INTRODUCTION Political Science - systematic study of the state and government. - very comprehensive field.

Its curriculum is alnost certain to include courses in political theory, public law, and public administration as well as in various more specialized subjects. Political - derived from Greek word - "polis"- meaning city / sovereign state Science - derived from Latin word - "scire" - meaning 'to know'. The science of politics has its formal object, a basic knowledge and understanding of the state and of the principles and ideals which underlie its organization and activities. - It is primarily concerned with the association of human beings into a body politic or a political community. - It deals with those relations of men and groups which are subject to control by the state, with the relations of men and groups to the state itself, and with the relations of the state to other states. Political Theory - body of doctrines relating to origin, form, behavior, and purposes of the state. Public Law - A) organization of governments, B) limitations upon government authority, C) powers and duties of governmental offices and officers, D) obligations of one state to anothe subdivisions: constitutional. administrative, international law. Public Administration - focused upon the methods and techniques used in the actual management of state affairs by executive, legislative andjudicial branches of government. Interrelationship with other branches of learning: 1. History - "history is past politics and politics present history" , the knowledge of the past can help interpret present and probable developments in political phenomena. 2. Economics - were coupled under the name of political economy, the political scientist regularly adopts an "economic approach" when seeking to interpret such matters as "public financial policies" and government regulation of business. 3. Geography - Geopolitics - (a science concerned with the study of the influences of physical factors such as population pressures, sources of raw materials, geography, etc., upon domestic and foreign politics) 4. Sociology and anthropology the sociologist (specializes in the study of "society as a whole") the anthropologist (studies "mankind" in relation to physical, social and cultural development) - are all concerned with the origins and nature of social control and governmental authority, with the abiding influences of race and culture upon society, with the patterns of collective human behavior. 5.Psychology - promotes studies of mental and emotional processes motivating the political behavior of individuals and groups 6. Philosophy - These concepts are the underlying forces in the framing of constitution and laws. 7. Statistics and logic - involves proper application of statistical procedures for the quantitative measurement of social phenomena and of logical procedures for the analysis of reasoning. 8. Jurisprudence - branch of public law (concerned with the analysis of legal systems and also with the ethical, historical, sociological and psychological foundations of law) Function and Importance of Political Science - discover the principles that should be adhered to in public affairs

- study the operations of government - demonstrate what is good, criticize what is bad or inefficient and suggest improvements - may be of immense practical use to indivvvduals who seek to understand the state in which they live - deals also with the problems of social welfare, governmental economic programs, international cooperation, etc. Goal in the study of political science 1.) education for citizenship 2.) essential parts of liberal education 3. ) Knowledge and understanding of government- A good citizen needs to know everything he needs to know about the government. Like how it operates, the interests behind some policies, effects of these policies, the citizens rights and obligations, the elected representatives and what they stand for. Meaning of state State- community of persons more or less numerous -permanently occupying a definite portion of territory -having a government of their own to which the great body of inhabitants render obedience -enjoying freedom from external control Elements of state People- mass of population living within the state -should be small enough to be well-governed and large enough to be self-sufficing Territory- terrestrial, fluvial, maritime, aerial and all other natural sources Government-agency through which the will of the state is formulated, expressed, and carried out Sovereignty- supreme and legal power of the state to command and enforce obedience to its people a. Internal- within its territory b. External- without objection to or control by other state Origin of state Divine right theory- state as divine creation - ruler is ordained by God to govern people Necessity or force theory- great warriors imposed their will upon the weak Paternalistic theory- enlargement of the family which remained under the authority of the father or mother Social contract theory- deliberate and voluntary compact among the people for their

common good State distinguished from nation State -political concept -not subject to external control -may consist of one or more nations (Ex. United States) State distinguished from government State Government -cannot exist without a government -can exist without a state -remains the same, as long as its elements -may change its form are present Purpose and necessity of government Advancement of the public welfare- protection of the society; security of persons and property; administration of justice; preservation of state from external danger; advancement of physical, economic, social, and cultural well-being of the people Consequence of absence- Government is better equipped to administer for the public welfare than any private individual or group of individuals Forms of government A. As to number of persons exercising sovereign powers 1. Monarchy- authority is exercised by a single person without regard to the source of his election or the nature or duration of his tenure a. Absolute- rulers rule by divine right b. Limited-rulers rule in accordance with a constitution 2. Aristocracy- political power is exercised by a few privileged class 3. Democracy- political power is exercised by a majority of people 1. Direct or pure democracy - will of the state is formulated or expressed directly through the people 2. Indirect, representative or republican democracy the will of the state is formulated or expressed through agency B. As to extent of powers exercised by the central or national govt 1. Unitary government the control of national and local affairs is exercised by the central govt 2. Federal government the powers of the govt are divided: national affairs and local affairs C. As to relationship bet the executive and legislative branches of the govt 1. Parliamentary govt legislature to terminate the tenure of office of the real executive Nation -ethnic concept -may or may not be independent for external control -may be made up of several states (Ex. Arab nation)

*Cabinet or ministry- legally responsible to the legislature and politically responsible to the electorate 2. Presidential govt executive is independent of the legislature as regards to tenure and to a large extent as regards his policies and acts PHILIPPINE GOVERNMENT: representative democracy, unitary presidential govt wht separation of powers. GOVERNMENT OF THE PHILIPPINES IN TRANSITION Pre-Spanish govt 1. Unit of govt: barangay 100 families - balangay : boat 2. Datu: chief exectuive, law giver, chief judge, military head -maginoos (council of leaders) 3. Social classes: Nobility (maharlika), freemen (timawa), serfs (aliping namamahay), slaves (aliping sagigilid) 4. Early laws: written laws promulgated by datus - Maragtas Code: 1250 AD by Datus Sumakwel of Panay - Kalantiaw Code: 1433 AD by Datu Kalantiaw of Panay : unwritten laws consisted of customs and traditions 5. Comparisons with other ancient govts: laws of barangays were fair Spanish period - Ferdinand Magelan in 1521 - 1565 to 1821: Phil was governed by the King of Spain through Mexico - 1821 to 1898: Phil was ruled directly from Spain (Council of Indies) - 1837: temporarily performed by Council of Ministers - 1863: Ministry of Ultramar exercised general powers over Philippine affairs - three times, the Phil was given representation in the Spanish Cortes (legislative body of Spain) -basic principle by Spain: union of church and state -Government established by Spain was centralized in structure and national in scope, barangays consolidated into towns (pueblos) headed by a gobernadorcillo (little governor) or capitan -Each cities had an ayuntamiento or cabilido (city council), Cebu was first then Manila -Governor-General: executive, administrative, legislative and judicial powers -Captain General: Commander-in-chief of all the Armed Forces in Phil -vice-royal patron: certain religious powers - boards and officers of the Governor-General: Board of Authorities and the Council of Administration - first Spanish governor-general: Miguel Lopez de Legaspi (1565-1571) and the last was: Gen. Diego de los Rios (1898) - Royal Audiencia: (1583) was the Supreme Court (executive and legislative nature) -two Territorial Audiencias in 1893: one in Cebu and one in Vigan - special courts: military and naval courts, ecclesiastical courts and treasury and commercial courts which were abolished Evaluation of Spanish Govt in the Phil -defective: govt for the Spaniards and not for the Filipinos -Spanish officials were inefficient and corrupt -Union of Church and State produced serious strifes between the ecclesiastical and civil authorites -Spanish rule was generally mild and humane, slavery and tribal wars were suppressed -unification to Filipino people: one God, one King and one govt, spirit of nationalism -uplifted the Filipinos from the depth of primitive culture and paganism Revolutionary era:

Political Structure of the Katipunan 2. Supreme Council a. Kataas-taasang Sanggunian b. Composed of the Supremo, Fiscal, Secretary and the Treasurer 3. Provincial Council a. Sangguniang Bayan located in different provinces 4. Popular Council a. Sangguniang Balangay b. Located in various towns 5. Judicial Council a. Sangguniang Hukuman b. Held judicial functions c. Decide on cases of violations d. In charged of settling disputes among members The katipunan was the first clear break from Spanish rule with the goal to establish a free and sovereign Philippines. Thus, the main Objectives of the Organization: Struggle for Separation Abolition of Spanish Rule The Katipunan was the idea of Marcelo H. del Pilar who tried to establish it in Manila in 1890 but succeeded only with the help of his brother in-law Deodato Arellano in 1892. Katipunan was envisioned to be a weapon of the weak against colonial rule. Katipunan suggests oneness. Tejeros Convention. This was replaced by another government headed by Emilio Aguinaldo during the Tejeros Convention. The Tejeros Convention was held on 22 March 1897 where Severino delas Alas proposed that a revolutionary government must be established to meet the demands of the revolutionary cause. Outcome: President: Emilio Aguinaldo Vice President: Mariano Trias Captain general: Artemio Ricarte Director of War: Emilio Riego de Dios Director of Interior: Andres Bonifacio Daniel Tirona opposed to Bonifacios election resulting to a violent confrontation Bonifacio declared the Tejeros Convention Null and Void, and with his followers left Tejeros. The next day he issued the Acta de Tejeros signed by him and his followers. The following night, Aguinaldo and other elected officers took oath at the San Francisco de Malabon, while Bonifacio went to Naic and made the Naic Military pact, an aim to establish a government to challenge the existing revolutionary government of Aguinaldo. The Biak-na-Bato Republic Nov. 1, 1897

 Biak-na-bato (now called San Miguel de mayumo, Bulacan) The Biak-na-Bato Republic 1. It was established through a constitution copied from the Cuban constitution of 1895 with a section for Bill of Rights 2. A Supreme Council was created Had a constitution which would ideally last for two years Aim of the revolutions: separation of the Philippines from the Spanish monarchy and their formations into an independent state. It only lasted until December 15, 1897 which ended with the Pact of Biak-na-bato. Dictatorial Government Established by Aguinaldo after the Spanish American war which happened on april 25,1898 Dictatorial government was established on may 23, 1898. Most important achievements: proclamation of Phil. Independence at Kawit , Cavite on June 12, 1898 and reorganization of local government Revolutionary Government Replaced the dictatorial government on June 29, 1898. Aguinaldo as the President and with a Congress The function of the congress was advisory (giving advice) and ministerial (giving help) Aim: struggle for the independence of Philippines until all nations including Spain will recognize it and to prepare the country for the establishment of a real republic

First Philippine republic Malolos congress: the revolutionary government of Emilio Aguinaldo inaugurated a Congress on September 15, 1898, at the Barasoain Church in Malolos, Bulacan. This Congress was later on referred to as the Malolos Congress Also known as the Assembly of Representatives, and was the lawmaking body of the First Republic. It ratified on September 29, 1898 the proclamation of phil. Independence and framed the socalled malolos constitution. Malolos constitution: first democratic constitution in Asia. It established a free and independent phil. Republic, but had to opportunity to operate. The first Philippine republic was not recognized by other nations. So, it was only an organized government that existed and whose authority was accepted by the people. The republic was short-lived because in Feb. 1899 the phil. was annexed by the US and Aguinaldo was captured in April 1901. It lasted from January 23, 1899 to march 23, 1901.

American regime: Military government

American military rule began on august 4, 1898 after the capture of manila. The US pres. (mckinley) established a military government because of war. The military governor represented the US pres. Who exercised all powers of the government until the war lasts (executive, judiciary, legislative) o 1st military governor: gen. Wesley Merritt o 2nd: gen. Elwell e. Otis o 3rd: gen. Arthur MacArthur

Civil government Inaugurated in manila on july 4, 1901 Pursuant to the Spooner amendment It removed from the United States president the final authority to govern the Philippines. Headed by the civil governor whose position was created on October 29, 1901(the title was changed into governor-general on Feb. 61905) 1. 1st civil governor: judge Williams h. Taft (1901-1903) 2. 1st to be given the title of governor-general: Luke f. Wright (1904-1906) 3. Last governor-general and also the 1st high commissioner of US: frank Murphy (19331935) The civil governor was the president of the phil. Commission the sole lawmaking body of the government. 1. Phil. Commission: The upper house of the legislative branch with the phil. Assembly as the lower house. 2. With these two bodies, it gave way to the phil. Legislature. The phil. was represented by two resident commissioners who were elected. They received the same emoluments (Payment for an office or employment; compensation) and other privileges but without the right to vote. Commonwealth government Inaugurated on November 15 1953, pursuant to eh Tydings McDuffie law Tydings- McDuffie law: states that a transition period of ten years during which the phil. Commonwealth would operate and at the expiration on July 4, 1946, phil. Independence would be proclaimed. st The 1 election under the 1935 constitution happened on September 12, 1935 with Manuel Quezon as president and Sergio Osmena as VP. The commonwealth government was republican in form under the presidential type. The legislative powers was vested: 1st: unicameral (Having or consisting of a single legislative chamber)National assembly 2nd: bicameral congress composed of the Senate and the House of representatives. The judicial power was vested in the Supreme Court and inferior courts. The government was autonomous. Phil.: domestic affairs US: foreign affairs From May 13, 1942 to October 3, 1944, the government functioned in exile in Washington because of WWII, and was reestablished in Manila on Feb. 27, 1945. Gen. MacArthur turned over to president Osmena the full powers and responsibilities of the Commonwealth Government. (Pres. Quezon died of

tuberculosis while in USA) Japanese occupation: Japanese military administration Commonwealth era was interrupted when the Japanese occupied the Philippines in January 2, 1942 Established in Manila on January 3, 1942 under the proclamation by the Japanese High Command (men in position during the war). It declared that the sovereignty of the US over the Philippines was terminated. Phil. Executive commission Executive commission civil government composed of Filipinos with Jorge B. Vargas as Chairman. They exercised both executive and legislative powers. The laws they passed however are subject to the approval of the commander-in-chief of the Japanese forces. The judiciary functioned without independence. Japanese-sponsored Republic of the Phil. The Japanese forces installed a puppet government on October 14, 1943 in Manila headed by Jose P. Laurel as president. The authority was with the Japanese military and government. August 17, 1945, Pres. Laurel proclaimed the dissolution of the republic. Previous Philippines republics: Joint resolution no. 93 approved by the US on June 29, 1944. Proclaim the independence of the Philippines after the Japanese surrendered and constitutional processes were restored. Republic of the Philippines- inaugurated on July 4, 1946 1st pres.: Manuel Roxas (also served as the last commonwealth president) 1st VP: Elpidio Quirino (last commonwealth VP) 1935 constitution fundamental law for the Republic of the Philippines until the ratification of the 1973 Philippine constitution establishing a parliamentary form of government, effected by virtue of the Proclamation no. 1102 of President Marcos on January 17, 1973. First republic established on January 23, 1899 under Malolos Constitution; second on October 14, 1943 under the Japanese-sponsored constitution; third on July 4, 1943 under the 1935 constitution. Fourth republic proclaimed by Pres. Marcos on June 30, 1981 under the 1973 constitution, which as amended in a plebiscite on April 7, 1981 installed a parliamentary system of government. Making him its first president. There were 9 presidents in the previous three republics, including Marcos two terms. The rp4esent republic came into being upon the ratification of the 1987 Constitution on feb. 2, 1987. The Provisional Government of 1986 Corazon C. Aquino took her oath of office: February 25, 1986 at Club Filipino, San Juan, Metro Manila On Feb. 25, she read Proclamation No. 1 declared that she and her vice-president were

taking power in the name and by the will of the FILIPINO PEOPLE To preserve and defend the FUNDAMENTAL LAW and execute JUST LAWS The government was revolutionary: instituted NOT in accordance with the procedure provided in an existing Constitution installed by direct action of the people or by people power De jure constituted or founded in accordance with the existing constitution of the state (according to law) De facto not so constituted or founded but has the general support of the people and effective control of the territory over which it exercises its powers A DE FACTO government acquires a DE JURE status when it gains wide acceptance from the people and recognition from the community of nations Provisional government not a purely revolutionary one but a hybrid constitutional revolutionary government Democratic government also: installed by direct action of the people as a direct expression or manifestation of their sovereign will; based on the consent of the governed or the approval of the people Derives its powers from the people to whom alone it is accountable Clothed with unlimited powers bec. it makes its own laws (a law unto itself) but with the adoption of the Provisional Constitution, opted to abide with and to subject itself to the provisions Proclamation No. 3 promulgated a Provisional Constitution to replace the 1973 Constitution

Meaning of Constitution body of rules and principles in accordance with which the powers of sovereignty are regularly exercised covers both written and unwritten constitutions Constitution of the Philippines: defined as written instrument by which the fundamental powers of the government are established, limited and defined and by which these powers are distributed among the several departments or branches for their safe and useful exercise for the benefit of the people Nature and purpose or function of constitution Serves as the supreme or fundamental law charter creating the government speaks for the entire people from whom it derives its claim to obedience binds all citizens and all organs of the government law to which all other laws must conform and in accordance with which all private rights must be determined and all public authority administered test of the legality of all governmental actions Establishes basic framework and underlying principles of government Prescribe the permanent framework of the system of government Assign to the different departments or branches, their respective powers and duties Establish certain basic principles on which the government is founded Preserve and protect the rights of individuals against the arbitrary actions of those in authority Meaning of constitutional law

 Branch of public law which treats of constitutions, their nature, formation, amendment and interpretation Law embodied in the Constitution as well as the principles growing out of the interpretation and application made by the courts of the provisions of the Constitution in specific cases Kinds of constitution As to their origin and history Conventional/Enacted enacted by a constituent assembly or granted by a monarch to his subjects (Constitution of Japan in 1889) Cumulative/Evolved a product of growth or a long period of development originating in customs, traditions, judicial decisions rather than from a deliberate and formal enactment (English Constitution) As to their form Written has been given definite written form at a particular time usually by a specially constituted authority called a constitutional convention Unwritten entirely the product of political evolution, consisting largely of a mass of customs, usages and judicial decisions together with a smaller body of statutory enactments of a fundamental character As to manner of amending them Rigid/Inelastic a document of special sanctity which cannot be amended or altered except by some special machinery more cumbrous than the ordinary legislative process Flexible/Elastic possesses no higher legal authority than ordinary laws and which may be altered in the same way as other laws The PHILIPPINE CONSTITUTION may be classified as conventional or enacted, written and rigid or inelastic. It was drafted by an appointive body called Constitutional Commission.

Advantages and disadvantages of a written constitution: It has the advantage of clearness and definiteness over an unwritten constitution. o Prepared with great care and deliberation o Cannot be easily bent or twisted o The protection and right it guarantees are apt to be more secure o Stable and free from all dangers of temporary popular passion Disadvantage: Difficulty of its amendment Requisites of a good written constitution Form Brief 1. If a constitution is too detailed it will lose the advantage of a fundamental law 2. Never be understood by the public 3. It would be necessary to amend it every once in a while to cover future contingencies Broad 1. It should be comprehensive as possible Definite 1. Any vagueness which may lead to opposing interpretations of essential features may cause incalculable harm Contents-it should contain at least 3 provisions: 1. Constitution of government- framework of the government and its powers and defining the electorate 2. Constitution of liberty-fundamental rights of the people and imposing certain limitations on the powers of the government 3. Constitution of sovereignty- procedure for amending the constitution Constitution distinguished from statute Constitution Statute legislation direct from the legislation from the peoples people representative general framework of the law and government details of the subject of which it treats is intended not merely to meet existing conditions but to intended primarily to meet existing govern conditions supreme fundamental law of statutes and other laws conform to the the land constitution Authority to interpret the constitution Even a private individual may interpret or ascertain the meaning of a particular provisions of the constitution Only those charged with official duties whether executive, legislative or judicial can give a authoritative interpretation of the constitution 1935 constitution Framing and ratification 6. Approval: March 24, 1934 by President Franklin D. Roosevelt(Tydings-McDuffie Law/Philippine Independence Act, enacted: United states congress authorizing the Philippine legislature to call a constitutional convention 7. May 5, 1934- The Philippine Legislature approved a bill allowing to call a constitutional convention 8. February 8, 1935- vote of 177 to 1 in favour of the new constitution, signing was completed on: February 19, 1935 9. Approval of president Roosevelt: March 23, 1935

10. Ratification: May 14, 1935 Limitations and conditions Should be republican in form Should include bill of rights Should contain certain provisions intended to define the relations between the Philippines and USA Ceased to operate during the Japanese Occupation Sources Did not contain original ideas of government Instruction of president Mckinley, Philippine bill of July 1, 1902, Jones Law Scope Intended both for the commonwealth and the republic Commonwealth- Republic Amendments Amended three times: Establishing a bicameral legislature Allowing the reeligibility of the president and vice president for a second four year term office Creating a separate commission on elections Parity Amendment: Giving the Americans equal rights with the Filipinos to exploit our natural resources and the operation of public utilities. 1973 Constitution 1. Framing a.) March 16, 1967 Congress passed in joint session. Resolution of Both Houses No. 2 authorizing the holding of a constitutional convention in 1971 b.) Aug. 24, 1970 Republic Act. No. 6132 was approved setting Nov. 10, 1970 as election day for 320 delegates to the constituional Convention. 1935 Constitution was the basis for drafting of amendments to the New Constitution(Signed in Nov. 30, 1972) 2. Approval by Citizens Assemblies Sept. 21, 1972 the Pres. Issued Proclamation No. 1081 placing the country under Martial Law a.) Presidential Decree No. 86 was issued (Dec. 31, 1972) -created a citizens Assembly Pres. Decree No. 86-A issued (Jan 5, 1973) -defining the role of barangays a.k.a Citizens Assembly b.) Question upon the new constitution 1. Do you approve the new constitution? 2. Do you still want a plebesite to be called to ratify the new constitution. 3. Ratification by Presidential Proclamation (Jan. 17, 1973) 14, 976,561 members voted for the adoption of the proposed constitution 743,869 rejected the constitution 14,298,814 no need for a plebiscite *data shows that the 95% members of the barangays(Citizens Assembly) were in favor of the New Constitution *On Jan 17, 1973 , the President, through Proclamation No. 1102 certified and proclaimed the Constitution proposed by 1971 Constitutional Convention

3. Amendments 4 occasions amended the 1973 Constitution Important Ammendments: a. Incumbent President as the regular President and regular Prime Minister b. granting concurrent law-making powers to the president c. modified parliamentary form of government d. permitting natural born citizens who have lost their citizenship to be transferred of private land for use of residence e. grant of lands of the public domain to qualified citizens f. providing for urban land reform and social housing program 1987 Constitution 1. Framing and Ratification -drafted by a constitutional commission under Article 5 of Proclamation No. 3. issued March 25, 1986 w/c promulgated the Provisional Constitution a.k.a Freedom Constitution A. ) (Aug 23, 1986) the Pres. Promulgated Proclamation No. 9 , the Law Governing the Constitutional Commission of 1986 to organize the Constitutional Commission, provide for details of its operation and establish the procedure for the ratification or rejection of the proposed New Constitution -under the Proclamation, the Constitution Commission composed of not more than 50 (national, regional, sectoral)representatives appointed by President. - the commission is composed of 48 members . 42-male, 6-women, = preponderance of the law.

BASIC PRINCIPLES UNDERLYING THE NEW CONSTITUTION The 1987 Constitution is founded upon certain fundamental principles of government which have become part and parcel of our cherished democratic heritages of people. A knowledge of these principles is, therefore, essential to a proper understanding of our organic law. 11. Recognition of the aid of Almighty God We the Filipinos recognize the fact that with the help of God, we will be able to achieve our ideals and aspirations. We acknowledge God as a source of our authority. 12. Sovereignty of the people Sovereignty = supreme authority to govern. Filipinos have the right to constitute their own government, change it, and to define its own jurisdiction and powers. a. Exercises indirectly through public officials people do no govern themselves directly. Law making bodies ie the govt and anointed officials acts as if they are the people, as long as it is in the scope of their delegated powers. b. Exercised directly through suffrage Actual sovereignty is exercised by the people through the electoral process. 13. Renunciation of war as an instrument of national policy 14. Supreme civilian authority over the military 15. Separation of church and state 16. Recognition of the importance of the family as a basic social institution and the vital role of the youth in nation building 17. Guarantee of human rights 18. Government through suffrage Suffrage = right and obligation of registered citizens to vote in the election of national and local leaders of the government a. mere privilege- not a natural right of the citizens but a privilege given by the govt granted to individuals that meets the deemed essential conditions. b. Political right- suffrage is considered a political right enabling citizens to participate in voting to assure that the consent of powers comes from the people. 19. Separation of powers The legislative power shall be vested in the congress of the Philippines which shall consist of a senate and a house of the representatives. (10) Independence of the judiciary (11) Guarantee of local autonomy (12) High sense of public service morality and accountability of public officers (13) Nationalization of natural resources and certain private enterprises affected with public interest (14) Non-suitability of the state (15) Rule of majority; and (16) Government of laws and not men

RULE OF THE MAJORITY (a) Concept - Unwritten law of government. The wishes of the majority prevail over those of minority. (b) Instances In many instances the rule of majority is observed in the government, new constitution Majority of the vote of the Congress is needed to elect the Senate President and the Speaker of the House representatives. Majority of the members of the congress are needed to pass a law granting tax exemptions. In case of a tie for the President and Vice President, majority of both houses shall determine. two thirds of all members is required to suspend or expel a member of either house; to declare and existence state of war; to reconsider a bill vetoed by the President; to call a constitutional convention and all the members of the Senate to concur to a treaty or international agreement; and to render a judgment of conviction in impeachment cases. Any amendment or changes to the constitution may be proposed by the Congress upon a vote of of its members and shall be valid if ratified by majority of the votes cast in a plebiscite. decisions of the supreme court have to be made by majority of the members who actually took part in the deliberation.

4. Significance of the principle all laws should be followed whether or not you are wealthy and in power . If everyone continues to follow this rule (including the officials), the democracy, order, and an equal society will be maintained. Meaning of taxation In order for the government to perform the duties required of them, they use taxation. They collect money from the people, properties, and property rights. The money gathered from this is supposedly for the use of the betterment of the country. Theory and basis of taxation 1. Since the existence of the governement is a necessity, but it cannot perform its duties without funds to pay for all of its expenses, it has the right to collect money from the citizens and the properties as long as in has limitations depending on the income of the ones mentioned. 2. In return for the citizens contributions, they are entitled to benefits with regard to the protection of life, liberty, and property. Meaning of taxes Asum of money demanded by a government for its support or for specific facilities or services, imposed upon incomes, property, sales, etc. It is an obligation to pay taxes. Distinctions among the three powers 1. As to authority which exercises the power the government exercises taxation and the power of a nation, within the limits of its constitution, to regulate the conduct of its citizens in the interest of the common good. The power of local, state or federal government agencies to take private property for "public use" so long as the government pays "just compensation." The government can exercise its power of eminent domain

even if the owner does not wish to sell his or her property is granted to public service companies. 2. As to purpose: a. Property is taken for the support of the government b. In eminent domain, property is taken for public use c. In police power, property is taken or destroyed for the purpose of promoting general welfare 3. As to effect a. money from taxation becomes part of public funds b. in eminent domain, there is no transfer of the right to ownership c. in police power, no such transfer, restraint in use of property Purpose of non-impairment prohibition The law is intended to assure the fulfillment of lawful promises. Problems would arise if contracts were not binding and if a law could be passed permitting the non-fulfillment of obligations entered into legally. When obligation of a contract is impaired The obligation of a contract is impaired (defective/damaged) when its terms or conditions are changed by law or by a party without the consent of the other thereby weakening the position or rights of the latter. Example, changes in the law cannot be applied to cases that were existing beforehand.