Default Subnet Mask

255.0.0.0 255.255.0.0 255.255.255.0
IPX: Stands for Internetwork Packet Exchange. A NetWare communications protocol used to route messages from one node to another.
Network Protocols
NetBEUI: Stands for NetBios Enhanced User Interface. The default networking protocol for the Windows desktop operating system.
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NetBIOS: An API that sends data from the Session layer to the Transport layer.
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NetBIOS is an API that can send data down from Session Layer 5 to different Transport protocols in Layer 4. Originally NetBIOS was designed to work with NetBEUI in Layer 4, but because of the separation in operation from NetBEUI, NetBIOS can also use TCP/IP and SPX/IPX. This separation is important because NetBEUI is not routable, while the last two protocols are routable. All NetBIOS computers have a unique 15-character name which they broadcast over the network to other machines so the Network Neighborhood program can catalog and display them. NetBIOS names can be turned into IP addresses for TCP/IP networks through lookups in LMHOSTS le or through a WINS server.
TASK 10C-4:
Installing the TCP/IP Protocol and Assigning an IP Address
1. 2. 3. 4. Right-click on Network Neighborhood and choose Properties. In the Network dialog box, click Add. In the Select Network Component Type dialog box, select Protocol, and then click Add. In the Select Network Protocol dialog box, select Microsoft from the list of Manufacturers and select TCP/IP from the list of Network Protocols.
SPX: Stands for Sequenced Packet Exchange. The NetWare communications protocol used to control the transport of messages across a network.
NetBEUI (NetBios Enhanced User Interface) is supported automatically by all versions of Windows. NetBEUI is at the same OSI layer (Transport) as the TCP/IP and IPX/SPX protocols. Originally NetBEUI and NetBIOS were joined in a single protocol, but now they are separated. NetBIOS now works at the Session Layer 5 of the OSI model.
NetBEUI
SPX (Sequenced Packet Exchange) is the usual Transport Layer 4 protocol that works with IPX in Layer 3 to guarantee that the packets sent out by IPX can be accurately assembled into the entire message by the destination node. SPX is responsible for error recovery if packets are lost on the network.
IPX/SPX was originally developed for Novell NetWare-based networks. Novell NetWare can work on different kinds of LANs, including Ethernet and Token Ring LANs. IPX (Internetwork Packet Exchange) works at the Network Layer 3 of the OSI model. IPX routes datagrams from one node to another, and does not guarantee delivery of the complete message. The IPX packets contain the network addresses of the sending and destination nodes, so the packets can be routed from one network to another.
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IPX/SPX
5. 6. 7. 8.
Save your changes. If prompted, supply the path to your Windows 98 installation media. When prompted, restart your computer. When you see the Windows 98 desktop, right-click on Network Neighborhood and choose Properties. On the Conguration tab, conrm that TCP/IP is installed. Select the TCP/IP protocol for the adapter installed in your computer and click Properties.
9.
Common Network Problems
Some of the problems you may encounter in a network may include reduced performance due to reduced bandwidth, loss of data, and network slowdown. Bandwidth is the maximum amount of data that can be sent across the network cable per second. The more bandwidth is available, the better throughput you will have in your network. All devices on a network share the total available bandwidth and the maximum cannot be exceeded. Reduced bandwidth is typically a result of too much traffic on the network cable. This can be a result of increased traffic due to increased user activity, or because of a malfunctioning device, such as a bad NIC that is jabbering (sending messages continuously). As more and more transmissions are sent, the available bandwidth is no longer sufficient to handle all transmissions effectively and efficiently. Transmission requests may time-out, software may freeze, and users will notice a decrease in performance. You can use network or protocol analyzers to identify where the loss of bandwidth is happening. If its caused by a malfunctioning device, you can simply replace the device (such as a bad NIC). If its caused by heavy usage, you can increase the available bandwidth. You can do this by changing the networks speed, for example, from 10 Mbps to 100 Mbps in an Ethernet network, or from 4 Mbps to 16 Mbps in a Token Ring network. To do this, you will have to replace NICs, hubs, and potentially the network cabling. Another possible solution is to separate high-traffic network segments from low-traffic network segments, and then, if still necessary, upgrading only the high-traffic segments.
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bandwidth: The maximum amount of data that can be sent across the network cable per second.
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Loss of data typically occurs due to malfunctioning equipment, such as defective NICs, physically damaged cabling, non-working hubs, interference, missing terminators, and so on. Another possible cause of data loss is packet collisions (in Ethernet networks). Although collisions will always happen in an Ethernet network, excessive collisions can lead to data loss. You can identify problem areas
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12. Click OK until youre prompted to restart the computer, then restart the computer.
11. In the IP Address eld, type 192.168.1.10. In the Subnet Mask address eld, type 255.255.255.0. 255.255.255.0 is the default subnet mask for a class C IP address, into which IP address class the IP address of 192168.1.10 falls.
10. Select Specify an IP Address, and observe the IP Address and Subnet Mask elds. For TCP/IP to work properly, you must specify an IP address and subnet mask.
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by using a network analyzer, and also by checking the collision light on hubs. If the light is on continuously, you likely have a cable fault or network misconguration. Also, as described earlier, breaking the network up into separate network segments can reduce the incidence of collisions. Network slowdown means that users notice that the network has suddenly become slow. This may be caused by excessive traffic on the network, as discussed earlier, but this would be the likely case only if the slowdown is gradual. In the event of a sudden decrease in network performance, you should suspect a hardware problem. If the network slowdown is gradual, you may also want to look at upgrading server hardware and distributing functions to several servers.
Identifying Common Network Problems

1.
Match the cause, symptom, or solution on the right with the network problem on the left.
Loss of data
Summary
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In this lesson, you learned how networks are classied based on geographical boundaries and the characteristics of different network topologies. You then learned about the seven layers of the OSI model and how they interact. You also studied, in detail, the hardware devices and software entities commonly found on networks, and located their layers in the OSI model. You then learned how to install the TCP/IP protocol on a Windows 98 machine, and you identied common network problems.
Lesson Review
10A What are the distinguishing features of a peer-to-peer and client-server network?
In a peer-to-peer network all computers are equal. In a client-server network, a server provides resources to clients. What type of cable is used for infrared communications? Infrared communications dont use cables. Data is transmitted over a beam of light at speed from 9.6 Kbps to 4 Mbps.
b c
Network slowdown Decreased bandwidth
a. Excessive signal collisions. b. A sudden decrease in network performance. c. Upgrade the network from 10 Mbps to 100 Mbps.
TASK 10C-5:
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10B Describe the purpose of network architecture and the OSI model.
Architecture describes how components in the system behave and interrelate; the OSI model is a means for demonstrating architecture. List the OSI layers and describe how they communicate. Application, Presentation, Session, Transport, Network, Data Link, and Physical. A layer requests services from layers beneath it while providing services to the layers above. Also, layers request services from and provide services to corresponding layers in another set of protocols.
10CList three network connection devices, three types of media, and three network protocols.
Answers might include: Three connection devices are the hub, bridge, and router. Three media are twisted-pair, coaxial cable, and ber-optic cable. Identify three common types of network problems. Decreased bandwidth, loss of data, and network slowdown.
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Customer Satisfaction
Importance of Customer Satisfaction
You are a representative of your profession as well as your company. The way you conduct yourself professionally directly inuences the satisfaction of your customer, which in turn inuences the productivity of your company.
APPENDIX
Figure A-1: You are a representative of your profession as well as your company.
Professional Manner
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What is your mission statement? Think about the professional you want to be. What do you expect of yourself? What traits do you expect of a service provider? A good rule to follow is to treat your customer the way you would want to be treated under similar circumstances. These personal traits are highly valued in a PC repair technician: Trait How You Demonstrate It
Be non-judgmental about your customers level of computer competence, choice of hardware, personal traits, and environmental conditions. Instill condence and credibility in your customers by demonstrating your skills and, when necessary, stating the limits of your knowledge.
Acceptance
Competence
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Appendix A: Customer Satisfaction 371
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Trait
Courtesy
How You Demonstrate It

Be polite and friendly on the phone and in person; address your customer as sir or maam; use titles such as Dr., Mr., or Ms. with last names; ask permission before entering your customers personal space. Be there when you say you will; keep your promises or let the customer know of any changes; work efciently and accurately; be prepared with the right equipment; dont make promises you cant keep. Work around the customers time and space demands; think on your feet; apply what you have previously learned; try alternate solutions; ask for help when you need it. Tell the truth about needed repairs, costs, and time estimates; be honest about your level of expertise and make professional referrals when appropriate; promptly admit your errors. Be patient with angry customers, computer-illiterate customers, bafing equipment, unavoidable delays, and frustrating policies and procedures. Be on time; call if you will be detained; make follow-up calls as promised.
Dependability
Flexibility
Honesty
Patience Punctuality
Professional Appearance
Professional Behavior
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The following list describes some facets of professional behavior that will help you: Accountability. Do not misrepresent your credentials, competence, or training. Take responsibility for your actions, and admit your mistakes. In questions of conict of interest between your company and the customer, refer to your supervisor or follow your companys procedure. Be aware of your companys policy on accepting gifts or samples, and on socializing with customers. Condentiality. Many eldsincluding medicine, social work, and special educationare regulated by state laws concerning the condentiality of their consumers. All companies have personal information about their employees. Many corporations have sensitive information about the development of their products or services. Treat, as condential, any information you learn about your customers business. Know your companys policies concerning condential information and follow them. Ethical conduct. You have an obligation to take responsibility for the ethical conduct within your delivery of service. The issues involved are complex and ever-changing in the relatively young computer industry. An unethical practice may become so routine that it is falsely assumed to be acceptable behavior. Learn your companys policies and adhere to them.
Be sure to keep your work area neat. Dont pile materials on your co-workers books and les. Clean up after yourself; a customer who doesnt know a multimeter from a mizzenmast may chase after you with the anti-static bag you left behind. When on-site, ask where to dispose of materials; nd out where the recycling bin is for printer test-run paper.
Your work environment may be in a repair shop, at a help desk, or on-site. Whatever the situation, you will want to present a neat, clean, business-like appearance. On-site work may take you into many settings, from muffler repair shops to executive offices. You may be asked to remove your shoes or put on a hard hat. Be aware of the corporate culture, and respond accordingly.
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Pirating. Software copyright infringement, or pirating, concerns the legal issues surrounding the distribution and use of software. The Federal Copyright Act of 1976 protects the rights of the holder of the copyright. Usually a backup copy of software is allowed; a site license allows for multiple use at one facility. You are responsible for upholding the law by complying with the license agreement. Learn your companys policies and adhere to them. Pirating carries serious penalties and risks: Imprisonment Corrupted les Virus-infected disks Lack of technical support Lack of upgrades
You meet the customer for the rst time. You brought the wrong cartridge because the customer told you the incorrect model number. You need to go back and get the right cartridge.
Wheres the printer?
I dont know when Ill be back to nish the job.
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Dont you even know what kind of printer you have? Now Ill have to waste time...
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You replace the cartridge, but printer still doesnt work. The printer is functioning smoothly.
Sorry. You need a new printer. Call the ofce if you have any problems.
Hi, Im ___ from __. Nice to meet you, Ms. __. We have a little problem here. I need to go back to the shop for a different part. I can probably have this done by noon. I need to call my next customer and let them know when Ill be there. First, lets run a selftest to see if the printer is okay. Could I take a minute to show you what I did? Maybe we can prevent this from happening in the future.
Situation
Less Effective Response
More Effective Response
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Courtesy Patience Flexibility
The following table provides example of personal traits demonstrated in a particular situation. Trait Demonstrated
Dependability, Punctuality
Competence
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Setting priorities. You will often need to set priorities and make judgment calls. You will recommend whether your customer should repair or replace equipment. You will rank the urgency of your customers needs. Base your decisions on common courtesy, fundamental fairness, and keeping promises. Be familiar with your companys policies and follow them.
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Fines
Customer Needs
Is the customer always right? No, the customer may be at-out wrong at times. However, the customer is the bread-and-butter of your business. Rudeness is never an option. Challenge yourself to nd the positive in every situation. Ask yourself: What is my job here? What are my obligations to the customer? What are my obligations to my employer?
You and the customer bring your own individual differences in values, beliefs, age, gender, personality, and communication styles. Whatever the circumstances, be sure to look beyond the immediate differences. Keep your focus on: This is a person who needs my help. How can I provide it? Treat all customers as you would like to be treated.
Response to Urgency
Your best response is to be supportive, using the communication and problemsolving techniques listed in the following section. Be patient and honest; let the customer know that you are working for a timely solution to the problem.
Customer Satisfaction
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Your goal is to achieve and maintain customer satisfaction by providing good service at a reasonable cost in a timely fashion. The satised customer is the one who continues to do business with your company. The dissatised customer will take his or her business elsewhere. Studies show that a customer who complains may be more valuable than the one who says nothing and silently moves on. The complaining customer may continue to do business with you, providing useful feedback for your company. A sincere apology may be in order, as well as investigating the complaint. The following table provides some example scenarios that identify customer needs. Customer Says
Ive got a eet of trucks out there waiting for manifests!
Your customers call because they need help, and they usually need it yesterday. Their sense of urgency is about deadlines and production; they may display frustration and anger. Remember, its not about you; its about their need to get back online as quickly as possible.
Your Response
I estimate youll be back in business in an hour. If not, Ill let you know ASAP. Lets see what we can do to get you back online. Id be willing to follow up on that if you want to give me the details.
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They should have sent a man out to x this. The last guy I talked to didnt know what he was doing, and it cost me two hundred bucks!
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Since the customer is your reason for being a service technician, the customer deserves your acceptance and respect. The customer will have varying levels of computer experience, from novice to expert. He or she may be emotionally charged by the equipment problem, and you may become the target of anger or frustration.
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Need
Urgency Respect Satisfaction
Respect
Customer Says
I didnt know what to do, so I kept pushing buttons. Sorry... I dont know much about computers. My term paper is due at 5:00 tomorrow! How do I know its not going to break down again, as soon as you leave?
Your Response
Lets back up a bit and try to gure out the original problem. Lets try a few things over the phone. It may save you having to bring your computer into the shop. Lets take a minute to go through the procedure. Would it help if we wrote down the steps?
Need
Respect
Urgency
Satisfaction
Better Business
What does combining your technical skills with good customer relations translate to for your customers? Customer satisfaction. What do satised customers translate to for your company? Increased business opportunities through repeat and possibly expanded contacts.
Repeat Business
Ease for Technician
How to get a visitor pass The companys dress code The physical layout of the plant The people involved The level of technical support you can expect The equipment you are dealing with
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When you are on-site, you may already know: Where to park
Repeat business gives you a sense of ease, because you are familiar with the territory. You can work more efficiently because you have already established a business relationship. You dont have to start over every time.
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Repeat business is the backbone of your company. You will want to be part of developing and maintaining corporate accounts, regardless of size. Your company may have incentives for the repair technician or for the customer. Remember, the customer has powerto do business with you, or to take that business elsewhere. The customer also has the power to spread the word about the service provided by your company, satisfactory or otherwise.
Research shows that the Better Business Bureau handled over 3 million customer complaints in 1999. Poor customer service translates into plunging prots, falling productivity, and missed opportunities, to the tune of billions of dollars. As you increase customer satisfaction, you may see the benets of improved productivity, which can include more income, higher prot margins, and greater employment opportunities.
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Working on the help desk requires you to visualize what the customer is describing. Your work will go more smoothly if you have previously dealt with this customer; you will be familiar with the equipment and have access to records.
Communication Skills
Non-verbal Clues
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Figure A-2: Body language communicates more than actual words.
Eye Contact
You and your customer will make, maintain, and break eye contact as you talk with each other. When attention is directed to the problem at hand, eye contact may be minimal. You will want to avoid staring directly at your customera form of invading personal spaceor letting your gaze wander, which indicates disinterest.
Body language communicates more than actual words. Studies show that up to seventy percent of a message is conveyed through actions. Even when you are talking on the phone, non-verbal characteristicssuch as tone of voicewill add meaning to your message and help you interpret your customers concerns.
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Lets look at the communication skills you will need to develop. These are of great importance.
Gestures and Facial Expression

Gesturessuch as nodding, pointing, or measuring the airhelp expand the spoken message. Broad, friendly gestures indicate being open to the conversation, while sharp or jabbing gestures usually mean anger. The variety, intensity, and meaning of facial expressions are almost endless. You and your customer read each others faces to gain insight into the spoken words. Your expression must match the content of your words; if there is a mismatch, your customer will believe the message in your face rather than what you say.
Non-verbal Encouragement
Encourage your customer to continue with Mm-hmm and a slight nod of your head. You convey that you are listening and want to know more.
Passive Listening
Your message is: Im listening. Tell me more. You are alert, attentive, and accepting, but do not participate actively in the conversation. Your silence may help your customer to collect his or her thoughts, especially if upset or angry. Listen for factual data and be alert for feelings and attitudes, which are conveyed non-verbally. It may be difficult to keep from jumping in with a question or a Yes, but... Resist the temptation by writing down your thoughts to refer to later.
Respect your customers personal space. Depending on the circumstances, you may be from one and one-half to four feet away from your customer. If the customer backs up, youre too close. You may be working in close quarters; ask permission before you move into your customers personal spacefor example, sitting in the office chair.
Timing
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The tone of voice indicates many internal moods: excitement, boredom, sarcasm, fear, or uncertainty. A rise in your voice at the end of a sentence makes it sound like a question, implying lack of assurance instead of competence. Listen to your customers tone. Volumeloudness or softnesscolors the spoken message. If your customers agitation escalates, try lowering your volume to re-establish a sense of calm.
Touch
A rm handshake is appreciated and may be expected in some business dealings. Other forms of touching are generally unnecessary, inappropriate, and risky.
Tone of Voice
You can set the pace of a conversation. A pause may be more valuable than an immediate answer, as it allows you time to formulate your response. If a situation escalates and your customer becomes agitated, you may ask him or her to slow down so that you can get all the information. When a customer is having difficulty ending a call to the help desk, you may gently step up the pace to indicate your need to move on.
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Messages are conveyed by body position. Slouching indicates Im bored with this conversation. Holding ones arms across the chest says Im closed to what you are saying. Watch your bodys signals, as well as those of your customer.
Positioning and Posture
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The following table lists some examples of non-verbal communication. Non-verbal Cue
Tone of voice Passive listening Non-verbal encouragement Posture Eye contact Gesture Touch Positioning Facial expression
Example
Speaking calmly and quietly when your customer becomes agitated. Observing your customers words and body language without verbally responding. Nodding your head, saying mm-hmmm to encourage your customer to continue. Stand with your arms at your side. Looking at your customer when he or she asks you a question. Avoid making unneccessary hand movements. A rm, friendly handshake when you meet a customer for the rst time. Place distance between technician and customer; 1 1/2 to 4 feet is recommended. Raising your eyebrows when a customer tells you something you didnt expect.
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Ask questions to gain information, clarify what you have heard and direct the conversation. Open-ended questions can elicit a lot of information. Close-ended questions limit the amount of information by giving a choice of answers. Yes-no questions further limit information exchange and can be used when you need to cut to the chase. Helpful question styles: Open-ended: What happened after you pressed [Ctrl][Alt][Delete]? Close-ended: What kind of a printer do you have, laser or inkjet? Yes-no: Are you on a network?
What if the answer to your open-ended question is I dont know or Im not sure? Go down the listusing close-ended and then yes-nountil you reach the customers level of expertise. Less helpful question styles: Confusing multiple questions: What did you do next? Did you try...? What happened? Accusations: What did you do that for?
Questions
When your customer is describing the problem, listen actively to elicit as much information as you can. These techniques may feel awkward at rst, so try them out in a situation outside your job. With practice, you will use active listening skills more easily and creatively.
Active Listening
PY
Empathy
Let your customer know that you perceive and support what he or she is feeling. Try to be specic in naming the emotion and link it to the customer, using you, not I. Helpful responses include: This delay is frustrating for you. You must be worried about the cost.
Less helpful responses include: I know how youre feeling. I can identify...
Paraphrasing
Restate what the customer says in your own words to make sure that you interpreted correctly, to bring order to the customers thoughts, and to relay that the message is important. Use statements, not questions, and dont add or change anything. Helpful starters include: Youre saying that... It sounds like... Im hearing you say...
Summarization
Helpful starters include: Lets see what we have so far. Lets go over our plan.
Why dont we back up a minute and go through that again?
The following table lists some examples of active listening skills. You Say
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Outline the main points of your conversation to summarize what has been said. You can begin the conversation by summarizing your understanding of the problem and then checking for clarication. During the conversation, you can re-establish the focus by listing the important facts. Bring closure by summing up the work performed. If a follow-up plan is needed, restate the responsibilities and timeline.
Is your computer back up and running? Did the power go off before you saved, during the save, or after you saved your data? You must really be nervous right now. Youre saying that the computer was in the process of writing to the disk when the power went off. Is that accurate? What happens when you try to open the presentation?
EV
N
Empathy Paraphrase
Skill Demonstrated
Yes-no question Close-ended question
Open-ended question
O
PY
Youre afraid youll lose business while your computer is down.
You Say
Before I come over, lets make sure of our game plan. You wont do anything more on the computer, and Ill bring some recovery software that may rescue your presentation.
Skill Demonstrated
Summarization
Conflict Resolution
Missed deadlines Unforeseen delays Unexpected repair costs
Agreeing with Perception
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380
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Helpful phrases: I can understand why you would think that. I see what youre getting at. It sounds like a big responsibility.
Less helpful phrases: But... Thats not what I said!
Reflecting Feelings
You can acknowledge what the customer is feeling without necessarily accepting the display of emotion. Check the customers non-verbal messages, including tone of voice and facial expression. Be accurate and specic in naming the feeling. The feeling belongs to the customer; dont apologize for it or try to take it away. Helpful responses include: Im sensing your frustration. I can understand your anger. You sound unsure.
You can agree with the customers perception of a situation without necessarily agreeing with what is said. As the customer realizes that you are not going to argue, he or she may see a safe place to begin to solve the problem.
Your customer may direct anger and frustration to you. Remember, dont take the attack personally, and dont counter-attack. As a service provider, your job is to relieve some of the stress. Conict resolution techniques can help you make a difference in customer satisfaction.
Unfortunately, not all your interactions will be ideal. Your customer may be under stress for a number of reasons: Limited productivity
You aim for customer satisfaction, and many times your interactions will go smoothly. You may be greeted with: Are we glad to see you! When a customer specically requests youas in, We usually work with Sharonthen you know you are doing something, or many things, right.
PY
Less helpful responses include: Im sorry youre angry. Calm down.
Forming an Alliance
Helpful phrases include: Where are we heading with this? Would it help us if...? These are our options.
Thats your choice.
Helpful phrases include: What has worked before? What resources are available right now?
Does this sound like something we could try? Ill leave it up to you.
Less helpful phrases:
Call me if you have any problems.
The following table differentiates some less helpful responses from their more helpful equivalents.
Yeah, but...
Less Helpful Response
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More Helpful Response
Ive only got one pair of hands! Im sorry you feel that way. Theres nothing to get excited about. If I were you... Its your money youre throwing away. I guarantee my way will work.
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I can understand what youre saying. It sounds like youre under a tight deadline. You sound really frustrated. I hear your urgency. Lets see if this works. Why dont we...? Does this sound like a reasonable possibility?
N
Reason
Together you and your customer can work out a specic plan for working through the problem. Brainstorm some ideas. Be careful about giving advice or solutions too early or too often in the process. Your job is to facilitate the decision-making, which ultimately rests with the customer. Be sure to follow through with any commitments you make.
Agree with perception Agree with perception Respect feelings Respect feelings Form alliance Form alliance Find solution
T
Finding a Solution
Less helpful phrases include: I think you should...
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Your customer needs to know that you are an ally, not an enemy. When the customer knows that you share the concerns, the problem-solving process can move forward. Give a sense of unity by using we instead of you or I.
Less Helpful Response

Trust me, itll never y.
More Helpful Response

Lets go over our plan of action.
Reason
Find solution
Service Calls
Type of Call
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Figure A-3: Whether you provide technical support over the phone or in person, a satised customer is your goal.
The Initial Call

Your company has established a procedure for taking customer calls. Follow those guidelines in lling out necessary forms, and be familiar with your companys customer service policies. Remember, you may be the customers rst contact with your company. Be sure you present yourself professionally. Simple troubleshooting over the phone will help determine the next step: using the help desk, bringing the computer into the shop, or an on-site visit. Each setting brings its own set of challenges.
Whether you provide technical support over the phone or in person, a satised customer is your goal. Service calls follow the same basic format. The environment will dictate differences in the way you handle certain aspects of the job.
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Help Desk
Your communication skills will be of prime importance here as you guide your customer through the troubleshooting process. You are in effect teaching the customer to be your eyes, ears, and hands. You will nd it helpful to make diagrams and take notes as you go along. First, lets examine non-verbal clues. Situation
The customer begins to describe problem The customer hesitates The customer begins to talk faster The customers voice rises in pitch
Communication Skill
Passive Listening
Non-verbal Cues
Allow information to ow without interruption; you should take notes. Use a gentle Mm-hmm or Uh-huh to let the customer know you are listening. Listen for agitation; prepare to use your Active Listening skills. Listen for anger or frustration; prepare to use your Active Listening skills.
Tone of Voice
Now, lets examine active listening skills. Situation

The customer has difculty describing problem The customer expresses anger or impatience The customer describes problem in own words The customer rambles on
Communication Skill
Questions
Active Listening
Empathy
Paraphrase Summarize
Repair Shop
Consider the following scenario: A plumber brings his printer into the shop for the second time in a week. He is angry that he has had to take time off from work again and that his invoices wont go out at the end of the month. He demands immediate action, including a credit for the rst repair. Your conict resolution techniques can defuse the incident. The following table demonstrates skills and appropriate responses.
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When customers come to you, they are on your territory. You are able to speak face-to-face with them and walk through the problem together. However, a dissatised customers actions and words can inuence other patrons in the shop. Your conict resolution skills will be useful in de-escalating a situation and helping your customer achieve satisfaction.
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Use open-ended, closeended, and yes-no questions as you determine the customers level of expertise. Name the emotion to let the customer know that you are an ally. Repeat what you have heard to check for accuracy. Bring focus to the call by outlining the main points.
T
Timing
Non-verbal Encouragement
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Customers Remarks
You guys dont know anything! This is the second time this week Ive had to drop everything and come in here! How am I supposed to get my invoices out? So, Im supposed to pay for this twice?
Conict Resolution Skill

Agreeing with Perception Reecting Feeling
Your Response
I can understand why you think that. This is frustrating for you.
Forming an Alliance
Finding a Solution
On-Site
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The customer needs to use the ofce where you are working The equipment presents a problem that is new to you After several repairs, the customer continues to yank on mouse cord A service call is taking longer than you anticipated The customers rst language is not English
Flexibility
Situation
Personal Trait
Customer Interaction
As you provide technical support, be aware of your interactions with the customer. You are not expected to be chatty; however, the customer may be your best source of information about the technical problem.
EV
Establishing Rapport
It will be well worth your time to establish a friendly alliance with your customer. Take time to: Greet the customer. Introduce yourself.
384
N
Honesty Patience Punctuality Flexibility
Like the repair shop, during the on-site visit, you will interact with the customer as well as the equipment. Moreover, the on-site visit takes you to the customers turf. As the balance of power shifts slightly, you will need to be even more aware of the personal traits valued in a service technician. The following table demonstrates traits and possible actions during an on-site visit. Your Action
Service other workstations if possible; determine how long the ofce will be unavailable and adjust your schedule accordingly. Admit to the customer that you would rather take the time to research and get help than make a costly mistake based on guesswork. Show the customer the damage in a nonthreatening way; suggest a more ergonomic rearrangement of workstation. Discuss the time over-run with your current customer; call your next customer to explain the situation and make alternate arrangements. Ask if someone is available to help interpret; use gestures, diagrams, and demonstrations to communicate.
PY
We are going to take care of this right now. Lets talk to my supervisor together. For my part, I will talk to Accounting and get back to you by tomorrow.
Use the customers title and last name, unless asked to use rst names. Make a general remark, such as commenting on the weather. Fill out initial forms. Suggest a cooperative solution, such as Lets see what we can do to get you up and running.
As you communicate with the customer, listen and watch for his or her technical level. Adjust your questions and use of technical jargon to match your customers expertise and understanding. The customer may lack training and be fearful of appearing foolish. His or her non-verbal cues, such as lack of eye contact, may reveal a discomfort level. Make an effort to nd an area of strength and comment on that. Helpful phrases include: It might help if we... Lets take this one step at a time. Is the green light on?
Recognizing the customers knowledge by using technical jargon.
Asking questions and learning what you can; the customer may have helpful suggestions. Letting the customer know that you are working together.
Use an organized, common-sense approach to isolate the source of a problem and nd the solution. Because it is in the customers best interest to solve the problem as quickly and efficiently as possible, you should enlist his or her help. Be sure to adjust your questions and use of technical jargon to match the customers level. Warning: If the customer becomes defensive, change your questions to focus on the equipment, rather than the person. For example, change What have you done? to try to solve the problem? to What attempt has been made to solve the problem?
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Question
What is the nature of the problem? Has the equipment ever worked correctly? When did you rst notice the problem?
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Description of Problem
Information You Are Seeking

Many reported problems are based on false expectations of the user, rather than malfunctions of equipment or software. For example, audio les cannot be heard if there is no sound card. If the equipment has functioned properly in the past, chances are good you can make it work again. If it has never worked correctly, there may be a aw or incompatibility that you need to isolate. Pinning down the time the problem appeared will help you isolate the cause. Concentrate on any changes that occurred between the time it last operated correctly and the time the problem was noticed.
Sincerely complimenting the customers expertise; the customer may feel less need to impress you if you acknowledge his or her skills.
Your customer, on the other hand, may be a know-it-all who tries to take charge or play games to trip you up. Remember the personal trait of acceptance, and treat this as a learning experience. Your actions can include:
T
PY
Responding to Customers Technical Level
Question
Have you ever had this problem before? What attempt has been made to try to solve the problem?
Information You Are Seeking

If the problem has happened before, determine the cause of the previous occurrence, nd the solution used then, and try it again. Often attempts to x a problem introduce an unrelated set of changes that can mask the cause of the original problem. You might need to undo any previous attempts to x the problem before you can isolate its cause. Installing and removing hardware and software are major sources of problems. Installing new items can introduce conicts, and removing old items can also destroy les needed by current items. Moving the computer very carefully from one ofce to another may cause connections to fail if the computer is on a different branch of the network. Cables and cards can work loose during a move, and sometimes wires are reconnected incorrectly. Software is constantly being upgraded, so knowing the exact version of all software is crucial.
What software are you using?
Teaching the Customer
Be concise, clear, and organized. Adjust your use of technical jargon to match the customers vocabulary. Check for understanding by asking questions. Be aware of any resistance to receiving help or making changes. Include a rationale so the customer understands the reasoning. Summarize the essential points. Suggest that the customer write the procedure down. Walk the customer through the procedure. Ask for feedback.
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The following table provides some examples for moving the focus away from the customer and toward the equipment. Focus On Customer
When did you rst notice the problem? Have you ever had this problem before? What have you done to try to solve the problem? Did you install or remove any software or hardware just before you noticed the problem?
Pace your explanation to match the customers rate of understanding.
When you offer to give information: Make sure the customer has the time and interest.
386
As part of providing quality customer service, you are obligated to consider the economic health of your customers organization. Problem prevention is less costly, in human and economic terms, than problem repetition. You have the opportunity to demonstrate excellence in support when you take the time to teach your customer about the equipment you are servicing.
Focus On Equipment
When did the problem rst occur? Has the problem ever occurred before? What attempt has been made to solve the problem? Was any software or hardware installed just before the problem appeared?
Did you install or remove any software or hardware just before you noticed the problem? Did you change the physical setup before you noticed the problem?
PY
Focus On Customer
Did you change the physical setup before you noticed the problem? What software are you using?
Focus On Equipment
Was there any physical change to the setup before the problem appeared? What software is being used?
Finishing the Service Call

When you have completed the technical aspects of the service call, wrap up business as efficiently as possible. You and your customer are both busy people.
Making Referrals
Ending
Be sure to track any referrals you made to other technicians. Be accountable for your follow-up plan; keep your customer informed of any changes or delays. The following table summarizes the tasks to be completed when nishing a service call. Area
Forms
Task
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Follow-up
In wrapping up your service call, summarize the important points with your customer. Review any plans you have made for future service or follow-up. At an on-site visit, be sure to clean your work area. Thank the customer for doing business with your company.
Task
Get signature. Tell customer you are referring. Clean up. Be accountable for follow-up plan.
Making Referrals
EV
Complete accurately and promptly. Refer to co-worker or next level of support. Summarize important points and review plans. Track referrals.
Ending
Follow-up
O
Task
Unfortunately, not every problem is remedied immediately. When a problem is beyond the scope of your expertise, refer to a co-worker or to the next level of support. Be sure to let the customer know that you are directing the problem to a person with more experience and resources. Inform your customer of the procedure and when to expect a call from the support person.
Route documentation. Inform customer of procedure, when to expect call. Say thank you. Keep customer informed of changes or delays.
T
Complete all forms accurately and promptly. Get necessary signatures, and route your documentation according to your companys procedures. Record-keeping can help you keep track of the kinds of problems you encounter and the solutions used. This may prove to be an invaluable reference for you in the future.
Forms
PY
EV
388
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PY
GLOSSARY
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active hub A connecting unit that regenerates the data bits in order to maintain a strong signal. Also referred to as a multiport repeater.
ACPI Stands for Advanced Conguration and Power Interface. Power-saving interface that has six separate power-saving states (S0 through S5). With each state, more computer components are turned off to increase power savings.
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active matrix An LCD in which transistors actively maintain the state of pixels between scans.
abacus An early calculating instrument that uses sliding beads in columns that are divided in two by a center bar.
AGP Stands for Accelerated Graphics Port. Architecture that is based on the PCI architecture and is designed specically to speed up 3D graphics. Analytical Engine Charles Babbages vision of a mechanical calculator that would follow programmed instructions to perform any mathematical operations. The engine could store results for use later, and look up values in tables and call on standard subroutines. AppleTalk Apple computers network protocol. Application layer A layer of the OSI model that provides the starting point of the communication session. Also referred to as Layer 7 of the OSI model.
8008 Introduced by Intel in 1972, the 8008 was the rst microprocessor to be supported by a high-level language compiler.
Advanced Power Management (APM) Application programming interface (API) for battery-powered computers that provides several power-saving options.
10BaseT Ethernet standard that uses twisted-pair cable. Also called twisted-pair Ethernet. Operates at 10 Mbps. Uses RJ-45 connectors.
adapter card Add-on boards, or cards, that provide special functions for customizing or extending a computers capability.
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Glossary 389
10Base5 Ethernet standard that uses coaxial cable and supports transfer speeds of 10 Mbps. Also called thick Ethernet, Thickwire, or Thicknet.
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10Base2 Ethernet standard that uses 50 ohm coaxial cable (RG-58 A/U). Also called Thinnet. Transfer speed is 10 Mbps. Uses BNC connectors.
adapter A device that allows one system to connect to and work with another. An adapter is often a simple circuit that converts one set of signals to another; however, the term often refers to devices which are more accurately called controllers. For example, display adapters (video cards), network adapters (NICs), and SCSI host adapters perform extensive processing, but they are still called adapters.
GLOSSARY
Base Memory address The memory address of any memory that might be on the adapter card.
ATAPI AT Attachment Packet Interface. An extension to EIDE that enables support for CD-ROM and tape drives. AUI Stands for Attachment Unit Interface. Connects to an external transceiver that then connects to a one-half-inch thick coaxial cable. Used with 10Base5 (Thicknet). Ball Grid Array (BGA) CPU packaging used for portable computer processors. Has a small footprint to accommodate the space restrictions of portable computers. In this design, solder balls are used rather than metal leads found in PGA packaging.
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AT commands The modem command set developed by the Hayes company for use on its modems and now used on most modems.
asynchronous transmission Transmitter embeds clocking pulses in the data line.
asynchronous A bit synchronization transmission technique that uses start and stop bits.
EV
390
Arithmometer Charles Xavier Thomas of Colmar, France, or Thomas de Colmar, established the industry of manufacturing calculating machines when he started production of the Arithmometer.
BIOS Stands for Basic Input/Output System. Low-level software that acts as the interface between the hardware and the operating system in a computer. bit A single binary digit having a value of 0 or 1. BNC connector The type of connector most commonly used to join coax cables in a network. branch prediction The process of the CPU trying to anticipate which code will be used next, based on past history, and executing that code. bridge An electronic device that controls the ow of information between LAN segments or networks, even if they are different types of networks using different communication protocols. brouter A communication device that functions as both a bridge and a router, depending on which function is needed.
baud rate The number of signal changes that a data transmission line makes in one second. Not to be confused with data rate.
ARCNet Connects up to 255 nodes in a star topology at a transmission rate of 2.5 Mbps.
PY
application software High-level programs that are written to run on specic operating systems and that provide specic functionality such as word processing, graphics creation, or database management.
bandwidth The maximum amount of data that can be sent across the network cable per second.
GLOSSARY
byte A group of 8 bits. cache Dedicated high-speed memory for storing recently used instructions and data. Card Services Assigns resources for PC Cards and detects when a card is inserted or removed. Cat-5 Stands for Category 5. Type of cabling that consists of four twisted-pairs of copper wire terminated by RJ-45 connectors. Can be used for Token Ring, 1000BaseT, 100BaseT, and 10BaseT networking.
client A computer on a network that makes use of the resources managed by a server. client-server network A network where one or more computers act primarily as providers of network resources (servers), and one or more computers act primarily as consumers of network resources (clients). clock speed The frequency at which the system board and CPU operate. CMOS Stands for Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor and pronounced seemoss. The most widely used type of integrated circuit for digital processors and memories. Virtually everything is congured through CMOS today. CMOS RAM A special type of memory that stores information about the computers setup.
EV
CDPD Stands for Cellular Digital Packet Data. A data-transmission technology that uses cellular channels to send data. Centronics Parallel port standard that uses a 36-pin connector to connect to the printer, and a DB-25 connector to connect to the PC.
cathode ray tube Displays images using phosphorous dots with a scanned electron beam.
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bus topology A physical topology where a single main cable called the bus or backbone carries all network data. Nodes connect directly to the bus.
CISC Stands for Complex Instruction Set Computer. These are processors that dont require instructions to be of a xed length, and that allow for more complicated functions to be executed in one instruction.
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Glossary 391
bus master Takes control of the bus away from the CPU to transfer data directly to RAM or other devices.
CHS Cylinders, heads, sectors addressing. Used to manually congure hard drives smaller than 504 MB.
chipset The set of chips on the system board that support the CPU and other basic functions.
PY
bus The collection of wires that connect an interface card and the microprocessor, and the rules that describe how data should be transferred through the connection. Examples include ISA, EISA, and PCI.
CGA Stands for Color Graphics Adapter. An IBM video display standard that provided low-resolution text and graphics.
GLOSSARY
crosstalk Interference caused by leaks from a nearby communication channel. CSMA/CD Stands for Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection. System that enables dealing with packet collisions in an Ethernet network. Computers transmit when the channel is free. If two computers transmit at the same time, a collision occurs and is detected (by the Collision Detection mechanism). Both computers stop transmitting and retransmit at a random point in the future.
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CPU Stands for Central Processing Unit. The main chip on the system board, the CPU performs software instructions, and mathematical and logical equations.
corona wire The wire in the corona assembly that charges the paper.
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392
conventional memory In a PC, the rst 640 K of memory.
computer network A collection of hardware and software that enables a group of computers to communicate with each other.
cylinder The aggregate of all tracks that reside in the same location on every disk surface. On multiple-platter disks, the cylinder is the sum total of every track with the same track number on every surface. On a oppy disk, a cylinder comprises the top and corresponding bottom track. DAT Stands for Digital Audio Tape. Backup tape format that offers higher storage capacity at a lower cost than QIC technology. Capacity is from 1 GB to 4 GB and up. Data Link layer A layer of the OSI model that manages node-to-node transmission. Also referred to as Layer 2 of the OSI model. data rate The number of bits of data that are transmitted per second. Not to be confused with baud rate. datapath The number of bits wide or the number of channels in the bus. Deep Sleep Drastically reduced power mode entered into after certain conditions (such as prolonged inactivity) have been met.
current The amount of electricity moving through a conductive material such as a wire. Current is measured in amperes (amps).
collateral injuries Injury caused by involuntary muscle movement.
PY
coaxial cable A high-capacity cable used in communications and video, commonly called coax. It contains an insulated solid or stranded wire surrounded by a solid or braided metallic shield, wrapped in a plastic cover.
CSU/DSU Stands for Channel Service Unit/Data Service Unit. Combines the functions of CSU and DSU in one device. The CSU terminates a digital circuit. The DSU terminates a data circuit to the Data Terminal Equipment and converts customer transmission data into a bipolar format.
GLOSSARY
DIB Dual Independent Bus is the architecture used in Pentium processors. This architecture uses two busesone from the processor to main memory, and one from the processor to L2 cache. This increases throughput. Difference Engine Charles Babbages Difference Engine No. 1 was the rst successful automatic calculator. Although the 12,000 parts were never assembled into a nished engine, the parts that were completed functioned perfectly. DIMM Short for Dual In-line Memory Module. A group of memory chips that transfer information 64 bits at a time. DIN Stands for Deutsche Industrie Norm. A type of connector with 5 pins.
DIP Dual Inline Packages are CPU packaging designs that feature two rows of pins, one down each side of the CPU package. Used with older CPUs, through the 80286.
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DIP switch Switches on a card used to congure hardware settings. These are usually rocker switches (like light switches) to turn on or off.
EV
direct glare Results when a light source is exposed directly to the eye. display adapter A PC expansion board that converts the images created in the computer to the electronic signals required by the monitor.
DRAM Short for Dynamic RAM. A type of RAM that needs to be refreshed. drive interface A collection of electrical and logical connections between a hard drive and a PC. driver Software that enables the operating system and a peripheral device to communicate with each other. Also referred to as device driver. dual-voltage Design that enables use of a higher external voltage (also called I/O voltage), and a lower internal (also called core) voltage for processors. This design is also called splitrail. DVD Stands for Digital Video Disc. A datastorage medium that can store more information than compact discs.
dot-matrix printer Forms images out of dots on paper. Dot patterns are created by a set of pins that strike an inked ribbon.
docking station A desktop unit that portable computers connect to. Port replicators contain standard desktop expansion cards, additional drives, and ports for other desktop peripherals.
C
Glossary 393
DMA Stands for Direct Memory Access. Specialized circuitry or a dedicated microprocessor that transfers data from adapters to memory without using the CPU.
PY
degauss Remove magnetism from a device.
DLT Stands for Digital Linear Tape. Backup tape technology developed by DEC. Current storage capacity is up to 50 GB.
GLOSSARY
ECHS Extended CHS. Enables use of hard drives of up to 8.4 GB. ECP Stands for Extended Capability Port. Newer generation parallel port standard that provides high throughput (approximately 10 times faster than the Centronics standard). Used mostly by newer generation printers and scanners. EDO RAM Stands for Extended Data Output RAM. A type of DRAM that enables a memory address to hold data for multiple reads.
EDVAC The Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer was the rst computer to use stored programs. EEPROM Stands for Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory. A memory chip that is programmed and erased electrically. When the EEPROM is programmed, it acts like a regular ROM chip. EGA Stands for Enhanced Graphics Adapter. An early IBM video display standard that provided medium-resolution text and graphics.
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EDSAC The Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Computer was a well-engineered machine built by Maurice Wilkes and colleagues at the University of Cambridge Mathematics Lab in 1949 and was a productive tool for mathematicians.
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394
electricity The ow of electrons through a material or through a vacuum. electrons Negatively charged sub-atomic particles that carry energy with them when they move from one place to another. Electrostatic Photographic (EP) Describes the type of drum used in laser printers. These drums depend on electrostatic charges to hold toner that is moved over to paper during the transfer step. Enhanced IDE A drive interface based on the ANSI ATA-2 specication that provides support for larger hard drives, additional device connections, CD-ROMs, and tape drives. Also referred to as EIDE. ENIAC Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer was developed for the U.S. Army by J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly at the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia. ENIAC was programmed by plugging in cords and setting thousands of switches to direct how 18,000 vacuum tubes would perform 5,000 calculations per second.
electrical power The energy delivered by a ow of electrons. Power is the mathematical product of voltage and current and is measured in watts.
PY
ECC An Error Correct Code is a type of memory that corrects errors on the y.
EISA bus Extended Industry Standard Architecture is a PC bus standard that extends the 16-bit ISA bus (AT bus) to 32 bits and provides bus mastering.
GLOSSARY
EPROM Stands for Erasable Programmable ReadOnly Memory. A re-usable memory chip that is programmed electrically and erased by exposure to ultraviolet light. When the EPROM is programmed, it acts like a regular ROM chip. Ergonomics The study of people in their working environments.
ESD Electrostatic discharge is sparks (electrons) that jump from an electrically charged object to an approaching conductive object. ESDI Stands for Enhanced Small Device Interface. A drive interface similar to the ST-506 interface that provides increased performance over the ST-506. Pronounced ez-dee.
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EV
Ethernet The most widely used LAN access method, which is dened by the IEEE 802.3 standard. EWN Stands for Enterprise-Wide Network. A computer network that links all the computers in an organization.
fiber-optic cable A cable that transfers pulses of light instead of electrical signals. firewall A method for keeping a network secure. FireWire A high-speed serial bus developed by Apple and Texas Instruments that allows for the connection of up to 63 devices. firmware Software stored in memory chips that retain data whether or not power to the computer is on. Flash ROM Memory that stores data similarly to EEPROM, but uses a super-voltage charge to erase a block of data. Can only be erased and rewritten a few times. footcandle A unit of measure of the intensity of light falling on a surface.
Glossary 395
FDDI Stands for Fiber Distributed Data Interface. An ANSI standard token-passing network that uses ber-optical cabling and transmits at 100 Mbps up to 10 kilometers. Pronounced fuddy or ddy.
EPP Stands for Enhanced Parallel Port. Newer generation parallel port standard that offers high throughput (approximately 10 times faster than the Centronics standard). Used mostly by non-printer peripherals, such as CD-ROM drives and network adapters.
fast IrDA Infrared standard that uses a transfer speed of 4 Mbps.
Fast Ethernet Ethernet standard that supports transfer rates of 100 Mbps. Also called 100BaseT. Uses two pairs of twisted-pair wire. Other implementations include 100Base T4 (uses four pairs of twisted-pair wires), and 100BaseFL (uses ber-optic cables).
PY
EPIC Stands for Explicitly Parallel Instruction Computing. A new processor design that resembles Very Long Instruction Word (VLIW), which takes multiple simple instructions and combines them into a longer internal instruction word format.
exception interrupt An interrupt used by the processor to handle errors.
GLOSSARY
framing The process of using start, stop, and parity bits to verify asynchronous transmission. FRU Stands for eld replaceable unit. Term used in reference to laser printers, and refers to printer components that can be replaced as part of maintenance procedures. full duplex Communication type in which communication can occur in two directions at the same time. fuser The laser printer device that uses two rollers to heat toner particles, melting them onto the paper.
hardware interrupt An interrupt caused by some action of a hardware device, such as a keystroke or mouse movement.
gateway A computer that performs protocol conversion between different types of networks or applications. Gigabit Ethernet Ethernet standard that supports transfer rates of 1 gigabit per second. gigabyte A means of measuring le or disk size, equivalent to 1,024 MB. Abbreviated as GB. Graffiti A handwriting system used by PDAs. It provides a simplied alphabet the user uses to input data into a PDA. GUI A graphical user interface is a means of communicating with an operating system by using a mouse or other device to work with pictorial screen elements, instead of typing text commands at the keyboard.
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EV
396
head crash When read/write heads bang against the surface of the disk. heat sink A device attached to a processor that addresses the problem of overheating processors. Cool air is blown by a fan onto the devices metal elements, keeping the air around the processor cool. Hercules Graphics A monochrome display adapter capable of producing both high-resolution monochrome graphics and text. hierarchical network A network where one or more central computers, such as a mainframe, provides all processing power and resources to all other network nodes. hot swap To change out a device without needing to power down the PC during installation or remove the device. hub A central connecting device in a network that joins communication lines together in a star conguration.
handshaking Signals transmitted back and forth over a communications network that establish a valid connection between two stations.
PY
form factor The size and shape of AT system boards.
half duplex Communication type in which communication can occur in two directions, but only in one direction at a time.
GLOSSARY
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IDE drive interface Stands for Integrated Drive Electronics. A drive interface that provides inexpensive, high-speed data transfer between the hard drive or other IDE device and the other components of the computer.
interrupt A signal that gets the attention of the CPU and is usually generated when I/O is required. IP address A unique 4-byte number that identies a node on a TCP/IP network. IP addresses are commonly written in dotted decimal format, such as 128.0.0.1. IPX Stands for Internetwork Packet Exchange. A NetWare communications protocol used to route messages from one node to another. IRQ Stands for Interrupt Request Line. A hardware interrupt on a PC. ISA bus Industry Standard Architecture bus is an expansion bus commonly used in PCs.
EV
inductance A circuit or device in which a change in the current generates an electromotive force. infrared Technology that uses a beam of light to transmit data, rather than cables, using line-of sight technology.
IEEE Pronounced I-triple-E. Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers. An organization of scientists, engineers, and students of electronics and related elds whose technical and standards committees develop, publish, and revise computing and telecommunication standard.
I/O port A place on a computer where you can plug in peripheral devices. Also referred to as input/output port, or port.
interlaced A monitor that builds an image by displaying even-numbered scan lines and then odd numbered scan lines.
I/O address On PCs, a three-digit hexadecimal number (2AB, 2A0, and so on) used to identify and signal a peripheral device like a serial port, parallel port, or sound card.
interface card A means of connecting devices to the system board so that they can communicate with the microprocessor.
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Glossary 397
hybrid topology A physical topology where two or more of the basic physical topologies, such as bus, ring, star, and mesh, are combined.
intelligent hub A connecting device that forwards signals and provides other functionality such as routing and bridging.
integrated circuit Now usually called just a chip, the rst integrated circuit was fabricated in 1958 by Texas Instruments inventor Jack Kilby.
PY
HVD Stands for High Voltage Differential. A SCSI device that uses two wires, one for data, and one for the inverse of data. These devices use high voltage and cant be used on a single-ended SCSI chain.
inkjet printer Printer that forms images by spraying ink on paper.
GLOSSARY
kilobyte A means of measuring le or disk size, equivalent to 1,024 bytes. Abbreviated as KB.
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LAN Stands for Local Area Network. A computer network contained in a clearly dened geographic area, such as in a single building or single campus.
laser printer A type of printer that forms images on paper by using a laser beam and an electrophotographic drum. Produces high-quality output.
EV
LBA Logical Block Addressing is used to support increased capacity of IDE drives to over 504 MB, up to 8.4 GB. Some BIOS versions enable you to choose whether to use LBA mode. LCD A Liquid Crystal Display is a monitor constructed of a liquid crystal solution between two sheets of polarized material.
398
keyed component A component whose connector is designed such that connecting cables can only be attached in one way.
Lithium Polymer Portable computer battery using a jelly-like material. LMDS Stands for Local Multipoint Distribution Service. A fast digital wireless transmission system that requires line of sight between the transmitter and the receiver. load Power consumption of a device. LUN Logical Unit Number is a unique identier for sub-devices assigned to a single SCSI ID. LVD Stands for Low Voltage Differential. A SCSI device that uses two wires, one for data, and one for the inverse of data. These devices use low voltage and can be used on a single-ended SCSI chain. magnetic core memory Memory that stores binary data (0 or 1) in the orientation of magnetic charges in ferrite cores about 1/16th-inch diameter. MAN Stands for Metropolitan Area Network. A computer network conned to a single municipality that uses high-speed media like ber-optics or dedicated digital lines.
jumper A small plug placed over pins (or removed from pins) to congure hardware settings.
joystick A type of hand controller often used in computer games to control the action.
line conditioner A device that reduces noise and some power problems, mainly implemented because of its ability to reduce electromagnetic interference (EMI) and radio frequency interference (RFI).
PY
isochronous Uses a single device for clocking and all other devices set their internal clocks to this one device.
Li-Ion Portable computer lithium battery with a long life.
GLOSSARY
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megabyte A means of measuring le or disk size, equivalent to 1,024 KB. Abbreviated as MB. memory Internal storage areas of the computer.
mesh topology A physical topology where each node has a direct connection to all other nodes on the network, providing dedicated, permanent point-to-point communication paths.
EV
Micro Channel Architecture bus A proprietary 32-bit bus from IBM that was used in PS/2, RS/6000, and certain ES/9370 models. microprocessor A complete central processing unit on a single chip.
MDA Stands for Monochrome Display Adapter. The rst IBM PC monochrome video display standard for text only.
MMX A set of additional instructions to support multimedia functions and beyond. MNP Microcom Networking Protocol. Five modem standards offering different levels of error correction and detection. modem Stands for MOdulator/DEModulator. A device that adapts a computer to an analog telephone line by converting digital pulses to audio frequencies and vice versa. monitor A display screen used to present output from a computer. motherboard A common name for the system board, the main circuit board in a personal computer.
math coprocessor A mathematical circuit that performs highspeed oating point operations. It is generally built into the CPU chip. In older PCs, such as the 386SX and 486SX, the math coprocessor was an optional and separate chip.
MMDS Stands for Multichannel Multipoint Distribution Service or Microwave Multipoint Distribution Service. A digital wireless transmission system.
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Glossary 399
master The rst IDE or EIDE device on a single IDE channel. If the device is the hard drive on the rst IDE channel, the device can be formatted to be the boot disk.
MIPS Millions of Instructions Per Second. The execution speed of a computer; for example, 0.7 MIPS is 700,000 instructions per second.
mini-DIN Another term for a PS/2 port.
PY
Mark I A programmable, electromechanical calculator that combined 78 adding machines to perform three calculations per second. It was designed by Howard Aiken, built by IBM, and installed at Harvard in 1944.
MIDI Musical Instrument Digital Interface. An interface that allows you to connect and control electronic musical devices such as electric keyboards (pianos), synthesizers, and guitars.
GLOSSARY
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multiport repeater A connecting unit that regenerates the data bits in order to maintain a strong signal. Also referred to as an active hub. Napiers Bones In 1617, the Scotsman John Napier designed a set of rectangular rods with numbers etched on them that let the users do multiplication by adding the numbers on properly positioned rods. NetBEUI Stands for NetBios Enhanced User Interface. The default networking protocol for the Windows desktop operating system. NetBIOS An API that sends data from the Session layer to the Transport layer.
multipoint connection scheme Connection of three or more devices by a communication channel.
multimeter Electronic test equipment that can perform multiple tasks. Typically one capable of measuring voltage, current, and resistance. More sophisticated modern digital multimeters also measure capacitance, inductance, current gain of transistors, and anything else that can be measured electronically.
EV
400
network model A description of the amount of centralized control found on a network. Examples include client-server and peer-to-peer. network scope The effective coverage area of a network, such as local area network or wide area network. network topology The layout of the transmission medium and devices on a network. nibble A group of 4 bits. An 8-bit byte is written as 2 nibbles to make it easier to read. NiCad Portable computer battery made of nickel and cadmium with a three to four hour life. NiMH Environmentally friendly battery for portable computers. NLQ Stands for Near Letter Quality. Term used for dot-matrix printers that use two or more passes over a line of text. This improves dot-matrix print quality. node A generic term for any computer on a network.
MSDS Material safety data sheets are technical bulletins designed to give users and emergency personnel information about the proper procedures of storage and handling of a hazardous substance.
Network layer A layer of the OSI model that provides internetworking for the communication sessions. Also referred to as Layer 3 of the OSI model.
PY
MPEG decoder MPEG stands for Movie Picture Experts Group. This group has developed MPEG digital video compression standards and le formats, including MPEG-1 and MPEG-2.
network adapter A printed circuit board that plugs into both the clients (personal computers or workstations) and servers and controls the exchange of data between them. Also referred to as network boards, network cards, and NICs (network interface cards).
GLOSSARY
out-of-order completion Technology that enables superscalar processors to re-assemble the results of instructions that were nished out of order into the correct order. This way, correct program execution is assured. overdrive chip Chip that enables you to upgrade a computers performance simply by replacing the original processor with a new (overdrive) processor on the older system board.
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OSI model Stands for Open System Interconnection. A model that describes network communications as consisting of seven layers that work together to provide network services.
EV
parallel transmission Data is sent several bits at once. parity bit An extra bit attached to a byte, character, or word used to detect errors in transmission.
PC Card The credit card-sized devices which are used in portables instead of desktop expansion cards. PCI bus Peripheral Component Interconnect bus is a peripheral bus commonly used in PCs that provides a high-speed datapath between the CPU and peripheral devices. PCMCIA Stands for Personal Computer Memory Card International Association. An association of organizations that establishes standards for PC Cards.
OS An operating system is a type of system software that provides the basic interface between the user and the computer components.
PC Personal computers are stand-alone, singleuser desktop, or smaller, computers that can function independently. PC used to refer to any personal computer, but now refers to personal computers that follow the original design by IBM, use Intel or compatible chips, and usually have some version of Windows as an operating system. PCs are sometimes called IBM Compatibles.
online UPS A UPS that supplies power from a battery at all times. The battery is recharged from the regular electrical supply.
passive matrix An LCD relying on persistence to maintain the state of pixels between scans.
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Glossary 401
on-die Integrated onto a processor chip.
passive hub Connecting units that add nothing to the data passing through them.
NOS Stands for network operating system. Computer software that manages all the resources accessible over the network.
Pascaline machine A calculating machine that could add and subtract, developed in 1642 by French mathematician Blaise Pascal.
PY
non-interlaced A monitor that doesnt use interlacing. It produces less ickering.
park Read/write heads move over an unused section of the disk when the computer is powered off.
GLOSSARY
Physical layer A layer of the OSI model that provides rules for the transmission of bits over the network medium. Also referred to as Layer 1 of the OSI model.
physical topology A networks entire physical conguration. Piezo-electric technology Inkjet printing technology that uses a piezo crystal that exes when current ows through it. This changes the shape of the crystal and thus forces a drop of ink out of the nozzle and onto the paper. pinout A diagram of wire termination to connector pins. PIO Mode Stands for Programmed Input/Output Mode. Indicates the speed of data transfer between two devices that use the computers processor as a part of the datapath. pixel The smallest discrete element on a video display.
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EV
402
PGA A Pin Grid Array is a type of CPU packaging design on which pins are distributed evenly in parallel rows on the entire bottom of a square chip.
POST Stands for Power-On Self Test. A series of built-in diagnostics that are performed when the computer is rst started. Proprietary codes are generated (POST codes) that indicate test results. power supply The component that supplies power to the computer and converts alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC). Presentation layer A layer of the OSI model that provides conversion of codes and formats for the communication session. Also referred to as Layer 6 of the OSI model. printed circuit board A very thin plate which has chips and other electrical components on it. PROM Stands for Programmable Read-Only Memory. A memory chip that can be programmed once. After its programmed, it acts like a regular ROM chip.
peer-to-peer network A network where all computers connected to the network can act as a provider (server) or consumer (client) of network resources.
port replicator Device that contains typical PC ports to enable users of portable computers to travel between multiple locations and attach to non-portable peripherals such as monitors and printers. Similar to a docking station, but does not provide slots for expansion cards.
point-to-point connection scheme Two devices are connected by a single communication channel.
PY
PDA A personal digital assistant is a very small computer that can be handheld. Often used to keep an electronic calendar and address book, get email, send faxes, and take notes on the go.
Plug and Play Method to have the operating system automatically congure adapter settings. Also written as PnP.
GLOSSARY
protected mode In PCs, starting with the 286, an operational state that allows the computer to address all of its memory. It also prevents an errant program from entering into the memory boundary of another. In a 386 and higher machine, it provides access to 32-bit instructions and sophisticated memory management modes. PS/2 port A round 6-pin port used to connect keyboards and mice to PCs. QIC Stands for Quarter-inch cartridge. Oldest, most standardized backup tape technology, available for most computer platforms. Quick Start Power-saving mode supported by many Intel Mobile processors. RAM Random Access Memory integrated circuit is a chip that functions as the computers primary temporary storage place for data. RDRAM Stands for Rambus Dynamic Random Access Memory. A new memory architecture by Rambus, Inc. that supports speeds of up to 800 Mhz.
repetitive strain injury Involves damage to muscles, tendons, and nerves caused by overuse or misuse. resistance The opposition to the ow of electric current through a material. Resistance is calculated by dividing the voltage by the current and is measured in ohms ().
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EV
real mode An operational state in Intel CPU chips (starting with the 286) in which the computer functions like the rst Intel CPU chip (8086/8088), which is limited to accessing 1 MB of memory. DOS applications run in real mode, unless they have been enhanced with a DOS extender that allows them to use more memory.
reflective glare Created by a monitor screens mirror-like surface.
RIMM Stands for Rambus In-line Memory Module. A memory module for RDRAM. Supports from one to 16 direct RDRAM devices in Rambus channel. Used primarily as main memory on a system board. ring topology A physical topology where all nodes are connected in a continuous loop, and nodes relay information around the loop in a round-robin manner. RISC Stands for Reduced Instruction Set Computer. These are processors that require instructions to be of a xed length, making their instructions simpler, and fewer, than CISC, but more instructions are required to carry out a single function. RJ-45 Stands for Registered Jack-45. Connector with eight wires that is used to connect computers onto Local Area Networks that use twisted-pair cabling.
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Glossary 403
repeater A communications device that amplies or regenerates the data signal in order to extend the transmission distance. Also referred to as active hubs.
PY
register renaming Technology that uses multiple sets of registers in the processor to provide multiple execution paths.
GLOSSARY
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scanner A device that can convert printed images into a computer readable format. SCSI Stands for Small Computer System Interface. A drive controller that provides high-performance data transfer between the hard drive or other SCSI device and the other components of the computer. Pronounced scuzzy. SDRAM Stands for Synchronous DRAM. Memory that has a clock that is coordinated with the system clock to synchronize the memory chips input and output signals.
SAN Stands for Storage Area Network. A computer network consisting of large-capacity storage devices.
EV
404
RS-232 Serial communication standard that describes how to connect computer terminals to modems.
router A device that determines the best path for a data packet to be sent from one network to another and forwards the message along that path.
semiconductor A solid-state substance that can be electrically altered. Certain elements in nature, such as silicon, perform like semiconductors when chemically combined with other elements. A semiconductor is halfway between a conductor and an insulator. serial transmission Data is sent and received one bit at a time over a single wire. server A computer on a network that manages resources for other computers on the network. Session layer A layer of the OSI model that initiates and manages the communication session. Also referred to as Layer 5 of the OSI model. SIE Serial Interface Engine. The USB module responsible for bus protocol. SIMD Single Instruction Multiple Data is a processing technique that allows a single instruction to work on multiple pieces of data. SIMM Short for Single In-line Memory Module. A group of memory chips that transfer information 32 bits at a time.
root hub The USB module used to expand the number of USB ports.
sector The smallest unit of storage read or written on a disk.
PY
ROM A special type of memory that is permanent. It stores programs necessary to boot the computer and to diagnose problems.
SECC Stands for Single Edge Contact Cartridge. Type of CPU packaging that refers to a design where the processor is located on a circuit board that is inserted into a slot on the system board.
GLOSSARY
slave The second IDE or EIDE device on a single IDE channel. slow IrDA Infrared standard that uses a transfer speed of 9.6 Kbps. Socket Services Device driver software for PC Card. software A set of electronic instructions for processing data. software interrupt An interrupt caused by an instruction in a software program. soldered Components soldered to a circuit board are held in place by solid metal connections created when a drop of melted solder (lead, tin, and silver combination) placed on the connection cools into a solid dot of metal. sound card An internal card used to convert digital signals to sound waves. Includes several external ports for connecting electronic musical instruments, joysticks, speakers, and microphones.
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EV
speculative execution The process of the CPU trying to guess which instruction will be used next, and executing one or more instructions as a result of the guess.
SRAM Short for Static RAM. A type of RAM that doesnt need to be refreshed. ST-506 interface A legacy drive interface still in use today. Also referred to as the ST-412 interface. standby UPS SUPS are UPSs that supply power from a battery when power problems are detected. Sometimes referred to as standby power supply (SPS). star topology A LAN physical topology where all nodes individually connect to a central computer or other device such as a multiport repeater, concentrator, or hub. static electricity A stationary electrical charge that is the result of intentional charging or of friction in low-humidity environments.
SPX Stands for Sequenced Packet Exchange. The NetWare communications protocol used to control the transport of messages across a network.
SPGA Stands for Staggered Pin Grid Array. This CPU packaging design staggers pins so that more pins will t on the same amount of surface.
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Glossary 405
PY
single-ended device SCSI device that uses a single wire for each bit of data.
SpeedStep Technology that enables two different performance modes, Maximized Performance Mode, and Battery Optimized Mode. In Maximized Performance Mode, the processor runs at its highest speed and normal internal voltage. In Battery Optimized Mode, the processor runs at a reduced speed and a reduced internal voltage.
GLOSSARY
subnet mask Distinguishes the host portion of an IP address from the network portion.
subnetting The process of subdividing a single network address to allow for unique network addresses on a subnet. superpipelining The ability of the CPU chip to overlap the execution steps (fetch, decode, execute, and write) of four instructions. superscalar Technology that enables the CPU to execute two instructions simultaneously, using the U and V pipelines.
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subnet masking Lets you restructure how each IP address in your organization is divided between the network portion and the host portion of the address.
EV
406
subnet A network segment that derives its address from a single IP address.
stylus Pen-shaped device used to enter information into a PDA.
system software Low-level programs that provide the most basic functionality, such as operating systems. Tape Carrier Package (TCP) CPU packaging used for portable computer processors. Has a small footprint and is produced using a process called tapeautomating bonding. Chips produced with this packaging weigh less than one gram and are thinner than a dime. Core voltage is 2.45 V. TCP/IP Stands for Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol. The protocol suite used to connect hosts on the Internet and other networks. termination The process of properly ending a chain of ESDI or SCSI disk drives by installing a terminating resistor. token A device used in ring networks to ensure that only one node transmits data at any one time. If a node doesnt hold the token, it cant transmit data until it does hold the token. Token Ring A computer network connected in a loop conguration so that only the computer holding the token can communicate.
STP Stands for shielded twisted-pair. Twistedpair cable that is wrapped in a metal sheath. This reduces the possibility of problems caused by electrical interference.
system board The main circuit board in a personal computer.
synchronous transmission Keeps the receivers clock synchronized with the transmitters clock.
PY
Stepped Reckoner A mechanical calculator developed by the German, Gottfried von Leibniz, that improved Pascals design to include multiplication and division. Only two prototypes were produced.
synchronous Transmission of a bit stream of data where the transmitter and receiver are synchronized.
GLOSSARY
track A storage channel on disk or tape. On disks, tracks are concentric circles (hard and oppy disks) or spirals (CDs and video discs). On tapes, they are parallel lines. trackball A mouse alternative with a ball mounted on top of a stationary base. Rotating the ball moves the pointer on the screen. transceiver Device built into NICs that enables sending and receiving data over the network cable. transistor A device containing semiconductor material that can amplify a signal or open and close a circuit. In computers, transistors function as an electronic switch. Transport layer A layer of the OSI model that provides end-to-end management of the communication session. Also referred to as Layer 4 of the OSI model. triboelectric generation The use of friction between different materials to generate an electrostatic charge on the materials.
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EV
TSR Terminate and Stay Resident; a program that always stays in memory. TTL Monitor that uses transistor-transistor logic signals.
UDMA Ultra DMA is a newer and faster drive technology for data transfers on IDE drives. Also called Ultra ATA and Fast ATA-2. Provides for transfer speeds of up to 100 MBps. UDP Stands for User Datagram Protocol. A protocol within the TCP/IP protocol suite that is used in place of TCP when a reliable delivery is not required. UMB Upper Memory Block is an unused blockin the upper memory area (640 KB to 1 MB). UNIVAC The Universal Automatic Computer was completed in 1951 by Eckert and Mauchly for the U.S. Bureau of the Census. It was the rst commercial computer in the United States and could handle both numerical and alphabetical information.
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Glossary 407
touch pad A stationary device that you slide your nger over to move the mouse pointer on the screen.
UART Stands for Universal Asynchronous Receiver-Transmitter. A component that controls asynchronous serial communications. A computer has a UART to control serial ports, and internal modems have their own UART. External modems use the computers UART. In this case, to achieve maximum transmisison speeds, the computers UART must be capable of handling the modems maximum transmission speed.
PY
toner An electrically charged dry ink substance used in laser printers.
twisted-pair cable A thin-diameter wire (22 to 26 gauge) commonly used for telephone and network cabling. The wires are twisted around each other to minimize interference from other twisted pairs in the cable.
GLOSSARY
VGA Stands for Video Graphics Array. The minimum standard for PC video display, which originated with IBMs PS/2 models in 1987. virtual machine The ability of a CPU to perform as multiple 8086 CPUs. Under direction of a control program, each virtual machine runs as a stand-alone 8086 running its own operating system and applications; thus, DOS, UNIX, and other operating systems can be running simultaneously. All virtual machines are multitasked together. VL-Bus Stands for VESA Local-Bus. A peripheral bus from VESA that was primarily used in 486s and provides a high-speed datapath between the CPU and peripherals.
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VAN Stands for Value-Added Network. A computer network that provides services above and beyond the transmission of data.
vacuum tube A sealed glass or metal container that controls a ow of electrons through a vacuum.
EV
408
UTP Stands for unshielded twisted-pair. Twistedpair cable that has two unshielded wires twisted around each other. This type of cabling is inexpensive, but electrical interference can be a problem.
WAN Stands for Wide Area Network. A computer network that spans large geographic areas like countries and continents. wireless communication Data transmission that does not require a physical cable. WRAM Stands for Window RAM. Developed by Samsung Electronics, this type of RAM is optimized for display adapters. ZIF socket A Zero Insertion Force socket is a type of processor socket that uses a lever to tighten or loosen the pin connections between the processor chip and the socket. Zinc Air Portable computer battery that uses a carbon membrane that absorbs oxygen. Zoomed Video (ZV) A connection between a PC Card and the host system that allows the card to write video data directly to the VGA controller.
USB standard Stands for Universal Serial Bus. A hardware interface for low-speed peripherals such as the keyboard, mouse, joystick, scanner, printer, and telephony devices.
VRAM Stands for Video RAM. These chips have two access paths to a single memory address, to improve performance. One path is used for reads, the other for writes.
voltage Electric potential or potential difference, expressed in volts.
PY
UPS An uninterruptible power supply is a device intended to save computer components from damage due to power problems such as failures, spikes, and sags.
VLSI Stands for Very Large-Scale Integration. The process of placing thousands of electronic components on a single chip.
INDEX
3D images, 283-284
A
abacus, 2-4 active matrix, 299 adapter card, 125-128 adapters, 125 Color Graphics, 193 display, 192-195 Enhanced Graphics, 193-194 Ethernet, 361 Monochrome Display, 192 network, 359-362 Plug and Play, 139-140 switchless ISA, 132-133 Advanced Power Management See: APM Analytical Engine, 2-4 APM, 310-312 AppleTalk, 347 application software, 26 ARCNet, 347 Arithmometer, 2-4 asynchronous transmission, 151 ATAPI, 225
backup, 232 4 mm DAT0, 230 8 mm tape, 230-231 DLT, 231 grandfather method, 232-233 media, 229-231 policy, 231 QIC, 230 rotation methods, 232-233 storage, 235-236 systems, 229 tape drives, 230 Tower of Hanoi method, 232-233 types, 233-234 bandwidth, 367-368 Base Memory addresses, 127 baud rate, 151
EV
-D
Binary Number System, 12-15 BIOS, 80-83, 213 boot process, 80-81 conguring ROM BIOS, 83-84 NetBIOS, 366 Plug and Play, 140 bits, 18 framing, 151 parity, 118 BNC connectors, 355-356 boot process, 80-81 branch prediction, 91 bridges, 349-350 brouters, 351 bus, 23-24, 125-128, 142-143 8-bit, 128-130 AGP, 143 conguring, 131-132 EISA, 133-135 external width, 98 internal width, 98 ISA, 130-133 Micro Channel Architecture, 136-138 PCI, 138-139 SCSI, 219-220 VL-Bus, 142 bytes, 18
cache, 89 Card Services, 305-308 Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection See: CSMA/CD CD-Recordable/Re-Writeables, 285 CD-ROM drives, 225-227 practical issues, 226 using, 226 Central Processing Units See: CPUs CGA, 193
Channel Service Unit/Digital Service Unit See: CSU/DSU characteristics, 211 chemical hazards, 54-55 material safety data sheet (MSDS), 54-55 chipset, 20-21 client-server networks, 323 clients, 316-321 clock speed, 97, 106 CMOS, 82-83, 105-106 error codes, 82-83 setting drive type, 215, 221 CMOS RAM, 22-23 coaxial cable, 355-356 collateral injuries, 51-54 Color Graphics Adapter See: CGA Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor See: CMOS Complex Instruction Set Computer See: CISC connection schemes multipoint, 326-330 point-to-point, 326-330 conventional memory, 86-87 corona wire, 269-271 CPUs, 85 286, 86-87 386, 87-88 486, 89 8086, 86 8088, 86 comparing, 97 Intel, 85-86 Pentium, 90 protected mode, 86-87 real mode, 86-87 crosstalk, 147 CSCI, 85 CSMA/CD, 345-346 CSU/DSU, 351 current
PY
Index 409
INDEX
D
data rate, 151 sychronizing, 150 transmitting, 146-148 datapath, 105-106 Decimal Number System, 10-12 degauss, 261-262 Device Bay, 170-171 dial-up networking remote access, 202-204 Difference Engine, 2-4 digital cameras, 282 DIMM, 22-23, 120 DIP, 101 DIP switch, 128-130 DIP switches, 115-116, 128-130 Direct Memory Acces See: DMA disk drives, 208-212 oppy, 222-223 other removables, 227-229 removable media, 222-225 SCSI, 219-221 Syquest, 227-228 display adapter, 192-195 DMA, 127-128 docking station, 301-302 dot-matrix printers functions, 275-276 maintaining, 276 repairing, 276-277 settings, 276 variations, 277 DRAM, 22-23, 117-118 drive interfaces, 176 comparing, 187-191 Enhanced IDE, 185 ESDI, 176-177
ECC, 118-119 ECHS, 185 EDSAC, 5-6 EDVAC, 5-6 EEPROM, 29 EGA, 193-194 EIDE drives, 212-216 EISA bus, 133-135 conguring, 134-135 electrical power, 41 electricity, 40-42 current, 40-41 electrons, 40 energy, 41 ESD, 46-51 hazards, 51-54 measuring, 43-46 power, 41 static, 46-47 voltage, 40, 44 electronic computers EDSAC, 5-6 EDVAC, 5-6 ENIAC, 5-6 key technologies, 9 Mark I, 4-10 UNIVAC, 5-6 electrons, 40
EV
-D
410
T
F
C
FDDI, 356-357
PY
alternating current (AC), 40-41 direct current (DC), 40-41 measuring, 44 cylinders, 208-209
IDE, 184 SCSI, 177-180 SCSI-II, 181 SCSI-III, 181-183 ST-506/ST-412, 176 drive power connectors, 75 driver, 27 Dual Independent Bus (DIB), 92 Dual Inline Package See: DIP DVD players, 284-285
electrostatic discharge See: ESD Electrostatic Photographic See: EP Enhanced Graphics Adapter See: EGA Enhanced IDE, 185 Enhanced Small Device Interface See: ESDI ENIAC, 5-6 EP, 269-271 EPROM, 29 ergonomics, 57-58, 59-60, 61, 62 chair placement, 58-59 keyboard placement, 60 monitor placement, 61 mouse placement, 60 posture, 59-60 work environment, 62 Error Correct Code See: ECC ESD, 46-51 preventing, 48-49 safe workstation, 49-50 ESDI, 176-177 termination, 176-177 Ethernet 10BASE2, 344-345 10BASE5, 344-345 10BASET, 344-345 Fast Ethernet, 344-345 functions, 345-346 Gigabit Ethernet, 344-345 NICs, 359-360 other adapters, 361 Extended CHS See: ECHS Extended Industry Standard Architecture See: EISA
INDEX
Fiber Distributed Data Interface See: FDDI ber-optic cable, 356-357 re prevention, 65 extinguishers, 65-67 procedures, 67-69 rewalls, 351-352 FireWire, 168-172 cables, 168-169 chips, 169-170 hot swap, 170-171 rmware, 28-30 oppy disks, 222-223 storage capacity, 223-224 form factor, 211 framing, 151 full duplex communication, 362 fuser, 269-271 chemical, 54-55 electrical, 51-54 of using PCs, 57-65 HBA, 220 installing, 220 head crash, 210 heat sinks, 99-100 Hercules Graphics Card See: HGC Hexadecimal Number System, 15-18 HGC, 193 hierarchical networks, 324-325 host systems, 125 hot swap, 170-171 hot-swap, 305 hubs, 348-349 active, 348-349 intelligent, 348-349 passive, 348-349 keyboards, 238-244, 300 mouse, 244-252 Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers See: IEEE INT13, 185 integrated circuits, 7-8 Integrated Drive Electronics See: IDE interface, 23-24 card, 23-24 Internetwork Packet eXchange See: IPX Interrupt 13 See: INT13 interrupts, 125-126 exception, 125-126 hardware, 125-126 software, 125-126 IP address, 363-366 IPX, 366 IRQ, 125-126, 156, 201-202 ISA bus, 130-133 switchless adapters, 132-133 isochronous, 162-164
G
gateways, 351 GB, 18-19 gigabytes GB, 18-19 grandfather method, 232-233 graphical user interface See: GUI GUI, 26
-D
half duplex communication, 362 handshaking, 152 hard disks, 208-209 attaching cables, 215 conguring, 216 reading from, 210 writing to, 209-210 hard drive installing controllers, 191-192 hard drives, 211 conguring, 211 installing, 211 SCSI, 221-222 hazards
I/O addresses, 127, 156, 201-202 I/O devices, 281-287 I/O port, 146 IDE, 184 controller boards, 214-215 drive interface, 184 drives, 212-216, 217 enhanced, 185 installing hard drives, 213-214 troubleshooting, 217 IEEE, 168-172, 343-348 interfaces, 168 inductance, 210 Industry Standard Architecture See: ISA infrared communications, 331-332 inkjet printers functions, 273-274 maintaining, 274-275 repairing, 275 settings, 274 input devices, 238
EV
C
J K
Jaz drive, 228 jumper, 128-130 jumpers, 214-215
KB, 18-19 keyboards functions, 238-244 maintaining, 240-241 repairing, 241-243 settings, 239-240 variations, 243-244 keyed component, 74-76 kilobytes See: KB
PY
Index 411
INDEX
L
LAN, 317-319 laser printers functions, 269-271 maintaining, 272 repairing, 272-273 settings, 271 lasers, 55-56 hazards, 55-56 LBA, 185, 213 LCD, 263-264 Li-Ion, 309-310 line conditioners, 79 Liquid Crystal Display See: LCD Lithium Polymer, 309-310 Local Area Network See: LAN Logical Block Addressing See: LBA CMOS RAM, 22-23 conventional, 86-87 DIMM, 22-23, 120 DRAM, 22-23, 117-118 ECC, 118-119 EDO-RAM, 117-118 EEPROM, 29 EPROM, 29 magnetic core, 6-7 portable systems, 298-299 PROM, 29 RAM, 7-8, 22-23, 117-118 RDRAM, 117-118 RIMM, 120 ROM, 22-23, 28-30, 116 SDRAM, 117-118 SIMM, 22-23, 119 SRAM, 22-23, 117-118 VRAM, 117-118 WRAM, 117-118 Micro Channel Architecture bus, 136-138 conguring, 137 microphones, 285 microprocessors 8008, 7-8 MIDI, 195-197 Million Instructions Per Second See: MIPS mini-DIN, 148-149 MIPS, 97 modems, 197-201 asynchronous, 198 AT commands, 199 conguring, 200 installing, 200 ITU standards, 198-199 MNP standards, 199 synchronous, 198 monitor, 192-195 monitors CRT-based, 252-265 direct glare, 61 functions, 253-255 maintaining, 260-261 quality, 255-256 reective glare, 61 repairing, 261-262 settings, 258-260 specications, 256-258 variations, 263-264 Monochrome Display Adapter See: MDA motherboard, 20-21 mouse, 244-252 functions, 245 maintaining, 247-248 repairing, 248 settings, 246-247 variations, 248-251 MPEG decoder, 225 MSDS, 54-55 multi-function machines, 285 multimeter analog, 43-46 digital, 43-46 Musical Instrument Digital Interface See: MIDI
magnetic core memory, 6-7 Mark I, 4-10 master drives, 211 material safety data sheet See: MSDS math coprocessors, 89 MB, 18-19 MDA, 192 mechanical computers, 2-4 abacus, 2-4 Analytical Engine, 2-4 Arithmometer, 2-4 Difference Engine, 2-4 Napiers Bones, 2-4 Pascaline machine, 2-4 Stepped Reckoner, 2-4 megabytes MB, 18-19 memory, 22-23, 116-119 addressable, 98-99 chip packages, 119-120
-D
EV
412
T
N
Napiers Bones, 2-4 NetBEUI, 366 NetBIOS, 366 NetBios Enhanced User Interface See: NetBEUI network model, 321-325 Network Operating System See: NOS networks, 316-321, 340-342, 348-353 adapters, 359-362 client-server, 323 combining, 324 common problems, 367-368 hierarchical, 324-325 IEEE standards, 343-348 LAN, 317-319 media, 353-359 models, 321-325
PY
INDEX
multi-function devices, 352 peer-to-peer, 321-322 physical topology, 326-330 protocols, 363-367 scope, 317-319 Token Ring, 346-347 topologies, 326-330 WAN, 317-319 nibbles, 18 NiCad, 309-310 NiMH, 309-310 nodes, 316-321 NOS, 319 number systems, 10-12 binary systems, 12-15 computer values, 18-19 decimal system, 10-12 hexadecimal system, 15-18
P
parallel ports, 157-160 Centronics, 157-160 conguring, 159 parallel transmission, 146-148 parity bit, 118 park, 210 Pascaline machine, 2-4 passive matrix, 299 PC Cards, 305-308 interface, 305 swapping, 305-308 types, 305-308 PCI bus, 138-139 PCMCIA, 305 PCs components, 19-24 disposing of equipment, 69-71 early models, 9 enclosure styles, 106-107 hazards of servicing, 51 precautions when using, 57-65 re-using equipment, 70 reclaiming equipment, 70 recycling equipment, 70-71 safety issues, 51-57 PCV, 20-21 peer-to-peer networks, 321-322 Peripheral Component Interconnect See: PCI Personal Computer Memory Card International Association See: PCMCIA personal computers See: PCs PGA, 101 physical topology bus, 326-330 hybrid, 326-330 mesh, 326-330 ring, 326-330 star, 326-330
O
Ohms Law, 41-42 online UPS, 79 operating system See: OS OS, 26, 320 client, 320 workstation, 320 OSI model, 332-343 Application layer, 339-340 benets, 342 connection devices, 352 Data Link layer, 334-335 Network layer, 335-336 Physical layer, 334 Presentation layer, 338-339 Session layer, 337-338 Transport layer, 336-337 out-of-order completion, 92 output devices, 252 monitors, 252-265 printers, 266-278 overdrive chips, 102-105
Pin Grid Array See: PGA pinout, 148-149 pinouts null-modem, 156-157 PIO Mode, 185-186 Plug and Play, 80-81 adapters, 139-140 BIOS, 140 devices, 140 operating systems, 140-142 portable systems batteries, 309-310 concerns, 292 DC controllers, 294 displays, 299 hard drives, 297-298 keyboards, 300 memory, 298-299 packaging, 294 peripherals, 301-302 pointers, 300-301 processors, 294-297 types, 293 POST, 80-81 error codes, 81-82 power APM, 310-312 batteries, 309-310 managing, 308-312 power supply, 74-76 converting AC to DC, 74-75 preventing problems, 78-79 replacing, 76 servicing, 76-77 Power-On Self Test See: POST printed circuit board See: PCV printers, 266-278 connecting to a computer, 278-280 dot-matrix, 275-276 inkjet, 273-274 laser printers, 269-271
EV
-D
PY
Index 413
INDEX
other kinds of, 277 troubleshooting, 266-269 processors, 294-297 386DX, 88 386SL, 88 386SX, 88 486, 89 beyond original Pentium, 92 Celeron, 93 Merced, 96-97 microprocessors, 21-22 mobile, 97 next generation, 96 Pentium, 90 Pentium II, 93 Pentium III, 93-94 Pentium III Xeon, 94-95 Pentium MMX, 93 Pentium Pro, 92 servicing, 100 Programmed Input/Output Mode See: PIO Mode PROM, 29 PS/2 ports, 148-149 keyboard, 149 mouse, 149 ROM, 22-23, 28-30, 116 EEPROM, 29 EPROM, 29 programmable, 116-117 PROM, 29 root hub, 162-164 routers, 350 RS-232 circuit functions, 155-156 communicating, 156 mechanical characteristics, 154-155 signaling techniques, 155 standards, 154 RSI, 57-58 vision, 63 serial transmission, 146-148 servers, 316-321 SIE, 162-164 SIMM, 22-23, 119 Single Edge Contact Cartridge See: SECC slave drives, 211 slots, 102-105 Small Computer System Interface See: SCSI Socket Services, 305-308 sockets, 102-105 software, 25-28 application, 26 driver, 27 system, 26 soldered, 20-21 sound cards, 195-197 speakers, 285 speculative execution, 91 SPX, 366 SRAM, 22-23, 117-118 standby UPS (SUPS), 78 static electricity, 46-47 creating, 47-48 Stepped Reckoner, 2-4 SuperDisk drive, 228 superpipelining, 91 superscalar technology, 91 synchronous transmission, 151 system board, 20-21 system boards, 105-111 AT, 105-106 ATX, 110 baby AT, 108-109 components, 112-115 form factors, 107 full-size AT, 107-108 LPX, 109 NLX, 110-111 servicing, 115-116 XT, 105-106 system software, 26
radiation, 64 RAM, 7-8, 22-23, 117-118 Reduced Instruction Set Computer See: RISC register renaming, 91 remote access conguring, 202-204 establishing a connection, 203-204 repeaters, 348-349 multiport, 348-349 Repetitive Strain Injury See: RSI resistance, 41-42 measuring, 44 RIMM, 120 RISC, 85
scanners, 281-282 SCSI, 177-180 attaching cables, 221 drives, 219-221 HVD, 183 installing drives, 219-221 installing the drive, 220-221 LVD, 183 planning the bus, 219-220 setting CMOS, 221 single-ended devices, 183 troubleshooting, 221-222 SCSI-II, 181 Fast, 181 Wide, 181 SCSI-III, 181-183 Also See: Ultra SCSI SECC, 102 semiconductors, 41-42 Sequenced Packet Exchange See: SPX serial connections null-modem, 156-157 Serial Interface Engine See: SIE serial ports, 150-153 COM, 151
EV
414
-D
PY
INDEX
T
TCP/IP, 363-366 termination, 176-177, 219-220 token, 326-330 rings, 346-347 Token Ring, 346-347 toner, 269-271 tools, 30-33 additional, 30-31 basic toolkit, 30-31 circuit board repair kit, 32 hardware, 30 networking toolkit, 31-32 software, 33-35 Tower of Hanoi method, 232-233 transistors, 6-7, 41-42 Transmission Control Protocl/Internet Protocol See: TCP/IP triboelectric generation, 47-48 troubleshooting I/O devices, 281-287 IDE, 217 input devices, 286-287 output devices, 286-287 printers, 266-269 SCSI, 221-222 Ultra DMA (UDMA) drives, 218218--219219 USB, 165-166 TV tuners, 286 twisted-pair cable, 353-355 STP, 353-355 UTP, 353-355 Universal Serial Bus See: USB Upper Memory Block See: UMB UPS, 78-79 online, 79 standby, 78 USB, 160-168 cables, 162-164 ports, 160-168 power, 162 troubleshooting, 165-166 version 2.0, 164
V
vacuum tubes, 5-6 VGA, 194 SVGA, 194 UVGA, 194 video captures still captures, 282-283 Video Graphics Array See: VGA virtual machines, 87-88 voltage, 40 measuring, 44
EV
Ultra DMA (UDMA), 186, 217-218 drives, 217-218 troubleshooting, 218-219 Ultra SCSI, 181-183 UMB, 127 uninterruptible power supply See: UPS UNIVAC, 5-6
-D
WAN, 317-319 Wide Area Network See: WAN wireless communication, 357-358
Z
Zinc Air, 309-310 Zip drive, 228 Zoomed Video See: ZV ZV, 305-308
N
Index 415
PY
EV
416
-D
PY
EV L -D O N O T C
PY

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INSTRUCTORS

A+ CERTIFICATION: CORE HARDWARE

A+ Certication: Core Hardware

2. Click on Student Enrollment 3. Enter the following Enrollment Key 23816-33790-comptia

Your Knowledge2 online ID is valid for 90-days from initial logon.

A+ CERTIFICATION: CORE HARDWARE

Lesson 6: Expansion Boards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

Lesson 7: Storage Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207

A+ CERTIFICATION: CORE HARDWARE

LESSON 1: INTRODUCTION TO MICROCOMPUTERS

A+ Certication: Core Hardware

LESSON 3: SYSTEM COMPONENTS

A+ Certication: Core Hardware

Task 3E-2 Replacing Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 Lesson Review 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

LESSON 4: BUS ARCHITECTURES

LESSON 5: PORTS, CONNECTORS, AND CABLES

Topic 5D Topic 5E Topic 5F

A+ Certication: Core Hardware

Topic 6B Topic 6C Topic 6D

LESSON 6: EXPANSION BOARDS

LESSON 7: STORAGE SYSTEMS

LESSON 8: PERIPHERAL DEVICES

LESSON 9: PORTABLE COMPUTING

LESSON 10: NETWORKING

A+ Certication: Core Hardware

Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .389 Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .409

APPENDIX A: CUSTOMER SATISFACTION

A+ Certication: Core Hardware

ABOUT THIS COURSE

Identify safety procedures, environmental hazards, and preventative maintenance techniques.

ABOUT THIS COURSE

ABOUT THIS COURSE

COURSE SETUP INFORMATION

A+ Certication: Core Hardware

24x internal IDE CD-ROM drive.

AGP video adapter.

SCSI host adapter with bootable BIOS (not pre-installed).

32 MB of RAM or better. 500 MB or larger drive. Internet access.

ABOUT THIS COURSE

Enable a live connection to the Internet.

HOW TO USE THIS BOOK

xviii A+ Certication: Core Hardware

Lesson Time 4 hours

Figure 1-1: An abacus.

2 A+ Certication: Core Hardware

Lesson 1: Introduction to Microcomputers 3

Babbages Difference Engine

Gottfried von Leibniz Herman Hollerith

4 A+ Certication: Core Hardware

Identifying Contributions to the Development of Mechanical Computers

Figure 1-3: Vacuum tubes.

Lesson 1: Introduction to Microcomputers 5

Figure 1-4: Programming ENIAC (U.S. Army photo).

6 A+ Certication: Core Hardware

Transistors and Magnetic Memory

Figure 1-5: Transistors.

Lesson 1: Introduction to Microcomputers 7

Figure 1-6: Integrated circuit.

microprocessor: A complete central processing unit on a single chip.

8 A+ Certication: Core Hardware

Figure 1-7: An early PC.

10 A+ Certication: Core Hardware

Counting Marbles in the Decimal System

1101+ 8100 1101+ 9100 2101+ 0100 2101+ 1100