Fluent Chapter 23. Modeling Multi Phase Flows

Chapter 23.
Modeling Multiphase Flows

This chapter discusses the general multiphase models that are available in FLUENT.
Section 23.1: Introduction provides a brief introduction to multiphase modeling, Chap-
ter 22: Modeling Discrete Phase discusses the Lagrangian dispersed phase model, and
Chapter 24: Modeling Solidication and Melting describes FLUENTs model for solidi-
cation and melting.
Section 23.1: Introduction
Section 23.2: Choosing a General Multiphase Model
Section 23.3: Volume of Fluid (VOF) Model Theory
Section 23.4: Mixture Model Theory
Section 23.5: Eulerian Model Theory
Section 23.6: Wet Steam Model Theory
Section 23.7: Modeling Mass Transfer in Multiphase Flows
Section 23.8: Modeling Species Transport in Multiphase Flows
Section 23.9: Steps for Using a Multiphase Model
Section 23.10: Setting Up the VOF Model
Section 23.11: Setting Up the Mixture Model
Section 23.12: Setting Up the Eulerian Model
Section 23.13: Setting Up the Wet Steam Model
Section 23.14: Solution Strategies for Multiphase Modeling
Section 23.15: Postprocessing for Multiphase Modeling
c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006 23-1
23.1 Introduction
A large number of ows encountered in nature and technology are a mixture of phases.
Physical phases of matter are gas, liquid, and solid, but the concept of phase in a mul-
tiphase ow system is applied in a broader sense. In multiphase ow, a phase can be
dened as an identiable class of material that has a particular inertial response to and
interaction with the ow and the potential eld in which it is immersed. For example,
dierent-sized solid particles of the same material can be treated as dierent phases be-
cause each collection of particles with the same size will have a similar dynamical response
to the ow eld.
23.1.1 Multiphase Flow Regimes
Multiphase ow regimes can be grouped into four categories: gas-liquid or liquid-liquid
ows; gas-solid ows; liquid-solid ows; and three-phase ows.
Gas-Liquid or Liquid-Liquid Flows
The following regimes are gas-liquid or liquid-liquid ows:
Bubbly ow: This is the ow of discrete gaseous or uid bubbles in a continuous
uid.
Droplet ow: This is the ow of discrete uid droplets in a continuous gas.
Slug ow: This is the ow of large bubbles in a continuous uid.
Stratied/free-surface ow: This is the ow of immiscible uids separated by a
clearly-dened interface.
See Figure 23.1.1 for illustrations of these regimes.
Gas-Solid Flows
The following regimes are gas-solid ows:
Particle-laden ow: This is ow of discrete particles in a continuous gas.
Pneumatic transport: This is a ow pattern that depends on factors such as solid
loading, Reynolds numbers, and particle properties. Typical patterns are dune
ow, slug ow, packed beds, and homogeneous ow.
Fluidized bed: This consists of a vertical cylinder containing particles, into which
a gas is introduced through a distributor. The gas rising through the bed suspends
the particles. Depending on the gas ow rate, bubbles appear and rise through the
bed, intensifying the mixing within the bed.
23-2 c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006
23.1 Introduction
Liquid-Solid Flows
The following regimes are liquid-solid ows:
Slurry ow: This ow is the transport of particles in liquids. The fundamental
behavior of liquid-solid ows varies with the properties of the solid particles relative
to those of the liquid. In slurry ows, the Stokes number (see Equation 23.2-4) is
normally less than 1. When the Stokes number is larger than 1, the characteristic
of the ow is liquid-solid uidization.
Hydrotransport: This describes densely-distributed solid particles in a continuous
liquid
Sedimentation: This describes a tall column initially containing a uniform dispersed
mixture of particles. At the bottom, the particles will slow down and form a sludge
layer. At the top, a clear interface will appear, and in the middle a constant settling
zone will exist.
Three-Phase Flows
Three-phase ows are combinations of the other ow regimes listed in the previous sec-
tions.
slug ow
bubbly, droplet, or
particle-laden ow
stratied/free-surface ow pneumatic transport,
hydrotransport, or slurry ow
sedimentation uidized bed
Figure 23.1.1: Multiphase Flow Regimes
23.2 Choosing a General Multiphase Model
23.1.2 Examples of Multiphase Systems
Specic examples of each regime described in Section 23.1.1: Multiphase Flow Regimes
are listed below:
Bubbly ow examples include absorbers, aeration, air lift pumps, cavitation, evap-
orators, otation, and scrubbers.
Droplet ow examples include absorbers, atomizers, combustors, cryogenic pump-
ing, dryers, evaporation, gas cooling, and scrubbers.
Slug ow examples include large bubble motion in pipes or tanks.
Stratied/free-surface ow examples include sloshing in oshore separator devices
and boiling and condensation in nuclear reactors.
Particle-laden ow examples include cyclone separators, air classiers, dust collec-
tors, and dust-laden environmental ows.
Pneumatic transport examples include transport of cement, grains, and metal pow-
ders.
Fluidized bed examples include uidized bed reactors and circulating uidized beds.
Slurry ow examples include slurry transport and mineral processing
Hydrotransport examples include mineral processing and biomedical and physio-
chemical uid systems
Sedimentation examples include mineral processing.
The rst step in solving any multiphase problem is to determine which of the regimes
provides some broad guidelines for determining appropriate models for each regime, and
how to determine the degree of interphase coupling for ows involving bubbles, droplets,
or particles, and the appropriate model for dierent amounts of coupling.
23.2.1 Approaches to Multiphase Modeling
Advances in computational uid mechanics have provided the basis for further insight
into the dynamics of multiphase ows. Currently there are two approaches for the nu-
merical calculation of multiphase ows: the Euler-Lagrange approach (discussed in Sec-
tion 22.1.1: Overview) and the Euler-Euler approach (discussed in the following section).
The Euler-Euler Approach
In the Euler-Euler approach, the dierent phases are treated mathematically as inter-
penetrating continua. Since the volume of a phase cannot be occupied by the other
phases, the concept of phasic volume fraction is introduced. These volume fractions are
assumed to be continuous functions of space and time and their sum is equal to one.
Conservation equations for each phase are derived to obtain a set of equations, which
have similar structure for all phases. These equations are closed by providing constitutive
relations that are obtained from empirical information, or, in the case of granular ows,
by application of kinetic theory.
In FLUENT, three dierent Euler-Euler multiphase models are available: the volume of
uid (VOF) model, the mixture model, and the Eulerian model.
The VOF Model
The VOF model (described in Section 23.3: Volume of Fluid (VOF) Model Theory) is
a surface-tracking technique applied to a xed Eulerian mesh. It is designed for two or
more immiscible uids where the position of the interface between the uids is of interest.
In the VOF model, a single set of momentum equations is shared by the uids, and the
volume fraction of each of the uids in each computational cell is tracked throughout the
domain. Applications of the VOF model include stratied ows, free-surface ows, lling,
sloshing, the motion of large bubbles in a liquid, the motion of liquid after a dam break,
the prediction of jet breakup (surface tension), and the steady or transient tracking of
any liquid-gas interface.
The Mixture Model
The mixture model (described in Section 23.4: Mixture Model Theory) is designed for two
or more phases (uid or particulate). As in the Eulerian model, the phases are treated as
interpenetrating continua. The mixture model solves for the mixture momentum equation
and prescribes relative velocities to describe the dispersed phases. Applications of the
mixture model include particle-laden ows with low loading, bubbly ows, sedimentation,
and cyclone separators. The mixture model can also be used without relative velocities
for the dispersed phases to model homogeneous multiphase ow.
The Eulerian Model
The Eulerian model (described in Section 23.5: Eulerian Model Theory) is the most com-
plex of the multiphase models in FLUENT. It solves a set of n momentum and continuity
equations for each phase. Coupling is achieved through the pressure and interphase ex-
change coecients. The manner in which this coupling is handled depends upon the type
of phases involved; granular (uid-solid) ows are handled dierently than nongranular
(uid-uid) ows. For granular ows, the properties are obtained from application of ki-
netic theory. Momentum exchange between the phases is also dependent upon the type
of mixture being modeled. FLUENTs user-dened functions allow you to customize the
calculation of the momentum exchange. Applications of the Eulerian multiphase model
include bubble columns, risers, particle suspension, and uidized beds.
23.2.2 Model Comparisons
In general, once you have determined the ow regime that best represents your multiphase
system, you can select the appropriate model based on the following guidelines:
For bubbly, droplet, and particle-laden ows in which the phases mix and/or
dispersed-phase volume fractions exceed 10%, use either the mixture model (de-
scribed in Section 23.4: Mixture Model Theory) or the Eulerian model (described
in Section 23.5: Eulerian Model Theory).
For slug ows, use the VOF model. See Section 23.3: Volume of Fluid (VOF) Model
Theory for more information about the VOF model.
For stratied/free-surface ows, use the VOF model. See Section 23.3: Volume of
Fluid (VOF) Model Theory for more information about the VOF model.
For pneumatic transport, use the mixture model for homogeneous ow (described
in Section 23.4: Mixture Model Theory) or the Eulerian model for granular ow
(described in Section 23.5: Eulerian Model Theory).
For uidized beds, use the Eulerian model for granular ow. See Section 23.5: Eu-
lerian Model Theory for more information about the Eulerian model.
For slurry ows and hydrotransport, use the mixture or Eulerian model (described,
respectively, in Sections 23.4 and 23.5).
For sedimentation, use the Eulerian model. See Section 23.5: Eulerian Model
Theory for more information about the Eulerian model.
For general, complex multiphase ows that involve multiple ow regimes, select
the aspect of the ow that is of most interest, and choose the model that is most
appropriate for that aspect of the ow. Note that the accuracy of results will not
be as good as for ows that involve just one ow regime, since the model you use
will be valid for only part of the ow you are modeling.
As discussed in this section, the VOF model is appropriate for stratied or free-surface
ows, and the mixture and Eulerian models are appropriate for ows in which the phases
mix or separate and/or dispersed-phase volume fractions exceed 10%. (Flows in which
the dispersed-phase volume fractions are less than or equal to 10% can be modeled using
the discrete phase model described in Chapter 22: Modeling Discrete Phase.)
To choose between the mixture model and the Eulerian model, you should consider the
following guidelines:
If there is a wide distribution of the dispersed phases (i.e., if the particles vary
in size and the largest particles do not separate from the primary ow eld), the
mixture model may be preferable (i.e., less computationally expensive). If the
dispersed phases are concentrated just in portions of the domain, you should use
the Eulerian model instead.
If interphase drag laws that are applicable to your system are available (either
within FLUENT or through a user-dened function), the Eulerian model can usually
provide more accurate results than the mixture model. Even though you can apply
the same drag laws to the mixture model, as you can for a nongranular Eulerian
simulation, if the interphase drag laws are unknown or their applicability to your
system is questionable, the mixture model may be a better choice. For most cases
with spherical particles, then the Schiller-Naumann law is more than adequate. For
cases with nonspherical particles, then a user-dened function can be used.
If you want to solve a simpler problem, which requires less computational eort, the
mixture model may be a better option, since it solves a smaller number of equations
than the Eulerian model. If accuracy is more important than computational eort,
the Eulerian model is a better choice. Keep in mind, however, that the complexity
of the Eulerian model can make it less computationally stable than the mixture
model.
FLUENTs multiphase models are compatible with FLUENTs dynamic mesh modeling
feature. For more information on the dynamic mesh feature, see Section 11: Modeling
Flows Using Sliding and Deforming Meshes. For more information about how other FLU-
ENT models are compatible with FLUENTs multiphase models, see Appendix A: FLUENT
Model Compatibility.
Detailed Guidelines
For stratied and slug ows, the choice of the VOF model, as indicated in Section 23.2.2: Model
Comparisons, is straightforward. Choosing a model for the other types of ows is less
straightforward. As a general guide, there are some parameters that help to identify the
appropriate multiphase model for these other ows: the particulate loading, , and the
Stokes number, St. (Note that the word particle is used in this discussion to refer to
a particle, droplet, or bubble.)
The Effect of Particulate Loading
Particulate loading has a major impact on phase interactions. The particulate loading is
dened as the mass density ratio of the dispersed phase (d) to that of the carrier phase
(c):
=

d
c
(23.2-1)
The material density ratio
=

d
c
(23.2-2)
is greater than 1000 for gas-solid ows, about 1 for liquid-solid ows, and less than 0.001
for gas-liquid ows.
Using these parameters it is possible to estimate the average distance between the indi-
vidual particles of the particulate phase. An estimate of this distance has been given by
Crowe et al. [68]:
L
d
d
=
6
1 +
1/3
(23.2-3)
where =

. Information about these parameters is important for determining how the

dispersed phase should be treated. For example, for a gas-particle ow with a particulate
loading of 1, the interparticle space
L
d
d
is about 8; the particle can therefore be treated
as isolated (i.e., very low particulate loading).
Depending on the particulate loading, the degree of interaction between the phases can
be divided into the following three categories:
For very low loading, the coupling between the phases is one-way (i.e., the uid
carrier inuences the particles via drag and turbulence, but the particles have no
inuence on the uid carrier). The discrete phase (Chapter 22: Modeling Discrete
Phase), mixture, and Eulerian models can all handle this type of problem correctly.
Since the Eulerian model is the most expensive, the discrete phase or mixture model
is recommended.
For intermediate loading, the coupling is two-way (i.e., the uid carrier inuences
the particulate phase via drag and turbulence, but the particles in turn inuence
the carrier uid via reduction in mean momentum and turbulence). The discrete
phase(Chapter 22: Modeling Discrete Phase) , mixture, and Eulerian models are
all applicable in this case, but you need to take into account other factors in order
to decide which model is more appropriate. See below for information about using
the Stokes number as a guide.
For high loading, there is two-way coupling plus particle pressure and viscous
stresses due to particles (four-way coupling). Only the Eulerian model will handle
this type of problem correctly.
The Signicance of the Stokes Number
For systems with intermediate particulate loading, estimating the value of the Stokes
number can help you select the most appropriate model. The Stokes number can be
dened as the relation between the particle response time and the system response time:
St =

d
t
s
(23.2-4)
where
d
=

d
d
2
d
18c
and t
s
is based on the characteristic length (L
s
) and the characteristic
velocity (V
s
) of the system under investigation: t
s
=
Ls
Vs
.
For St 1.0, the particle will follow the ow closely and any of the three models (discrete
phase(Chapter 22: Modeling Discrete Phase) , mixture, or Eulerian) is applicable; you
can therefore choose the least expensive (the mixture model, in most cases), or the most
appropriate considering other factors. For St > 1.0, the particles will move independently
of the ow and either the discrete phase model (Chapter 22: Modeling Discrete Phase)
or the Eulerian model is applicable. For St 1.0, again any of the three models is
applicable; you can choose the least expensive or the most appropriate considering other
factors.
Examples
For a coal classier with a characteristic length of 1 m and a characteristic velocity of
10 m/s, the Stokes number is 0.04 for particles with a diameter of 30 microns, but 4.0
for particles with a diameter of 300 microns. Clearly the mixture model will not be
applicable to the latter case.
For the case of mineral processing, in a system with a characteristic length of 0.2 m and a
characteristic velocity of 2 m/s, the Stokes number is 0.005 for particles with a diameter
of 300 microns. In this case, you can choose between the mixture and Eulerian models.
(The volume fractions are too high for the discrete phase model (Chapter 22: Modeling
Discrete Phase), as noted below.)
Other Considerations
Keep in mind that the use of the discrete phase model (Chapter 22: Modeling Discrete
Phase) is limited to low volume fractions. Also, the discrete phase model is the only mul-
tiphase model that allows you to specify the particle distribution or include combustion
modeling in your simulation.
23.2.3 Time Schemes in Multiphase Flow
In many multiphase applications, the process can vary spatially as well as temporally. In
order to accurately model multiphase ow, both higher-order spatial and time discretiza-
tion schemes are necessary. In addition to the rst-order time scheme in FLUENT, the
second-order time scheme is available in the Mixture and Eulerian multiphase models,
and with the VOF Implicit Scheme.
i
The second-order time scheme cannot be used with the VOF Explicit
Schemes.
The second-order time scheme has been adapted to all the transport equations, includ-
ing mixture phase momentum equations, energy equations, species transport equations,
turbulence models, phase volume fraction equations, the pressure correction equation,
and the granular ow model. In multiphase ow, a general transport equation (similar
to that of Equation 25.3-15) may be written as
()
t
+ (
V ) = + S
(23.2-5)
Where is either a mixture (for the mixture model) or a phase variable, is the phase
volume fraction (unity for the mixture equation), is the mixture phase density,

V is
the mixture or phase velocity (depending on the equations), is the diusion term, and
S
is the source term.

As a fully implicit scheme, this second-order time-accurate scheme achieves its accuracy
by using an Euler backward approximation in time (see Equation 25.3-17). The general
transport equation, Equation 23.2-5 is discretized as
3(
p
p
V ol)
n+1
4(
p
p
V ol)
n
+ (
p
p
)
n1
2t
= (23.2-6)
[A
nb
(
nb
p
)]
n+1
+ S
U
n+1
S
p
n+1
p
n+1
Equation 23.2-6 can be written in simpler form:
A
p
p
=
A
n
b
n
b + S
(23.2-7)
where
A
p
=

A
nb
n+1
+ S
p
n+1
+
1.5(ppV ol)
n+1
t
S
= S
U
n+1
+
2(pppV ol)
n
0.5(pppV ol)
n1
t
This scheme is easily implemented based on FLUENTs existing rst-order Euler scheme.
It is unconditionally stable, however, the negative coecient at the time level t
n1
, of the
three-time level method, may produce oscillatory solutions if the time steps are large.
This problem can be eliminated if a bounded second-order scheme is introduced. How-
ever, oscillating solutions are most likely seen in compressible liquid ows. Therefore,
in this version of FLUENT, a bounded second-order time scheme has been implemented
for compressible liquid ows only. For single phase and multiphase compressible liquid
ows, the second-order time scheme is, by default, the bounded scheme.
23.2.4 Stability and Convergence
The process of solving a multiphase system is inherently dicult, and you may encounter
some stability or convergence problems. If a time-dependent problem is being solved, and
patched elds are used for the initial conditions, it is recommended that you perform a
few iterations with a small time step, at least an order of magnitude smaller than the
characteristic time of the ow. You can increase the size of the time step after performing
a few time steps. For steady solutions it is recommended that you start with a small
under-relaxation factor for the volume fraction, it is also recommended not to start with
a patch of volume fraction equal to zero. Another option is to start with a mixture
multiphase calculation, and then switch to the Eulerian multiphase model.
Stratied ows of immiscible uids should be solved with the VOF model (see Sec-
tion 23.3: Volume of Fluid (VOF) Model Theory). Some problems involving small volume
fractions can be solved more eciently with the Lagrangian discrete phase model (see
Chapter 22: Modeling Discrete Phase).
Many stability and convergence problems can be minimized if care is taken during the
setup and solution processes (see Section 23.14.4: Eulerian Model).
23.3 Volume of Fluid (VOF) Model Theory
23.3.1 Overview and Limitations of the VOF Model
Overview
The VOF model can model two or more immiscible uids by solving a single set of
momentum equations and tracking the volume fraction of each of the uids throughout
the domain. Typical applications include the prediction of jet breakup, the motion of
large bubbles in a liquid, the motion of liquid after a dam break, and the steady or
transient tracking of any liquid-gas interface.
Limitations
The following restrictions apply to the VOF model in FLUENT:
You must use the pressure-based solver. The VOF model is not available with
either of the density-based solvers.
All control volumes must be lled with either a single uid phase or a combination
of phases. The VOF model does not allow for void regions where no uid of any
type is present.
Only one of the phases can be dened as a compressible ideal gas. There is no
limitation on using compressible liquids using user-dened functions.
Streamwise periodic ow (either specied mass ow rate or specied pressure drop)
cannot be modeled when the VOF model is used.
The second-order implicit time-stepping formulation cannot be used with the VOF
explicit scheme.
When tracking particles in parallel, the DPM model cannot be used with the VOF
model if the shared memory option is enabled (Section 22.11.9: Parallel Processing
for the Discrete Phase Model). (Note that using the message passing option, when
running in parallel, enables the compatibility of all multiphase ow models with
the DPM model.)
Steady-State and Transient VOF Calculations
The VOF formulation in FLUENT is generally used to compute a time-dependent solution,
but for problems in which you are concerned only with a steady-state solution, it is
possible to perform a steady-state calculation. A steady-state VOF calculation is sensible
only when your solution is independent of the initial conditions and there are distinct
inow boundaries for the individual phases. For example, since the shape of the free
surface inside a rotating cup depends on the initial level of the uid, such a problem
must be solved using the time-dependent formulation. On the other hand, the ow of
water in a channel with a region of air on top and a separate air inlet can be solved with
the steady-state formulation.
The VOF formulation relies on the fact that two or more uids (or phases) are not
interpenetrating. For each additional phase that you add to your model, a variable is
introduced: the volume fraction of the phase in the computational cell. In each control
volume, the volume fractions of all phases sum to unity. The elds for all variables and
properties are shared by the phases and represent volume-averaged values, as long as
the volume fraction of each of the phases is known at each location. Thus the variables
and properties in any given cell are either purely representative of one of the phases, or
representative of a mixture of the phases, depending upon the volume fraction values.
In other words, if the q
th
uids volume fraction in the cell is denoted as
q
, then the
following three conditions are possible:

q
= 0: The cell is empty (of the q
th
uid).

q
= 1: The cell is full (of the q
th
uid).
0 <
q
< 1: The cell contains the interface between the q
th
uid and one or more
other uids.
Based on the local value of
q
, the appropriate properties and variables will be assigned
to each control volume within the domain.
23.3.2 Volume Fraction Equation
The tracking of the interface(s) between the phases is accomplished by the solution of a
continuity equation for the volume fraction of one (or more) of the phases. For the q
th
phase, this equation has the following form:
1

t
(
q
q
) + (
q
q
v
q
) = S
q
+
n
p=1
( m
pq
m
qp
)
(23.3-1)
where m
qp
is the mass transfer from phase q to phase p and m
pq
is the mass transfer from
phase p to phase q. By default, the source term on the right-hand side of Equation 23.3-1,
S
q
, is zero, but you can specify a constant or user-dened mass source for each phase.
See Section 23.7: Modeling Mass Transfer in Multiphase Flows for more information on
the modeling of mass transfer in FLUENTs general multiphase models.
The volume fraction equation will not be solved for the primary phase; the primary-phase
volume fraction will be computed based on the following constraint:
n
q=1
q
= 1 (23.3-2)
The volume fraction equation may be solved either through implicit or explicit time
discretization.
The Implicit Scheme
When the implicit scheme is used for time discretization, FLUENTs standard nite-
dierence interpolation schemes, QUICK, Second Order Upwind and First Order Upwind,
and the Modied HRIC schemes, are used to obtain the face uxes for all cells, including
those near the interface.
n+1
q

n+1
q

n
q
n
q
t
V +
f
(
n+1
q
U
n+1
f

n+1
q,f
) =
S
q
+
n
p=1
( m
pq
m
qp
)
V (23.3-3)
Since this equation requires the volume fraction values at the current time step (rather
than at the previous step, as for the explicit scheme), a standard scalar transport equation
is solved iteratively for each of the secondary-phase volume fractions at each time step.
The implicit scheme can be used for both time-dependent and steady-state calculations.
See Section 23.10.1: Choosing a VOF Formulation for details.
The Explicit Scheme
In the explicit approach, FLUENTs standard nite-dierence interpolation schemes are
applied to the volume fraction values that were computed at the previous time step.
n+1
q

n+1
q

n
q
n
q
t
V +
f
(
q
U
n
f

n
q,f
) =
p=1
( m
pq
m
qp
) + S
q
V (23.3-4)
where n + 1 = index for new (current) time step
n = index for previous time step
q,f
= face value of the q
th
volume fraction, computed from the rst-
or second-order upwind, QUICK, modied HRIC, or CICSAM scheme
V = volume of cell
U
f
= volume ux through the face, based on normal velocity
This formulation does not require iterative solution of the transport equation during each
time step, as is needed for the implicit scheme.
i
When the explicit scheme is used, a time-dependent solution must be com-
puted.
When the explicit scheme is used for time discretization, the face uxes can be interpo-
lated either using interface reconstruction or using a nite volume discretization scheme
(Section 23.3.2: Interpolation near the Interface). The reconstruction based schemes
available in FLUENT are Geo-Reconstruct and Donor-Acceptor. The discretization schemes
available with explicit scheme for VOF are First Order Upwind, Second Order Upwind,
CICSAM, Modied HRIC, and QUICK.
Interpolation near the Interface
FLUENTs control-volume formulation requires that convection and diusion uxes through
the control volume faces be computed and balanced with source terms within the control
volume itself.
In the geometric reconstruction and donor-acceptor schemes, FLUENT applies a spe-
cial interpolation treatment to the cells that lie near the interface between two phases.
Figure 23.3.1 shows an actual interface shape along with the interfaces assumed during
computation by these two methods.
actual interface shape
interface shape represented by
the donor-acceptor scheme
interface shape represented by
the geometric reconstruction
(piecewise-linear) scheme
Figure 23.3.1: Interface Calculations
The explicit scheme and the implicit scheme treat these cells with the same interpo-
lation as the cells that are completely lled with one phase or the other (i.e., using
the standard upwind (Section 25.3.1: First-Order Upwind Scheme), second-order (Sec-
tion 25.3.1: Second-Order Upwind Scheme), QUICK (Section 25.3.1: QUICK Scheme,
modied HRIC (Section 25.3.1: Modied HRIC Scheme), or CICSAM scheme), rather
than applying a special treatment.
The Geometric Reconstruction Scheme
In the geometric reconstruction approach, the standard interpolation schemes that are
used in FLUENT are used to obtain the face uxes whenever a cell is completely lled
with one phase or another. When the cell is near the interface between two phases, the
geometric reconstruction scheme is used.
The geometric reconstruction scheme represents the interface between uids using a
piecewise-linear approach. In FLUENT this scheme is the most accurate and is applicable
for general unstructured meshes. The geometric reconstruction scheme is generalized
for unstructured meshes from the work of Youngs [411]. It assumes that the interface
between two uids has a linear slope within each cell, and uses this linear shape for
calculation of the advection of uid through the cell faces. (See Figure 23.3.1.)
The rst step in this reconstruction scheme is calculating the position of the linear in-
terface relative to the center of each partially-lled cell, based on information about
the volume fraction and its derivatives in the cell. The second step is calculating the
advecting amount of uid through each face using the computed linear interface repre-
sentation and information about the normal and tangential velocity distribution on the
face. The third step is calculating the volume fraction in each cell using the balance of
uxes calculated during the previous step.
i
When the geometric reconstruction scheme is used, a time-dependent solu-
tion must be computed. Also, if you are using a conformal grid (i.e., if the
grid node locations are identical at the boundaries where two subdomains
meet), you must ensure that there are no two-sided (zero-thickness) walls
within the domain. If there are, you will need to slit them, as described in
Section 6.8.6: Slitting Face Zones.
The Donor-Acceptor Scheme
In the donor-acceptor approach, the standard interpolation schemes that are used in
FLUENT are used to obtain the face uxes whenever a cell is completely lled with
one phase or another. When the cell is near the interface between two phases, a donor-
acceptor scheme is used to determine the amount of uid advected through the face [144].
This scheme identies one cell as a donor of an amount of uid from one phase and
another (neighbor) cell as the acceptor of that same amount of uid, and is used to
prevent numerical diusion at the interface. The amount of uid from one phase that
can be convected across a cell boundary is limited by the minimum of two values: the
lled volume in the donor cell or the free volume in the acceptor cell.
The orientation of the interface is also used in determining the face uxes. The interface
orientation is either horizontal or vertical, depending on the direction of the volume
fraction gradient of the q
th
phase within the cell, and that of the neighbor cell that shares
the face in question. Depending on the interfaces orientation as well as its motion, ux
values are obtained by pure upwinding, pure downwinding, or some combination of the
two.
i
When the donor-acceptor scheme is used, a time-dependent solution must
be computed. Also, the donor-acceptor scheme can be used only with
quadrilateral or hexahedral meshes. In addition, if you are using a con-
formal grid (i.e., if the grid node locations are identical at the boundaries
where two subdomains meet), you must ensure that there are no two-sided
(zero-thickness) walls within the domain. If there are, you will need to slit
them, as described in Section 6.8.6: Slitting Face Zones.
The Compressive Interface Capturing Scheme for Arbitrary Meshes (CICSAM)
The compressive interface capturing scheme for arbitrary meshes (CICSAM), based on
the Ubbinks work [376], is a high resolution dierencing scheme. The CICSAM scheme is
particularly suitable for ows with high ratios of viscosities between the phases. CICSAM
is implemented in FLUENT as an explicit scheme and oers the advantage of producing
an interface that is almost as sharp as the geometric reconstruction scheme.
23.3.3 Material Properties
The properties appearing in the transport equations are determined by the presence of
the component phases in each control volume. In a two-phase system, for example, if
the phases are represented by the subscripts 1 and 2, and if the volume fraction of the
second of these is being tracked, the density in each cell is given by
=
2
2
+ (1
2
)
1
(23.3-5)
In general, for an n-phase system, the volume-fraction-averaged density takes on the
following form:
=
q
(23.3-6)
All other properties (e.g., viscosity) are computed in this manner.
23.3.4 Momentum Equation
A single momentum equation is solved throughout the domain, and the resulting velocity
eld is shared among the phases. The momentum equation, shown below, is dependent
on the volume fractions of all phases through the properties and .
t
(v) + (vv) = p +
v +v
T
+ g +

F (23.3-7)
One limitation of the shared-elds approximation is that in cases where large velocity
dierences exist between the phases, the accuracy of the velocities computed near the
interface can be adversely aected.
Note that if the viscosity ratio is more than 1x10
3
, this may lead to convergence di-
culties. The compressive interface capturing scheme for arbitrary meshes (CICSAM)
(Section 23.3.2: The Compressive Interface Capturing Scheme for Arbitrary Meshes
(CICSAM)) is suitable for ows with high ratios of viscosities between the phases, thus
solving the problem of poor convergence.
23.3.5 Energy Equation
The energy equation, also shared among the phases, is shown below.
t
(E) + (v(E + p)) = (k
e
T) + S
h
(23.3-8)
The VOF model treats energy, E, and temperature, T, as mass-averaged variables:
E =
n
q=1
q
E
q
n
q=1
q
(23.3-9)
where E
q
for each phase is based on the specic heat of that phase and the shared
temperature.
The properties and k
e
(eective thermal conductivity) are shared by the phases. The
source term, S
h
, contains contributions from radiation, as well as any other volumetric
heat sources.
As with the velocity eld, the accuracy of the temperature near the interface is limited in
cases where large temperature dierences exist between the phases. Such problems also
arise in cases where the properties vary by several orders of magnitude. For example, if a
model includes liquid metal in combination with air, the conductivities of the materials
can dier by as much as four orders of magnitude. Such large discrepancies in properties
lead to equation sets with anisotropic coecients, which in turn can lead to convergence
and precision limitations.
23.3.6 Additional Scalar Equations
Depending upon your problem denition, additional scalar equations may be involved in
your solution. In the case of turbulence quantities, a single set of transport equations is
solved, and the turbulence variables (e.g., k and or the Reynolds stresses) are shared
by the phases throughout the eld.
23.3.7 Time Dependence
For time-dependent VOF calculations, Equation 23.3-1 is solved using an explicit time-
marching scheme. FLUENT automatically renes the time step for the integration of the
volume fraction equation, but you can inuence this time step calculation by modifying
the Courant number. You can choose to update the volume fraction once for each time
step, or once for each iteration within each time step. These options are discussed in
more detail in Section 23.10.4: Setting Time-Dependent Parameters for the VOF Model.
23.3.8 Surface Tension and Wall Adhesion
The VOF model can also include the eects of surface tension along the interface between
each pair of phases. The model can be augmented by the additional specication of the
contact angles between the phases and the walls. You can specify a surface tension
coecient as a constant, as a function of temperature, or through a UDF. The solver
will include the additional tangential stress terms (causing what is termed as Marangoni
convection) that arise due to the variation in surface tension coecient. Variable surface
tension coecient eects are usually important only in zero/near-zero gravity conditions.
Surface Tension
Surface tension arises as a result of attractive forces between molecules in a uid. Con-
sider an air bubble in water, for example. Within the bubble, the net force on a molecule
due to its neighbors is zero. At the surface, however, the net force is radially inward, and
the combined eect of the radial components of force across the entire spherical surface
is to make the surface contract, thereby increasing the pressure on the concave side of
the surface. The surface tension is a force, acting only at the surface, that is required
to maintain equilibrium in such instances. It acts to balance the radially inward inter-
molecular attractive force with the radially outward pressure gradient force across the
surface. In regions where two uids are separated, but one of them is not in the form
of spherical bubbles, the surface tension acts to minimize free energy by decreasing the
area of the interface.
The surface tension model in FLUENT is the continuum surface force (CSF) model pro-
posed by Brackbill et al. [39]. With this model, the addition of surface tension to the
VOF calculation results in a source term in the momentum equation. To understand the
origin of the source term, consider the special case where the surface tension is constant
along the surface, and where only the forces normal to the interface are considered. It can
be shown that the pressure drop across the surface depends upon the surface tension co-
ecient, , and the surface curvature as measured by two radii in orthogonal directions,
R
1
and R
2
:
p
2
p
1
=
1
R
1
+
1
R
2
(23.3-10)
where p
1
and p
2
are the pressures in the two uids on either side of the interface.
In FLUENT, a formulation of the CSF model is used, where the surface curvature is
computed from local gradients in the surface normal at the interface. Let n be the
surface normal, dened as the gradient of
q
, the volume fraction of the q
th
phase.
n =
q
(23.3-11)
The curvature, , is dened in terms of the divergence of the unit normal, n [39]:
= n (23.3-12)
where
n =
n
|n|
(23.3-13)
The surface tension can be written in terms of the pressure jump across the surface. The
force at the surface can be expressed as a volume force using the divergence theorem. It
is this volume force that is the source term which is added to the momentum equation.
It has the following form:
F
vol
=
pairs ij, i<j
ij
j
+
j
i
1
2
(
i
+
j
)
(23.3-14)
This expression allows for a smooth superposition of forces near cells where more than
two phases are present. If only two phases are present in a cell, then
i
=
j
and
i
=
j
, and Equation 23.3-14 simplies to
F
vol
=
ij
i
1
2
(
i
+
j
)
(23.3-15)
where is the volume-averaged density computed using Equation 23.3-6. Equation 23.3-15
shows that the surface tension source term for a cell is proportional to the average density
in the cell.
Note that the calculation of surface tension eects on triangular and tetrahedral meshes
is not as accurate as on quadrilateral and hexahedral meshes. The region where surface
tension eects are most important should therefore be meshed with quadrilaterals or
hexahedra.
When Surface Tension Effects Are Important
The importance of surface tension eects is determined based on the value of two di-
mensionless quantities: the Reynolds number, Re, and the capillary number, Ca; or the
Reynolds number, Re, and the Weber number, We. For Re 1, the quantity of interest
is the capillary number:
Ca =
U
(23.3-16)
and for Re 1, the quantity of interest is the Weber number:
We =
LU
2
(23.3-17)
where U is the free-stream velocity. Surface tension eects can be neglected if Ca 1
or We 1.
Several surface tension options are provided through the text user interface (TUI) using
the solve/set/surface-tension command:
solve set surface-tension
The surface-tension command prompts you for the following information:
whether you require node-based smoothing
The default value is no indicating that cell-based smoothing will be used for the
VOF calculations.
the number of smoothings
The default value is 1. A higher value can be used in case of tetrahedral and
triangular meshes in order to reduce any spurious velocities.
the smoothing relaxation factor
The default is 1. This is useful in the cases where VOF smoothing causes a problem
(e.g., liquid enters through the inlet with wall adhesion on).
whether you want to use VOF gradients at the nodes for curvature calculations
With this option, FLUENT uses VOF gradients directly from the nodes to calculate
the curvature for surface tension forces. The default is yes which produces better
results with surface tension compared to gradients that are calculated at the cell
centers.
Wall Adhesion
An option to specify a wall adhesion angle in conjunction with the surface tension model
is also available in the VOF model. The model is taken from work done by Brackbill et
al. [39]. Rather than impose this boundary condition at the wall itself, the contact angle
that the uid is assumed to make with the wall is used to adjust the surface normal in
cells near the wall. This so-called dynamic boundary condition results in the adjustment
of the curvature of the surface near the wall.
If
w
is the contact angle at the wall, then the surface normal at the live cell next to the
wall is
n = n
w
cos
w
+

t
w
sin
w
(23.3-18)
where n
w
and

t
w
are the unit vectors normal and tangential to the wall, respectively.
The combination of this contact angle with the normally calculated surface normal one
cell away from the wall determine the local curvature of the surface, and this curvature
is used to adjust the body force term in the surface tension calculation.
The contact angle
w
is the angle between the wall and the tangent to the interface
at the wall, measured inside the phase listed in the left column under Wall Adhesion in
the Momentum tab of the Wall panel. For example, if you are setting the contact angle
between the oil and air phases in the Wall panel shown in Figure 23.3.2,
w
is measured
inside the oil phase, as seen in Figure 23.3.3.
Figure 23.3.2: The Wall Panel for a Mixture in a VOF Calculation with Wall
Adhesion
OR
wall
W
= 30
o
wall
= 30
o
W
AIR
OIL
OIL
AIR
interface
interface
Figure 23.3.3: Measuring the Contact Angle
23.3.9 Open Channel Flow
FLUENT can model the eects of open channel ow (e.g., rivers, dams, and surface-
piercing structures in unbounded stream) using the VOF formulation and the open chan-
nel boundary condition. These ows involve the existence of a free surface between the
owing uid and uid above it (generally the atmosphere). In such cases, the wave prop-
agation and free surface behavior becomes important. Flow is generally governed by the
forces of gravity and inertia. This feature is mostly applicable to marine applications
and the analysis of ows through drainage systems.
Open channel ows are characterized by the dimensionless Froude Number, which is
dened as the ratio of inertia force and hydrostatic force.
Fr =
V
gy
(23.3-19)
where V is the velocity magnitude, g is gravity, and y is a length scale, in this case,
the distance from the bottom of the channel to the free surface. The denominator in
Equation 23.3-19 is the propagation speed of the wave. The wave speed as seen by the
xed observer is dened as
V
w
= V
gy (23.3-20)
Based on the Froude number, open channel ows can be classied in the following three
categories:
When Fr < 1, i.e., V <

gy (thus V
w
< 0 or V
w
> 0), the ow is known to be
subcritical where disturbances can travel upstream as well as downstream. In this
case, downstream conditions might aect the ow upstream.
When Fr = 1 (thus V
w
= 0), the ow is known to be critical, where upstream
propagating waves remain stationary. In this case, the character of the ow changes.
When Fr > 1, i.e., V >

gy (thus V
w
> 0), the ow is known to be supercritical
where disturbances cannot travel upstream. In this case, downstream conditions
do not aect the ow upstream.
Upstream Boundary Conditions
There are two options available for the upstream boundary condition for open channel
ows:
pressure inlet
mass ow rate
Pressure Inlet
The total pressure p
0
at the inlet can be given as
p
0
=
1
2
(
0
)V
2
+ (
0
)|
g |( g (
a )) (23.3-21)
where

b and

a are the position vectors of the face centroid and any point on the free
surface, respectively, Here, free surface is assumed to be horizontal and normal to the
direction of gravity.

g is the gravity vector, |
g | is the gravity magnitude, g is the unit

vector of gravity, V is the velocity magnitude, is the density of the mixture in the cell,
and
0
is the reference density.
From this, the dynamic pressure q is
q =

0
2
V
2
(23.3-22)
and the static pressure p
s
is
p
s
= (
0
)|
g |( g (
a )) (23.3-23)
which can be further expanded to
p
s
= (
0
)|
g |(( g

b ) + y
local
) (23.3-24)
where the distance from the free surface to the reference position, y
local
, is
y
local
= (
a g) (23.3-25)
Mass Flow Rate
The mass ow rate for each phase associated with the open channel ow is dened by
m
phase
=
phase
(Area
phase
)(V elocity) (23.3-26)
Volume Fraction Specication
In open channel ows, FLUENT internally calculates the volume fraction based on the
input parameters specied in the Boundary Conditions panel, therefore this option has
been disabled.
For subcritical inlet ows (Fr < 1), FLUENT reconstructs the volume fraction values on
the boundary by using the values from the neighboring cells. This can be accomplished
using the following procedure:
Calculate the node values of volume fraction at the boundary using the cell values.
Calculate the volume fraction at the each face of boundary using the interpolated
node values.
For supercritical inlet ows (Fr > 1), the volume fraction value on the boundary can be
calculated using the xed height of the free surface from the bottom.
Downstream Boundary Conditions
Pressure Outlet
Determining the static pressure is dependent on the Pressure Specication Method. Using
the Free Surface Level, the static pressure is dictated by Equation 23.3-23 and Equa-
tion 23.3-25, otherwise you must specify the static pressure as the Gauge Pressure.
For subcritical outlet ows (Fr < 1), if there are only two phases, then the pressure is
taken from the pressure prole specied over the boundary, otherwise the pressure is
taken from the neighboring cell. For supercritical ows (Fr >1), the pressure is always
taken from the neighboring cell.
23.4 Mixture Model Theory
Outow Boundary
Outow boundary conditions can be used at the outlet of open channel ows to model
ow exits where the details of the ow velocity and pressure are not known prior to
solving the ow problem. If the conditions are unknown at the outow boundaries, then
FLUENT will extrapolate the required information from the interior.
It is important, however, to understand the limitations of this boundary type:
You can only use single outow boundaries at the outlet, which is achieved by set-
ting the ow rate weighting to 1. In other words, outow splitting is not permitted
in open channel ows with outow boundaries.
There should be an initial ow eld in the simulation to avoid convergence issues
due to ow reversal at the outow, which will result in an unreliable solution.
An outow boundary condition can only be used with mass ow inlets. It is not
compatible with pressure inlets and pressure outlets. For example, if you choose
the inlet as pressure-inlet, then you can only use pressure-outlet at the outlet. If you
choose the inlet as mass-ow-inlet, then you can use either outow or pressure-outlet
boundary conditions at the outlet. Note that this only holds true for open channel
ow.
Note that the outow boundary condition assumes that ow is fully developed
in the direction perpendicular to the outow boundary surface. Therefore, such
surfaces should be placed accordingly.
Backow Volume Fraction Specication
FLUENT internally calculates the volume fraction values on the outlet boundary by using
the neighboring cell values, therefore, this option is disabled.
23.4.1 Overview and Limitations of the Mixture Model
Overview
The mixture model is a simplied multiphase model that can be used to model multiphase
ows where the phases move at dierent velocities, but assume local equilibrium over
short spatial length scales. The coupling between the phases should be strong. It can
also be used to model homogeneous multiphase ows with very strong coupling and the
phases moving at the same velocity. In addition, the mixture model can be used to
calculate non-Newtonian viscosity.
The mixture model can model n phases (uid or particulate) by solving the momentum,
continuity, and energy equations for the mixture, the volume fraction equations for the
secondary phases, and algebraic expressions for the relative velocities. Typical applica-
tions include sedimentation, cyclone separators, particle-laden ows with low loading,
and bubbly ows where the gas volume fraction remains low.
The mixture model is a good substitute for the full Eulerian multiphase model in several
cases. A full multiphase model may not be feasible when there is a wide distribution of
the particulate phase or when the interphase laws are unknown or their reliability can
be questioned. A simpler model like the mixture model can perform as well as a full
multiphase model while solving a smaller number of variables than the full multiphase
model.
The mixture model allows you to select granular phases and calculates all properties of
the granular phases. This is applicable for liquid-solid ows.
Limitations
The following limitations apply to the mixture model in FLUENT:
You must use the pressure-based solver. The mixture model is not available with
either of the density-based solvers.
Only one of the phases can be dened as a compressible ideal gas. There is no
Streamwise periodic ow with specied mass ow rate cannot be modeled when
the mixture model is used (the user is allowed to specify a pressure drop).
Solidication and melting cannot be modeled in conjunction with the mixture
model.
The LES turbulence model cannot be used with the mixture model if the cavitation
model is enabled.
The relative velocity formulation cannot be used in combination with the MRF and
mixture model (see Section 10.3.1: Limitations).
The mixture model cannot be used for inviscid ows.
The shell conduction model for walls cannot be used with the mixture model.
When tracking particles in parallel, the DPM model cannot be used with the mix-
ture model if the shared memory option is enabled (Section 22.11.9: Parallel Pro-
cessing for the Discrete Phase Model). (Note that using the message passing option,
when running in parallel, enables the compatibility of all multiphase ow models
with the DPM model.)
The mixture model, like the VOF model, uses a single-uid approach. It diers from the
VOF model in two respects:
The mixture model allows the phases to be interpenetrating. The volume fractions
q
and
p
for a control volume can therefore be equal to any value between 0 and
1, depending on the space occupied by phase q and phase p.
The mixture model allows the phases to move at dierent velocities, using the
concept of slip velocities. (Note that the phases can also be assumed to move
at the same velocity, and the mixture model is then reduced to a homogeneous
multiphase model.)
The mixture model solves the continuity equation for the mixture, the momentum equa-
tion for the mixture, the energy equation for the mixture, and the volume fraction equa-
tion for the secondary phases, as well as algebraic expressions for the relative velocities
(if the phases are moving at dierent velocities).
23.4.2 Continuity Equation
The continuity equation for the mixture is
t
(
m
) + (
m
v
m
) = 0 (23.4-1)
where v
m
is the mass-averaged velocity:
v
m
=
n
k=1
k
v
k
m
(23.4-2)
and
m
is the mixture density:
m
=
n
k=1
k
(23.4-3)
k
is the volume fraction of phase k.
23.4.3 Momentum Equation
The momentum equation for the mixture can be obtained by summing the individual
momentum equations for all phases. It can be expressed as
t
(
m
v
m
) + (
m
v
m
v
m
) = p +
v
m
+v
T
m
m
g +

F +
k=1
k
v
dr,k
v
dr,k
(23.4-4)
where n is the number of phases,

F is a body force, and
m
is the viscosity of the mixture:
m
=
n
k=1
k
(23.4-5)
v
dr,k
is the drift velocity for secondary phase k:
v
dr,k
= v
k
v
m
(23.4-6)
23.4.4 Energy Equation
The energy equation for the mixture takes the following form:
t
n
k=1
(
k
k
E
k
) +
n
k=1
(
k
v
k
(
k
E
k
+ p)) = (k
e
T) + S
E
(23.4-7)
where k
e
is the eective conductivity (
k
(k
k
+k
t
)), where k
t
is the turbulent thermal
conductivity, dened according to the turbulence model being used). The rst term on
the right-hand side of Equation 23.4-7 represents energy transfer due to conduction. S
E
includes any other volumetric heat sources.
In Equation 23.4-7,
E
k
= h
k
k
+
v
2
k
2
(23.4-8)
for a compressible phase, and E
k
= h
k
for an incompressible phase, where h
k
is the
sensible enthalpy for phase k.
23.4.5 Relative (Slip) Velocity and the Drift Velocity
The relative velocity (also referred to as the slip velocity) is dened as the velocity of a
secondary phase (p) relative to the velocity of the primary phase (q):
v
pq
= v
p
v
q
(23.4-9)
The mass fraction for any phase (k) is dened as
c
k
=

k
m
(23.4-10)
The drift velocity and the relative velocity (v
qp
) are connected by the following expression:
v
dr,p
= v
pq
k=1
c
k
v
qk
(23.4-11)
FLUENTs mixture model makes use of an algebraic slip formulation. The basic assump-
tion of the algebraic slip mixture model is that to prescribe an algebraic relation for the
relative velocity, a local equilibrium between the phases should be reached over short
spatial length scale. Following Manninen et al. [229], the form of the relative velocity is
given by:
v
pq
=

p
f
drag
(
p
m
)
p
a (23.4-12)
where
p
is the particle relaxation time
p
=
p
d
2
p
18
q
(23.4-13)
d is the diameter of the particles (or droplets or bubbles) of secondary phase p, a is the
secondary-phase particles acceleration. The default drag function f
drag
is taken from
Schiller and Naumann [320]:
f
drag
=
1 + 0.15 Re
0.687
Re 1000
0.0183 Re Re > 1000
(23.4-14)
and the acceleration a is of the form
a = g (v
m
)v
m
v
m
t
(23.4-15)
The simplest algebraic slip formulation is the so-called drift ux model, in which the ac-
celeration of the particle is given by gravity and/or a centrifugal force and the particulate
relaxation time is modied to take into account the presence of other particles.
In turbulent ows the relative velocity should contain a diusion term due to the disper-
sion appearing in the momentum equation for the dispersed phase. FLUENT adds this
dispersion to the relative velocity:
v
pq
=
(
p
m
)d
2
p
18
q
f
drag
a

m
q
(23.4-16)
where (
m
) is the mixture turbulent viscosity and (
D
) is a Prandtl dispersion coecient.
When you are solving a mixture multiphase calculation with slip velocity, you can directly
prescribe formulations for the drag function. The following choices are available:
Schiller-Naumann (the default formulation)
Morsi-Alexander
symmetric
constant
user-dened
See Section 23.5.4: Interphase Exchange Coecients for more information on these drag
functions and their formulations, and Section 23.11.1: Dening the Phases for the Mixture
Model for instructions on how to enable them.
Note that, if the slip velocity is not solved, the mixture model is reduced to a homogeneous
multiphase model. In addition, the mixture model can be customized (using user-dened
functions) to use a formulation other than the algebraic slip method for the slip velocity.
See the separate UDF Manual for details.
23.4.6 Volume Fraction Equation for the Secondary Phases
From the continuity equation for secondary phase p, the volume fraction equation for
secondary phase p can be obtained:
t
(
p
p
) + (
p
p
v
m
) = (
p
p
v
dr,p
) +
n
q=1
( m
qp
m
pq
) (23.4-17)
23.4.7 Granular Properties
Since the concentration of particles is an important factor in the calculation of the eec-
tive viscosity for the mixture, we may use the granular viscosity (see section on Eulerian
granular ows) to get a value for the viscosity of the suspension. The volume weighted
averaged for the viscosity would now contain shear viscosity arising from particle mo-
mentum exchange due to translation and collision.
The collisional and kinetic parts, and the optional frictional part, are added to give the
solids shear viscosity:
s
=
s,col
+
s,kin
+
s,fr
(23.4-18)
Collisional Viscosity
The collisional part of the shear viscosity is modeled as [119, 363]
s,col
=
4
5
s
d
s
g
0,ss
(1 + e
ss
)
1/2
(23.4-19)
Kinetic Viscosity
FLUENT provides two expressions for the kinetic viscosity.
The default expression is from Syamlal et al. [363]:
s,kin
=

s
d
s
6 (3 e
ss
)
1 +
2
5
(1 + e
ss
) (3e
ss
1)
s
g
0,ss
(23.4-20)
The following optional expression from Gidaspow et al. [119] is also available:
s,kin
=
10
s
d
s
96
s
(1 + e
ss
) g
0,ss
1 +
4
5
g
0,ss
s
(1 + e
ss
)
2
(23.4-21)
23.4.8 Granular Temperature
The viscosities need the specication of the granular temperature for the s
th
solids phase.
Here we use an algebraic equation derived from the transport equation by neglecting
convection and diusion and takes the form [363]
0 = (p
s
I +
s
) : v
s
s
+
ls
(23.4-22)
where
(p
s
I +
s
) : v
s
= the generation of energy by the solid stress tensor
s
= the collisional dissipation of energy
ls
= the energy exchange between the l
th
uid or solid phase and the s
th
solid phase
The collisional dissipation of energy,
s
, represents the rate of energy dissipation within
the s
th
solids phase due to collisions between particles. This term is represented by the
expression derived by Lun et al. [221]
m
=
12(1 e
2
ss
)g
0,ss
d
s
2
s
3/2
s
(23.4-23)
The transfer of the kinetic energy of random uctuations in particle velocity from the s
th
solids phase to the l
th
uid or solid phase is represented by
ls
[119]:
ls
= 3K
ls
s
(23.4-24)
FLUENT allows you to solve for the granular temperature with the following options:
algebraic formulation (the default)
This is obtained by neglecting convection and diusion in the transport equation
(Equation 23.4-22) [363].
constant granular temperature
This is useful in very dense situations where the random uctuations are small.
UDF for granular temperature
23.4.9 Solids Pressure
The total solid pressure is calculated and included in the mixture momentum equations:
P
s,total
=
N
q=1
p
q
(23.4-25)
where p
q
is presented in the section for granular ows by equation Equation 23.5-48
23.5 Eulerian Model Theory
Details about the Eulerian multiphase model are presented in the following subsections:
Section 23.5.1: Overview and Limitations of the Eulerian Model
Section 23.5.2: Volume Fractions
Section 23.5.3: Conservation Equations
Section 23.5.4: Interphase Exchange Coecients
Section 23.5.5: Solids Pressure
Section 23.5.6: Maximum Packing Limit in Binary Mixtures
Section 23.5.7: Solids Shear Stresses
Section 23.5.8: Granular Temperature
Section 23.5.9: Description of Heat Transfer
Section 23.5.10: Turbulence Models
Section 23.5.11: Solution Method in FLUENT
23.5.1 Overview and Limitations of the Eulerian Model
Overview
The Eulerian multiphase model in FLUENT allows for the modeling of multiple sepa-
rate, yet interacting phases. The phases can be liquids, gases, or solids in nearly any
combination. An Eulerian treatment is used for each phase, in contrast to the Eulerian-
Lagrangian treatment that is used for the discrete phase model.
With the Eulerian multiphase model, the number of secondary phases is limited only
by memory requirements and convergence behavior. Any number of secondary phases
can be modeled, provided that sucient memory is available. For complex multiphase
ows, however, you may nd that your solution is limited by convergence behavior. See
Section 23.14.4: Eulerian Model for multiphase modeling strategies.
FLUENTs Eulerian multiphase model does not distinguish between uid-uid and uid-
solid (granular) multiphase ows. A granular ow is simply one that involves at least
one phase that has been designated as a granular phase.
The FLUENT solution is based on the following:
A single pressure is shared by all phases.
Momentum and continuity equations are solved for each phase.
The following parameters are available for granular phases:
Granular temperature (solids uctuating energy) can be calculated for each
solid phase. You can select either an algebraic formulation, a constant, a
user-dened function, or a partial dierential equation.
Solid-phase shear and bulk viscosities are obtained by applying kinetic the-
ory to granular ows. Frictional viscosity for modeling granular ow is also
available. You can select appropriate models and user-dened functions for
all properties.
Several interphase drag coecient functions are available, which are appropriate
for various types of multiphase regimes. (You can also modify the interphase drag
coecient through user-dened functions, as described in the separate UDF Man-
ual.)
All of the k- turbulence models are available, and may apply to all phases or to
the mixture.
Limitations
All other features available in FLUENT can be used in conjunction with the Eulerian
multiphase model, except for the following limitations:
The Reynolds Stress turbulence model is not available on a per phase basis.
Particle tracking (using the Lagrangian dispersed phase model) interacts only with
the primary phase.
Streamwise periodic ow with specied mass ow rate cannot be modeled when
the Eulerian model is used (the user is allowed to specify a pressure drop).
Inviscid ow is not allowed.
Melting and solidication are not allowed.
When tracking particles in parallel, the DPM model cannot be used with the Eule-
rian multiphase model if the shared memory option is enabled (Section 22.11.9: Par-
allel Processing for the Discrete Phase Model). (Note that using the message pass-
ing option, when running in parallel, enables the compatibility of all multiphase
ow models with the DPM model.)
To change from a single-phase model, where a single set of conservation equations for
momentum, continuity and (optionally) energy is solved, to a multiphase model, addi-
tional sets of conservation equations must be introduced. In the process of introduc-
ing additional sets of conservation equations, the original set must also be modied.
The modications involve, among other things, the introduction of the volume fractions
1
,
2
, . . .
n
for the multiple phases, as well as mechanisms for the exchange of momen-
tum, heat, and mass between the phases.
23.5.2 Volume Fractions
The description of multiphase ow as interpenetrating continua incorporates the concept
of phasic volume fractions, denoted here by
q
. Volume fractions represent the space
occupied by each phase, and the laws of conservation of mass and momentum are satised
by each phase individually. The derivation of the conservation equations can be done
by ensemble averaging the local instantaneous balance for each of the phases [10] or by
using the mixture theory approach [36].
The volume of phase q, V
q
, is dened by
V
q
=
q
dV (23.5-1)
where
n
q=1
q
= 1 (23.5-2)
The eective density of phase q is

q
=
q
q
(23.5-3)
where
q
is the physical density of phase q.
23.5.3 Conservation Equations
The general conservation equations from which the equations solved by FLUENT are
derived are presented in this section, followed by the solved equations themselves.
Equations in General Form
Conservation of Mass
The continuity equation for phase q is
t
(
q
q
) + (
q
q
v
q
) =
n
p=1
( m
pq
m
qp
) + S
q
(23.5-4)
where v
q
is the velocity of phase q and m
pq
characterizes the mass transfer from the p
th
to q
th
phase, and m
qp
characterizes the mass transfer from phase q to phase p, and you
are able to specify these mechanisms separately.
By default, the source term S
q
on the right-hand side of Equation 23.5-4 is zero, but you
can specify a constant or user-dened mass source for each phase. A similar term appears
in the momentum and enthalpy equations. See Section 23.7: Modeling Mass Transfer in
Multiphase Flows for more information on the modeling of mass transfer in FLUENTs
general multiphase models.
Conservation of Momentum
The momentum balance for phase q yields
t
(
q
q
v
q
) + (
q
q
v
q
v
q
) =
q
p +
q
+
q
q
g+
n
p=1
(
R
pq
+ m
pq
v
pq
m
qp
v
qp
) + (
F
q
+

F
lift,q
+

F
vm,q
) (23.5-5)
where
q
is the q
th
phase stress-strain tensor
q
=
q
q
(v
q
+v
T
q
) +
q
(
q
2
3
q
) v
q
I (23.5-6)
Here
q
and
q
are the shear and bulk viscosity of phase q,

F
q
is an external body force,
F
lift,q
is a lift force,

F
vm,q
is a virtual mass force,

R
pq
is an interaction force between
phases, and p is the pressure shared by all phases.
v
pq
is the interphase velocity, dened as follows. If m
pq
> 0 (i.e., phase p mass is being
transferred to phase q), v
pq
= v
p
; if m
pq
< 0 (i.e., phase q mass is being transferred to
phase p), v
pq
= v
q
. Likewise, if m
qp
> 0 then v
qp
= v
q
, if m
qp
< 0 then v
qp
= v
p
.
Equation 23.5-5 must be closed with appropriate expressions for the interphase force

R
pq
.
This force depends on the friction, pressure, cohesion, and other eects, and is subject
to the conditions that

R
pq
=
R
qp
and

R
qq
= 0.
FLUENT uses a simple interaction term of the following form:
n
p=1
R
pq
=
n
p=1
K
pq
(v
p
v
q
) (23.5-7)
where K
pq
(= K
qp
) is the interphase momentum exchange coecient (described in Sec-
tion 23.5.4: Interphase Exchange Coecients).
Lift Forces
For multiphase ows, FLUENT can include the eect of lift forces on the secondary phase
particles (or droplets or bubbles). These lift forces act on a particle mainly due to velocity
gradients in the primary-phase ow eld. The lift force will be more signicant for larger
particles, but the FLUENT model assumes that the particle diameter is much smaller
than the interparticle spacing. Thus, the inclusion of lift forces is not appropriate for
closely packed particles or for very small particles.
The lift force acting on a secondary phase p in a primary phase q is computed from [88]
F
lift
= 0.5
q
p
(v
q
v
p
) (v
q
) (23.5-8)
The lift force

F
lift
will be added to the right-hand side of the momentum equation for
both phases (
F
lift,q
=
F
lift,p
).
In most cases, the lift force is insignicant compared to the drag force, so there is no
reason to include this extra term. If the lift force is signicant (e.g., if the phases separate
quickly), it may be appropriate to include this term. By default,

F
lift
is not included.
The lift force and lift coecient can be specied for each pair of phases, if desired.
i
It is important that if you include the lift force in your calculation, you
need not include it everywhere in the computational domain since it is
computationally expensive to converge. For example, in the wall boundary
layer for turbulent bubbly ows in channels, the lift force is signicant
when the slip velocity is large in the vicinity of high strain rates for the
primary phase.
Virtual Mass Force
For multiphase ows, FLUENT includes the virtual mass eect that occurs when a
secondary phase p accelerates relative to the primary phase q. The inertia of the primary-
phase mass encountered by the accelerating particles (or droplets or bubbles) exerts a
virtual mass force on the particles [88]:
F
vm
= 0.5
p
d
q
v
q
dt

d
p
v
p
dt
(23.5-9)
The term
dq
dt
denotes the phase material time derivative of the form
d
q
()
dt
=
()
t
+ (v
q
) (23.5-10)
The virtual mass force

F
vm
will be added to the right-hand side of the momentum equation
for both phases (
F
vm,q
=
F
vm,p
).
The virtual mass eect is signicant when the secondary phase density is much smaller
than the primary phase density (e.g., for a transient bubble column). By default,

F
vm
is
not included.
Conservation of Energy
To describe the conservation of energy in Eulerian multiphase applications, a separate
enthalpy equation can be written for each phase:
t
(
q
q
h
q
)+(
q
q
u
q
h
q
) =
q
p
q
t
+
q
: u
q
q
q
+S
q
+
n
p=1
(Q
pq
+ m
pq
h
pq
m
qp
h
qp
)
(23.5-11)
where h
q
is the specic enthalpy of the q
th
phase, q
q
is the heat ux, S
q
is a source term
that includes sources of enthalpy (e.g., due to chemical reaction or radiation), Q
pq
is
the intensity of heat exchange between the p
th
and q
th
phases, and h
pq
is the interphase
enthalpy (e.g., the enthalpy of the vapor at the temperature of the droplets, in the case
of evaporation). The heat exchange between phases must comply with the local balance
conditions Q
pq
= Q
qp
and Q
qq
= 0.
Equations Solved by FLUENT
The equations for uid-uid and granular multiphase ows, as solved by FLUENT, are
presented here for the general case of an n-phase ow.
Continuity Equation
The volume fraction of each phase is calculated from a continuity equation:
1
rq

t
(
q
q
) + (
q
q
v
q
) =
n
p=1
( m
pq
m
qp
)
(23.5-12)
where
rq
is the phase reference density, or the volume averaged density of the q
th
phase
in the solution domain.
The solution of this equation for each secondary phase, along with the condition that the
volume fractions sum to one (given by Equation 23.5-2), allows for the calculation of the
primary-phase volume fraction. This treatment is common to uid-uid and granular
ows.
Fluid-Fluid Momentum Equations
The conservation of momentum for a uid phase q is
t
(
q
q
v
q
) + (
q
q
v
q
v
q
) =
q
p +
q
+
q
q
g +
n
p=1
(K
pq
(v
p
v
q
) + m
pq
v
pq
m
qp
v
qp
) +
(
F
q
+

F
lift,q
+

F
vm,q
) (23.5-13)
Here g is the acceleration due to gravity and
q
,

F
q
,

F
lift,q
, and

F
vm,q
are as dened for
Equation 23.5-5.
Fluid-Solid Momentum Equations
Following the work of [7, 51, 79, 119, 198, 221, 267, 363], FLUENT uses a multi-uid
granular model to describe the ow behavior of a uid-solid mixture. The solid-phase
stresses are derived by making an analogy between the random particle motion arising
from particle-particle collisions and the thermal motion of molecules in a gas, taking into
account the inelasticity of the granular phase. As is the case for a gas, the intensity of the
particle velocity uctuations determines the stresses, viscosity, and pressure of the solid
phase. The kinetic energy associated with the particle velocity uctuations is represented
by a pseudothermal or granular temperature which is proportional to the mean square
of the random motion of particles.
The conservation of momentum for the uid phases is similar to Equation 23.5-13, and
that for the s
th
solid phase is
t
(
s
s
v
s
) + (
s
s
v
s
v
s
) =
s
p p
s
+
s
+
s
s
g +
N
l=1
(K
ls
(v
l
v
s
) + m
ls
v
ls
m
sl
v
sl
) +
(
F
s
+

F
lift,s
+

F
vm,s
) (23.5-14)
where p
s
is the s
th
solids pressure, K
ls
= K
sl
is the momentum exchange coecient
between uid or solid phase l and solid phase s, N is the total number of phases, and
F
q
,

F
lift,q
, and

F
vm,q
are as dened for Equation 23.5-5.
Conservation of Energy
The equation solved by FLUENT for the conservation of energy is Equation 23.5-11.
23.5.4 Interphase Exchange Coefcients
It can be seen in Equations 23.5-13 and 23.5-14 that momentum exchange between the
phases is based on the value of the uid-uid exchange coecient K
pq
and, for granular
ows, the uid-solid and solid-solid exchange coecients K
ls
.
Fluid-Fluid Exchange Coefcient
For uid-uid ows, each secondary phase is assumed to form droplets or bubbles. This
has an impact on how each of the uids is assigned to a particular phase. For example,
in ows where there are unequal amounts of two uids, the predominant uid should be
modeled as the primary uid, since the sparser uid is more likely to form droplets or
bubbles. The exchange coecient for these types of bubbly, liquid-liquid or gas-liquid
mixtures can be written in the following general form:
K
pq
=

q
p
f
p
(23.5-15)
where f, the drag function, is dened dierently for the dierent exchange-coecient
models (as described below) and
p
, the particulate relaxation time, is dened as
p
=
p
d
2
p
18
q
(23.5-16)
where d
p
is the diameter of the bubbles or droplets of phase p.
Nearly all denitions of f include a drag coecient (C
D
) that is based on the relative
Reynolds number (Re). It is this drag function that diers among the exchange-coecient
models. For all these situations, K
pq
should tend to zero whenever the primary phase is
not present within the domain. To enforce this, the drag function f is always multiplied
by the volume fraction of the primary phase q, as is reected in Equation 23.5-15.
For the model of Schiller and Naumann [320]
f =
C
D
Re
24
(23.5-17)
where
C
D
=
24(1 + 0.15 Re
0.687
)/Re Re 1000
0.44 Re > 1000
(23.5-18)
and Re is the relative Reynolds number. The relative Reynolds number for the
primary phase q and secondary phase p is obtained from
Re =

q
|v
p
v
q
|d
p
q
(23.5-19)
The relative Reynolds number for secondary phases p and r is obtained from
Re =

rp
|v
r
v
p
|d
rp
rp
(23.5-20)
where
rp
=
p
p
+
r
r
is the mixture viscosity of the phases p and r.
The Schiller and Naumann model is the default method, and it is acceptable for
general use for all uid-uid pairs of phases.
For the Morsi and Alexander model [252]
f =
C
D
Re
24
(23.5-21)
where
C
D
= a
1
+
a
2
Re
+
a
3
Re
2
(23.5-22)
and Re is dened by Equation 23.5-19 or 23.5-20. The as are dened as follows:
a
1
, a
2
, a
3
=
0, 24, 0 0 < Re < 0.1

3.690, 22.73, 0.0903 0.1 < Re < 1
1.222, 29.1667, 3.8889 1 < Re < 10
0.6167, 46.50, 116.67 10 < Re < 100
0.3644, 98.33, 2778 100 < Re < 1000
0.357, 148.62, 47500 1000 < Re < 5000
0.46, 490.546, 578700 5000 < Re < 10000
0.5191, 1662.5, 5416700 Re 10000
(23.5-23)
The Morsi and Alexander model is the most complete, adjusting the function def-
inition frequently over a large range of Reynolds numbers, but calculations with
this model may be less stable than with the other models.
For the symmetric model
K
pq
=

p
(
p
p
+
q
q
)f
pq
(23.5-24)
where
pq
=
(
p
p
+
q
q
)(
dp+dq
2
)
2
18(
p
p
+
q
q
)
(23.5-25)
and
f =
C
D
Re
24
(23.5-26)
where
C
D
=
24(1 + 0.15 Re
0.687
)/Re Re 1000
0.44 Re > 1000
(23.5-27)
and Re is dened by Equation 23.5-19 or 23.5-20. Note that if there is only one
dispersed phase, then d
p
= d
q
in Equation 23.5-25.
The symmetric model is recommended for ows in which the secondary (dispersed)
phase in one region of the domain becomes the primary (continuous) phase in
another. Thus for a single dispersed phase, d
p
= d
q
and
(dp+dq)
2
= d
p
. For example,
if air is injected into the bottom of a container lled halfway with water, the air
is the dispersed phase in the bottom half of the container; in the top half of the
container, the air is the continuous phase. This model can also be used for the
interaction between secondary phases.
You can specify dierent exchange coecients for each pair of phases. It is also possible
to use user-dened functions to dene exchange coecients for each pair of phases. If the
exchange coecient is equal to zero (i.e., if no exchange coecient is specied), the ow
elds for the uids will be computed independently, with the only interaction being
their complementary volume fractions within each computational cell.
Fluid-Solid Exchange Coefcient
The uid-solid exchange coecient K
sl
can be written in the following general form:
K
sl
=

s
s
f
s
(23.5-28)
where f is dened dierently for the dierent exchange-coecient models (as described
below), and
s
, the particulate relaxation time, is dened as
s
=

s
d
2
s
18
l
(23.5-29)
where d
s
is the diameter of particles of phase s.
All denitions of f include a drag function (C
D
) that is based on the relative Reynolds
number (Re
s
). It is this drag function that diers among the exchange-coecient models.
For the Syamlal-OBrien model [362]
f =
C
D
Re
s
l
24v
2
r,s
(23.5-30)
where the drag function has a form derived by Dalla Valle [73]
C
D
=
0.63 +
4.8
Re
s
/v
r,s
2
(23.5-31)
This model is based on measurements of the terminal velocities of particles in
uidized or settling beds, with correlations that are a function of the volume fraction
and relative Reynolds number [305]:
Re
s
=

l
d
s
|v
s
v
l
|
l
(23.5-32)
where the subscript l is for the l
th
uid phase, s is for the s
th
solid phase, and d
s
is
the diameter of the s
th
solid phase particles.
The uid-solid exchange coecient has the form
K
sl
=
3
s
l
4v
2
r,s
d
s
C
D
Re
s
v
r,s
|v
s
v
l
| (23.5-33)
where v
r,s
is the terminal velocity correlation for the solid phase [113]:
v
r,s
= 0.5
A 0.06 Re
s
+
(0.06 Re
s
)
2
+ 0.12 Re
s
(2B A) + A
2
(23.5-34)
with
A =
4.14
l
(23.5-35)
and
B = 0.8
1.28
l
(23.5-36)
for
l
0.85, and
B =
2.65
l
(23.5-37)
for
l
> 0.85.
This model is appropriate when the solids shear stresses are dened according to
Syamlal et al. [363] (Equation 23.5-64).
For the model of Wen and Yu [396], the uid-solid exchange coecient is of the
following form:
K
sl
=
3
4
C
D
l
|v
s
v
l
|
d
s
2.65
l
(23.5-38)
where
C
D
=
24
l
Re
s
1 + 0.15(
l
Re
s
)
0.687
(23.5-39)
and Re
s
is dened by Equation 23.5-32.
This model is appropriate for dilute systems.
The Gidaspow model [119] is a combination of the Wen and Yu model [396] and
the Ergun equation [96].
When
l
> 0.8, the uid-solid exchange coecient K
sl
is of the following form:
K
sl
=
3
4
C
D
l
|v
s
v
l
|
d
s
2.65
l
(23.5-40)
where
C
D
=
24
l
Re
s
1 + 0.15(
l
Re
s
)
0.687
(23.5-41)
When
l
0.8,
K
sl
= 150
s
(1
l
)
l
l
d
2
s
+ 1.75
s
|v
s
v
l
|
d
s
(23.5-42)
This model is recommended for dense uidized beds.
Solid-Solid Exchange Coefcient
The solid-solid exchange coecient K
ls
has the following form [361]:
K
ls
=
3 (1 + e
ls
)
2
+ C
fr,ls
2
8
l
(d
l
+ d
s
)
2
g
0,ls
2 (
l
d
3
l
+
s
d
3
s
)
|v
l
v
s
| (23.5-43)
where
e
ls
= the coecient of restitution
C
fr,ls
= the coecient of friction between the l
th
and s
th
solid-phase particles (C
fr,ls
= 0)
d
l
= the diameter of the particles of solid l
g
0,ls
= the radial distribution coecient
Note that the coecient of restitution is described in Section 23.5.5: Solids Pressure
and the radial distribution coecient is described in Section 23.5.5: Radial Distribution
Function.
23.5.5 Solids Pressure
For granular ows in the compressible regime (i.e., where the solids volume fraction is less
than its maximum allowed value), a solids pressure is calculated independently and used
for the pressure gradient term, p
s
, in the granular-phase momentum equation. Because
a Maxwellian velocity distribution is used for the particles, a granular temperature is
introduced into the model, and appears in the expression for the solids pressure and
viscosities. The solids pressure is composed of a kinetic term and a second term due to
particle collisions:
p
s
=
s
s
+ 2
s
(1 + e
ss
)
2
s
g
0,ss
s
(23.5-44)
where e
ss
is the coecient of restitution for particle collisions, g
0,ss
is the radial distribu-
tion function, and
s
is the granular temperature. FLUENT uses a default value of 0.9
for e
ss
, but the value can be adjusted to suit the particle type. The granular temperature
s
is proportional to the kinetic energy of the uctuating particle motion, and will be
described later in this section. The function g
0,ss
(described below in more detail) is a
distribution function that governs the transition from the compressible condition with
<
s,max
, where the spacing between the solid particles can continue to decrease, to
the incompressible condition with =
s,max
, where no further decrease in the spacing
can occur. A value of 0.63 is the default for
s,max
, but you can modify it during the
problem setup.
Other formulations that are also available in FLUENT are [363]
p
s
= 2
s
(1 + e
ss
)
2
s
g
0,ss
s
(23.5-45)
and [226]
p
s
=
s
s
[(1 + 4
s
g
0,ss
) +
1
2
[(1 + e
ss
)(1 e
ss
+ 2
fric
)]] (23.5-46)
When more than one solids phase are calculated, the above expression does not take into
account the eect of other phases. A derivation of the expressions from the Boltzman
equations for a granular mixture are beyond the scope of this manual, however there is
a need to provide a better formulation so that some properties may feel the presence of
other phases. A known problem is that N solids phases with identical properties should be
consistent when the same phases are described by a single solids phase. Equations derived
empirically may not satisfy this property and need to be changed accordingly without
deviating signicantly from the original form. From [118], a general solids pressure
formulation in the presence of other phases could be of the form
p
q
=
q
q
+
N
p=1
3
g
0,pq
d
3
qp
n
q
n
p
(1 + e
qp
)f(m
p
, m
q
,
p
,
q
) (23.5-47)
where d
pq
=
dp+dq
2
is the average diameter, n
p
, n
q
are the number of particles, m
p
and m
q
are the masses of the particles in phases p and q, and f is a function of the masses of the
particles and their granular temperatures. For now, we have to simplify this expression
so that it depends only on the granular temperature of phase q
p
q
=
q
q
+
N
p=1
2
d
3
pq
d
3
q
(1 + e
pq
)g
0,pq
q
(23.5-48)
Since all models need to be cast in the general form, it follows that
p
q
=
q
q
+ (
N
p=1
d
3
pq
d
3
q
p
c,qp
)
q
q
(23.5-49)
where p
c,qp
is the collisional part of the pressure between phases q and p.
The above expression reverts to the one solids phase expression when N = 1 and q = p
but also has the property of feeling the presence of other phases.
Radial Distribution Function
The radial distribution function, g
0
, is a correction factor that modies the probability
of collisions between grains when the solid granular phase becomes dense. This function
may also be interpreted as the nondimensional distance between spheres:
g
0
=
s + d
p
s
(23.5-50)
where s is the distance between grains. From Equation 23.5-50 it can be observed that
for a dilute solid phase s , and therefore g
0
1. In the limit when the solid phase
compacts, s 0 and g
0
. The radial distribution function is closely connected
to the factor of Chapman and Cowlings [51] theory of nonuniform gases. is equal
to 1 for a rare gas, and increases and tends to innity when the molecules are so close
together that motion is not possible.
In the literature there is no unique formulation for the radial distribution function. FLU-
ENT has a number of options:
For one solids phase, use [267]:
g
0
=
s,max
1
3
1
(23.5-51)
This is an empirical function and does not extends easily to n phases. For two
identical phases with the property that
q
=
1
+
2
, the above function is not
consistent for the calculation of the partial pressures p
1
and p
2
, p
q
= p
1
+ p
2
. In
order to correct this problem, FLUENT uses the following consistent formulation:
g
0,ll
=
s,max
1
3
1
+
1
2
d
l
N
k=1
k
d
k
(23.5-52)
where
s
=
N
k=1
k
(23.5-53)
and k are solids phases only.
The following expression is also available [151]:
g
0,ll
=
1
(1
s
s,max
)
+
3
2
d
l
N
k=1
k
d
k
(23.5-54)
Also available [226], slightly modied for n solids phases, is the following:
g
0,ll
=
1 + 2.5
s
+ 4.59
2
s
+ 4.52
3
s
s
s,max
0.678
+
1
2
d
l
N
k=1
k
d
k
(23.5-55)
The following equation [363] is available:
g
0,kl
=
1
(1
s
)
+
3(
N
k=1
k
d
k
)
(1
s
)
2
(d
j
+ d
k
)
d
k
d
l
(23.5-56)
When the number of solid phases is greater than 1, Equation 23.5-52, Equation 23.5-54
and Equation 23.5-55 are extended to
g
0,lm
=
d
m
g
0,ll
+ d
l
g
0,mm
d
m
+ d
l
(23.5-57)
It is interesting to note that equations Equation 23.5-54 and Equation 23.5-55 compare
well with [6] experimental data, while Equation 23.5-56 reverts to the [47] derivation.
23.5.6 Maximum Packing Limit in Binary Mixtures
The packing limit is not a xed quantity and may change according to the number of
particles present within a given volume and the diameter of the particles. Small particles
accumulate in between larger particles increasing the packing limit. For a binary mixture
FLUENT uses the correlations proposed by [99].
For a binary mixture with diameters d
1
> d
2
, the mixture composition is dened as
X
1
=

1
1
+
2
where
X
1
<=

1,max
(
1,max
+ (1
1,max
)
2,max
)
(23.5-58)
The maximum packing limit for the mixture is given by
s,max
= (
1,max
2,max
+ [1
d2
d1
](1
1,max
)
2,max
) (23.5-59)
(
1,max
+ (1
1,max
)
2,max
)
X
1
1,max
+
2,max
(23.5-60)
otherwise, the maximum packing limit for the binary mixture is
[1
d2
d1
](
1,max
+ (1
1,max
)
2,max
)(1 X
1
) +
1,max
(23.5-61)
The packing limit is used for the calculation of the radial distribution function.
23.5.7 Solids Shear Stresses
The solids stress tensor contains shear and bulk viscosities arising from particle momen-
tum exchange due to translation and collision. A frictional component of viscosity can
also be included to account for the viscous-plastic transition that occurs when particles
of a solid phase reach the maximum solid volume fraction.
The collisional and kinetic parts, and the optional frictional part, are added to give the
solids shear viscosity:
s
=
s,col
+
s,kin
+
s,fr
(23.5-62)
Collisional Viscosity
The collisional part of the shear viscosity is modeled as [119, 363]
s,col
=
4
5
s
d
s
g
0,ss
(1 + e
ss
)
1/2
(23.5-63)
Kinetic Viscosity
FLUENT provides two expressions for the kinetic part.
The default expression is from Syamlal et al. [363]:
s,kin
=

s
d
s
6 (3 e
ss
)
1 +
2
5
(1 + e
ss
) (3e
ss
1)
s
g
0,ss
(23.5-64)
The following optional expression from Gidaspow et al. [119] is also available:
s,kin
=
10
s
d
s
96
s
(1 + e
ss
) g
0,ss
1 +
4
5
g
0,ss
s
(1 + e
ss
)
2
(23.5-65)
Bulk Viscosity
The solids bulk viscosity accounts for the resistance of the granular particles to compres-
sion and expansion. It has the following form from Lun et al. [221]:
s
=
4
3
s
d
s
g
0,ss
(1 + e
ss
)
1/2
(23.5-66)
Note that the bulk viscosity is set to a constant value of zero, by default. It is also
possible to select the Lun et al. expression or use a user-dened function.
Frictional Viscosity
In dense ow at low shear, where the secondary volume fraction for a solid phase nears
the packing limit, the generation of stress is mainly due to friction between particles.
The solids shear viscosity computed by FLUENT does not, by default, account for the
friction between particles.
If the frictional viscosity is included in the calculation, FLUENT uses Schaeers [318]
expression:
s,fr
=
p
s
sin
2
I
2D
(23.5-67)
where p
s
is the solids pressure, is the angle of internal friction, and I
2D
is the second
invariant of the deviatoric stress tensor. It is also possible to specify a constant or user-
dened frictional viscosity.
In granular ows with high solids volume fraction, instantaneous collisions are less im-
portant. The application of kinetic theory to granular ows is no longer relevant since
particles are in contact and the resulting frictional stresses need to be taken into account.
FLUENT extends the formulation of the frictional viscosity and employs other models, as
well as providing new hooks for UDFs. See the separate UDF Manual for details.
The frictional stresses are usually written in Newtonian form:
friction
= P
friction
I +
friction
(u
s
+ (u
s
)
T
) (23.5-68)
The frictional stress is added to the stress predicted by the kinetic theory when the solids
volume fraction exceeds a critical value. This value is normally set to 0.5 when the ow
is three-dimensional and the maximum packing limit is about 0.63. Then
P
S
= P
kinetic
+ P
friction
(23.5-69)
S
=
kinetic
+
friction
(23.5-70)
The derivation of the frictional pressure is mainly semi-empirical, while the frictional vis-
cosity can be derived from the rst principles. The application of the modied Coulomb
law leads to an expression of the form
friction
=
P
friction
sin
2
I
2D
(23.5-71)
Where is the angle of internal friction and I
2D
is the second invariant of the deviatoric
stress tensor.
Two additional models are available in FLUENT: the Johnson and Jackson [165] model
for frictional pressure and Syamlal et al [363].
The Johnson and Jackson [165] model for frictional pressure is dened as
P
friction
= Fr
(
s
s,min
)
n
(
s,max
s
)
p
(23.5-72)
With coecient Fr = 0.05, n=2 and p = 3 [266]. The critical value for the solids volume
fraction is 0.5. The coecient Fr was modied to make it a function of the volume
fraction:
Fr = 0.1
s
(23.5-73)
The frictional viscosity for this model is of the form
friction
= P
friction
sin (23.5-74)
The second model that is employed is Syamlal et al [363], described in Equation 23.5-64.
Comparing the two models results in the frictional normal stress diering by orders of
magnitude.
The radial distribution function is an important parameter in the description of the solids
pressure resulting from granular kinetic theory. If we use the models of Lun et al. [221] or
Gidaspow [118] the radial function tends to innity as the volume fraction tends to the
packing limit. It would then be possible to use this pressure directly in the calculation
of the frictional viscosity, as it has the desired eect. This approach is also available in
FLUENT by default.
i
The introduction of the frictional viscosity helps in the description of fric-
tional ows, however a complete description would require the introduction
of more physics to capture the elastic regime with the calculation of the
yield stress and the use of the ow-rule. These eects can be added by the
user via UDFs to model static regime. Small time steps are required to get
good convergence behavior.
23.5.8 Granular Temperature
The granular temperature for the s
th
solids phase is proportional to the kinetic energy of
the random motion of the particles. The transport equation derived from kinetic theory
takes the form [79]
3
2

t
(
s
s
) + (
s
s
v
s
s
)
= (p
s
I+
s
) : v
s
+(k
s
s
)
s
+
ls
(23.5-75)
where
(p
s
I +
s
) : v
s
= the generation of energy by the solid stress tensor
k
s
s
= the diusion of energy (k
s
is the diusion coecient)
s
= the collisional dissipation of energy
ls
= the energy exchange between the l
th
uid or solid phase and the s
th
solid phase
Equation 23.5-75 contains the term k
s
s
describing the diusive ux of granular
energy. When the default Syamlal et al. model [363] is used, the diusion coecient for
granular energy, k
s
is given by
k
s
=
15d
s
4(41 33)
1 +
12
5

2
(4 3)
s
g
0,ss
+
16
15
(41 33)
s
g
0,ss
)
(23.5-76)
where
=
1
2
(1 + e
ss
)
FLUENT uses the following expression if the optional model of Gidaspow et al. [119] is
enabled:
k
s
=
150
s
d
s
()
384(1 + e
ss
)g
0,ss
1 +
6
5
s
g
0,ss
(1 + e
s
)
2
+ 2
s
s
2
d
s
(1 + e
ss
)g
0,ss
(23.5-77)
The collisional dissipation of energy,
s
, represents the rate of energy dissipation within
the s
th
solids phase due to collisions between particles. This term is represented by the
expression derived by Lun et al. [221]
m
=
12(1 e
2
ss
)g
0,ss
d
s
2
s
3/2
s
(23.5-78)
The transfer of the kinetic energy of random uctuations in particle velocity from the s
th
solids phase to the l
th
uid or solid phase is represented by
ls
[119]:
ls
= 3K
ls
s
(23.5-79)
FLUENT allows the user to solve for the granular temperature with the following options:
algebraic formulation (the default)
It is obtained by neglecting convection and diusion in the transport equation,
Equation 23.5-75 [363].
partial dierential equation
This is given by Equation 23.5-75 and it is allowed to choose dierent options for
it properties.
constant granular temperature
This is useful in very dense situations where the random uctuations are small.
UDF for granular temperature
For a granular phase s, we may write the shear force at the wall in the following form:

s
=
3

s
s,max
s
g
0
s

U
s,||
(23.5-80)
Here

U
s,||
is the particle slip velocity parallel to the wall, is the specularity coecient
between the particle and the wall,
s,max
is the volume fraction for the particles at
maximum packing, and g
0
is the radial distribution function that is model dependent.
The general boundary condition for granular temperature at the wall takes the form
[165]
q
s
=

6
3

s
s,max
s
g
0
s
)

U
s,||

U
s,||
3

s
s,max
(1 e
2
sw
)
s
g
0
3
2
s (23.5-81)
23.5.9 Description of Heat Transfer
The internal energy balance for phase q is written in terms of the phase enthalpy, Equa-
tion 23.5-11, dened by
H
q
=
c
p,q
dT
q
(23.5-82)
where c
p,q
is the specic heat at constant pressure of phase q. The thermal boundary
conditions used with multiphase ows are the same as those for a single-phase ow. See
Chapter 7: Boundary Conditions for details.
The Heat Exchange Coefcient
The rate of energy transfer between phases is assumed to be a function of the temperature
dierence
Q
pq
= h
pq
(T
p
T
q
) (23.5-83)
where h
pq
(= h
qp
) is the heat transfer coecient between the p
th
phase and the q
th
phase.
The heat transfer coecient is related to the p
th
phase Nusselt number, Nu
p
, by
h
pq
=
6
q
q
Nu
p
d
p
2
(23.5-84)
Here
q
is the thermal conductivity of the q
th
phase. The Nusselt number is typically
determined from one of the many correlations reported in the literature. In the case of
uid-uid multiphase, FLUENT uses the correlation of Ranz and Marshall [295, 296]:
Nu
p
= 2.0 + 0.6Re
1/2
p
Pr
1/3
(23.5-85)
where Re
p
is the relative Reynolds number based on the diameter of the p
th
phase and
the relative velocity | u
p
u
q
|, and Pr is the Prandtl number of the q
th
phase:
Pr =
c
p
q
q
(23.5-86)
In the case of granular ows (where p = s), FLUENT uses a Nusselt number correlation
by Gunn [128], applicable to a porosity range of 0.351.0 and a Reynolds number of up
to 10
5
:
Nu
s
= (7 10
f
+5
2
f
)(1 +0.7Re
0.2
s
Pr
1/3
) +(1.33 2.4
f
+1.2
2
f
)Re
0.7
s
Pr
1/3
(23.5-87)
The Prandtl number is dened as above with q = f. For all these situations, h
pq
should
tend to zero whenever one of the phases is not present within the domain. To enforce
this, h
pq
is always multiplied by the volume fraction of the primary phase q, as reected
23.5.10 Turbulence Models
To describe the eects of turbulent uctuations of velocities and scalar quantities in
a single phase, FLUENT uses various types of closure models, as described in Chap-
ter 12: Modeling Turbulence. In comparison to single-phase ows, the number of terms
to be modeled in the momentum equations in multiphase ows is large, and this makes
the modeling of turbulence in multiphase simulations extremely complex.
FLUENT provides three methods for modeling turbulence in multiphase ows within the
context of the k- models. In addition, FLUENT provides two turbulence options within
the context of the Reynolds stress models (RSM).
The k- turbulence model options are:
mixture turbulence model (the default)
dispersed turbulence model
turbulence model for each phase
i
Note that the descriptions of each method below are presented based on
the standard k- model. The multiphase modications to the RNG and
realizable k- models are similar, and are therefore not presented explicitly.
The RSM turbulence model options are:
mixture turbulence model (the default)
dispersed turbulence model
For either category, the choice of model depends on the importance of the secondary-
phase turbulence in your application.
k- Turbulence Models
FLUENT provides three turbulence model options in the context of the k- models: the
mixture turbulence model (the default), the dispersed turbulence model, or a per-phase
turbulence model.
k- Mixture Turbulence Model
The mixture turbulence model is the default multiphase turbulence model. It represents
the rst extension of the single-phase k- model, and it is applicable when phases separate,
for stratied (or nearly stratied) multiphase ows, and when the density ratio between
phases is close to 1. In these cases, using mixture properties and mixture velocities is
sucient to capture important features of the turbulent ow.
The k and equations describing this model are as follows:
t
(
m
k) + (
m
v
m
k) =
t,m
k
k
+ G
k,m
m
(23.5-88)
and
t
(
m
) + (
m
v
m
) =
t,m
+

k
(C
1
G
k,m
C
2
m
) (23.5-89)
where the mixture density and velocity,
m
and v
m
, are computed from
m
=
N
i=1
i
(23.5-90)
and
v
m
=
N
i=1
i
v
i
N
i=1
i
(23.5-91)
the turbulent viscosity,
t,m
, is computed from
t,m
=
m
C
k
2
(23.5-92)
and the production of turbulence kinetic energy, G
k,m
, is computed from
G
k,m
=
t,m
(v
m
+ (v
m
)
T
) : v
m
(23.5-93)
The constants in these equations are the same as those described in Section 12.4.1: Stan-
dard k- Model for the single-phase k- model.
k- Dispersed Turbulence Model
The dispersed turbulence model is the appropriate model when the concentrations of the
secondary phases are dilute. In this case, interparticle collisions are negligible and the
dominant process in the random motion of the secondary phases is the inuence of the
primary-phase turbulence. Fluctuating quantities of the secondary phases can therefore
be given in terms of the mean characteristics of the primary phase and the ratio of the
particle relaxation time and eddy-particle interaction time.
The model is applicable when there is clearly one primary continuous phase and the rest
are dispersed dilute secondary phases.
Assumptions
The dispersed method for modeling turbulence in FLUENT assumes the following:
a modied k- model for the continuous phase
Turbulent predictions for the continuous phase are obtained using the standard
k- model supplemented with extra terms that include the interphase turbulent
momentum transfer.
Tchen-theory correlations for the dispersed phases
Predictions for turbulence quantities for the dispersed phases are obtained using the
Tchen theory of dispersion of discrete particles by homogeneous turbulence [141].
interphase turbulent momentum transfer
In turbulent multiphase ows, the momentum exchange terms contain the cor-
relation between the instantaneous distribution of the dispersed phases and the
turbulent uid motion. It is possible to take into account the dispersion of the
dispersed phases transported by the turbulent uid motion.
a phase-weighted averaging process
The choice of averaging process has an impact on the modeling of dispersion in
turbulent multiphase ows. A two-step averaging process leads to the appearance
of uctuations in the phase volume fractions. When the two-step averaging pro-
cess is used with a phase-weighted average for the turbulence, however, turbulent
uctuations in the volume fractions do not appear. FLUENT uses phase-weighted
averaging, so no volume fraction uctuations are introduced into the continuity
equations.
Turbulence in the Continuous Phase
The eddy viscosity model is used to calculate averaged uctuating quantities. The
Reynolds stress tensor for continuous phase q takes the following form:
q
=
2
3
(
q
k
q
+
q
t,q

U
q
)I +
q
t,q
(
U
q
+
U
q
T
) (23.5-94)
where

U
q
is the phase-weighted velocity.
The turbulent viscosity
t,q
is written in terms of the turbulent kinetic energy of phase
q:
t,q
=
q
C
k
2
q
q
(23.5-95)
and a characteristic time of the energetic turbulent eddies is dened as
t,q
=
3
2
C
k
q
q
(23.5-96)
where
q
is the dissipation rate and C
= 0.09.
The length scale of the turbulent eddies is
L
t,q
=
3
2
C
k
3/2
q
q
(23.5-97)
Turbulent predictions are obtained from the modied k- model:
t
(
q
q
k
q
) + (
q
U
q
k
q
) = (
q
t,q
k
k
q
) +
q
G
k,q
q
+
q
kq
(23.5-98)
and
t
(
q
q
) + (
q
U
q
q
) = (
q
t,q
q
) +
q
q
k
q
(C
1
G
k,q
C
2
q
) +
q
q
(23.5-99)
Here
kq
and
q
represent the inuence of the dispersed phases on the continuous phase
q, and G
k,q
is the production of turbulent kinetic energy, as dened in Section 12.4.4: Mod-
eling Turbulent Production in the k- Models. All other terms have the same meaning
as in the single-phase k- model.
The term
kq
can be derived from the instantaneous equation of the continuous phase
and takes the following form, where M represents the number of secondary phases:
kq
=
M
p=1
K
pq
q
(< v
q
v
p
> +(
U
p

U
q
) v
dr
) (23.5-100)
which can be simplied to
kq
=
M
p=1
K
pq
q
(k
pq
2k
q
+v
pq
v
dr
) (23.5-101)
where k
lq
is the covariance of the velocities of the continuous phase q and the dispersed
phase l (calculated from Equation 23.5-109 below), v
pq
is the relative velocity, and v
dr
is
the drift velocity (dened by Equation 23.5-114 below).
q
is modeled according to Elgobashi et al. [95]:
q
= C
3
q
k
q
kq
(23.5-102)
where C
3
= 1.2.
Turbulence in the Dispersed Phase
Time and length scales that characterize the motion are used to evaluate dispersion
coecients, correlation functions, and the turbulent kinetic energy of each dispersed
phase.
The characteristic particle relaxation time connected with inertial eects acting on a
dispersed phase p is dened as
F,pq
=
p
q
K
1
pq
q
+ C
V
(23.5-103)
The Lagrangian integral time scale calculated along particle trajectories, mainly aected
by the crossing-trajectory eect [69], is dened as
t,pq
=

t,q
(1 + C
2
)
(23.5-104)
where
=
|v
pq
|
t,q
L
t,q
(23.5-105)
and
C
= 1.8 1.35 cos

2
(23.5-106)
where is the angle between the mean particle velocity and the mean relative velocity.
The ratio between these two characteristic times is written as
pq
=

t,pq
F,pq
(23.5-107)
Following Simonin [333], FLUENT writes the turbulence quantities for dispersed phase p
as follows:
k
p
= k
q
b
2
+
pq
1 +
pq
(23.5-108)
k
pq
= 2k
q
b +
pq
1 +
pq
(23.5-109)
D
t,pq
=
1
3
k
pq
t,pq
(23.5-110)
D
p
= D
t,pq
+
2
3
k
p
b
1
3
k
pq
F,pq
(23.5-111)
b = (1 + C
V
)
q
+ C
V
1
(23.5-112)
and C
V
= 0.5 is the added-mass coecient.
Interphase Turbulent Momentum Transfer
The turbulent drag term for multiphase ows (K
pq
(v
p
v
q
) in Equation 23.5-7) is modeled
as follows, for dispersed phase p and continuous phase q:
K
pq
(v
p
v
q
) = K
pq
(
U
p

U
q
) K
pq
v
dr
(23.5-113)
The second term on the right-hand side of Equation 23.5-113 contains the drift velocity:
v
dr
=
D
p
pq
D
q
pq
(23.5-114)
Here D
p
and D
q
are diusivities, and
pq
is a dispersion Prandtl number. When using
Tchen theory in multiphase ows, FLUENT assumes D
p
= D
q
= D
t,pq
and the default
value for
pq
is 0.75.
The drift velocity results from turbulent uctuations in the volume fraction. When
multiplied by the exchange coecient K
pq
, it serves as a correction to the momentum
exchange term for turbulent ows. This correction is not included, by default, but you
can enable it during the problem setup.
You can enable the eect of drift velocity by performing the following:
1. If it is not already done, set the k-epsilon Multiphase Model to Dispersed in the
Viscous panel.
2. Enter the multiphase-options text command in the console window.
define models viscous multiphase-turbulence
multiphase-options
/define/models/viscous/multiphase-turbulence> multiphase-options
Enable dispersion force in momentum? [no] yes
Enable interphase k-epsilon source? [no] yes
The eect of the drift velocity is inuenced both by the momentum equation and,
to a lesser extent, the turbulence equation. Therefore, you should answer yes to
both questions to take into account the eect of drift velocity.
k- Turbulence Model for Each Phase
The most general multiphase turbulence model solves a set of k and transport equations
for each phase. This turbulence model is the appropriate choice when the turbulence
transfer among the phases plays a dominant role.
Note that, since FLUENT is solving two additional transport equations for each sec-
ondary phase, the per-phase turbulence model is more computationally intensive than
the dispersed turbulence model.
Transport Equations
The Reynolds stress tensor and turbulent viscosity are computed using Equations 23.5-94
and 23.5-95. Turbulence predictions are obtained from
t
(
q
q
k
q
) + (
q
U
q
k
q
) = (
q
t,q
k
k
q
) + (
q
G
k,q
q
) +
N
l=1
K
lq
(C
lq
k
l
C
ql
k
q
)
N
l=1
K
lq
(
U
l
U
q
)

t,l
l
+
N
l=1
K
lq
(
U
l
U
q
)

t,q
q
(23.5-115)
and
t
(
q
q
) + (
q
U
q
q
) = (
q
t,q
q
) +

q
k
q
C
1
q
G
k,q
C
2
q
+
C
3
l=1
K
lq
(C
lq
k
l
C
ql
k
q
)
N
l=1
K
lq
(
U
l

U
q
)

t,l
l
+
N
l=1
K
lq
(
U
l

U
q
)

t,q
(23.5-116)
The terms C
lq
and C
ql
can be approximated as
C
lq
= 2, C
ql
= 2

lq
1 +
lq
(23.5-117)
where
lq
is dened by Equation 23.5-107.
Interphase Turbulent Momentum Transfer
The turbulent drag term (K
pq
(v
p
v
q
) in Equation 23.5-7) is modeled as follows, where
l is the dispersed phase (replacing p in Equation 23.5-7) and q is the continuous phase:
N
l=1
K
lq
(v
l
v
q
) =
N
l=1
K
lq
(
U
l

U
q
)
N
l=1
K
lq
v
dr,lq
(23.5-118)
Here

U
l
and

U
q
are phase-weighted velocities, and v
dr,lq
is the drift velocity for phase
l (computed using Equation 23.5-114, substituting l for p). Note that FLUENT will
compute the diusivities D
l
and D
q
directly from the transport equations, rather than
using Tchen theory (as it does for the dispersed turbulence model).
As noted above, the drift velocity results from turbulent uctuations in the volume
fraction. When multiplied by the exchange coecient K
lq
, it serves as a correction to
the momentum exchange term for turbulent ows. This correction is not included, by
default, but you can enable it during the problem setup.
The turbulence model for each phase in FLUENT accounts for the eect of the turbulence
eld of one phase on the other(s). If you want to modify or enhance the interaction of the
multiple turbulence elds and interphase turbulent momentum transfer, you can supply
these terms using user-dened functions.
RSM Turbulence Models
Multiphase turbulence modeling typically involves two equation models that are based
on single-phase models and often cannot accurately capture the underlying ow physics.
Additional turbulence modeling for multiphase ows is diminished even more when the
basic underlying single-phase model cannot capture the complex physics of the ow. In
such situations, the logical next step is to combine the Reynolds stress model with the
multiphase algorithm in order to handle challenging situations in which both factors,
RSM for turbulence and the Eulerian multiphase formulation, are a precondition for
accurate predictions [65].
The phase-averaged continuity and momentum equations for a continuous phase are:
t
(
c
c
) + (
c
c

U
c
) = 0 (23.5-119)
t
(
c
rmc

U
c
) + (
c
rmc

U
c

U
c
) =
c
p +
t
c
+ F
Dc
(23.5-120)
For simplicity, the laminar stress-strain tensor and other body forces such as gravity
have been omitted from Equations 23.5-119-23.5-120. The tilde denotes phase-averaged
variables while an overbar (e.g.,
c
) reects time-averaged values. In general, any variable
can have a phase-average value dened as
c
=

c
c
(23.5-121)
Considering only two phases for simplicity, the drag force between the continuous and
the dispersed phases can be dened as:
F
Dc
= K
dc
U
d

U
c
)
d
u

c
u
(23.5-122)
where K
dc
is the drag coecient. Several terms in the Equation 23.5-122 need to be
modeled in order to close the phase-averaged momentum equations. Full descriptions of
all modeling assumptions can be found in [64]. This section only describes the dierent
modeling denition of the turbulent stresses

t
that appears in Equation 23.5-120.
The turbulent stress that appears in the momentum equations need to be dened on a
per-phase basis and can be calculated as:
t
k
=
k
k

R
k,ij
(23.5-123)
where the subscript k is replaced by c for the primary (i.e., continuous) phase or by d for
any secondary (i.e., dispersed) phases. As is the case for single-phase ows, the current
multiphase Reynolds stress model (RSM) also solves the transport equations for Reynolds
stresses R
ij
. FLUENT includes two methods for modeling turbulence in multiphase ows
within the context of the RSM model: the dispersed turbulence model, and the mixture
turbulence model.
RSM Dispersed Turbulence Model
The dispersed turbulence model is used when the concentrations of the secondary phase
are dilute and the primary phase turbulence is regarded as the dominant process. Conse-
quently, the transport equations for turbulence quantities are only solved for the primary
(continuous) phase, while the predictions of turbulence quantities for dispersed phases
are obtained using the Tchen theory. The transport equation for the primary phase
Reynolds stresses in the case of the dispersed model are:
t
(
R
ij
) +

x
k
(
U
k

R
ij
) =
R
ik

U
j
x
k
+

R
jk

U
i
x
k
+

x
k

x
k
(

R
ij
)

x
k
[u
i
u
j
u
k
] + p(
u
i
x
j
+
u
j
x
i
)

ij
+
R,ij
(23.5-124)
The variables in Equation 23.5-124 are per continuous phase c and the subscript is omitted
for clarity. The last term of Equation 23.5-124,
R,ij
, takes into account the interaction
between the continuous and the dispersed phase turbulence. A general model for this
term can be of the form:
R,ij
= K
dc
C
1,dc
(R
dc,ij
R
c,ij
) + K
dc
C
2,dc
a
dc,i
b
dc,j
(23.5-125)
where C
1
and C
2
are unknown coecients, a
dc,i
is the relative velocity, b
dc,j
represents
the drift or the relative velocity, and R
dc,ij
is the unknown particulate-uid velocity
correlation. To simplify this unknown term, the following assumption has been made:
R,ij
=
2
3
ij
k
(23.5-126)
where
ij
is the Kronecker delta, and
k
represents the modied version of the original
Simonin model [333].
kc
= K
dc
(
k
dc
2
k
c
+

V
rel

V
drift
) (23.5-127)
where

K
c
represents the turbulent kinetic energy of the continuous phase,

k
dc
is the
continuous-dispersed phase velocity covariance and nally,

V
rel
and

V
drift
stand for the
relative and the drift velocities, respectively. In order to achieve full closure, the transport
equation for the turbulent kinetic energy dissipation rate ( ) is required. The modeling
of together with all other unknown terms in Equation 23.5-127 are modeled in the same
way as in [64].
RSM Mixture Turbulence Model
The main assumption for the mixture model is that all phases share the same turbu-
lence eld which consequently means that the term
R
in the Reynolds stress transport
equations (Equation 23.5-124) is neglected. Apart from that, the equations maintain the
same form but with phase properties and phase velocities being replaced with mixture
properties and mixture velocities. The mixture density, for example, can be expressed as
m
=
N
i=1
i
(23.5-128)
while mixture velocities can be expressed as
U
m
=
N
i=1
i

U
i
N
i=1
i
(23.5-129)
where N is the number of species.
23.5.11 Solution Method in FLUENT
For Eulerian multiphase calculations, FLUENT uses the phase coupled SIMPLE (PC-
SIMPLE) algorithm [379] for the pressure-velocity coupling. PC-SIMPLE is an extension
of the SIMPLE algorithm [276] to multiphase ows. The velocities are solved coupled by
phases, but in a segregated fashion. The block algebraic multigrid scheme used by the
density-based solver described in [394] is used to solve a vector equation formed by the
velocity components of all phases simultaneously. Then, a pressure correction equation
is built based on total volume continuity rather than mass continuity. Pressure and
velocities are then corrected so as to satisfy the continuity constraint.
The Pressure-Correction Equation
For incompressible multiphase ow, the pressure-correction equation takes the form
n
k=1
1
rk
k
+
k
k
v
k
+
k
k
v
k
(
n
l=1
( m
lk
m
kl
))
= 0 (23.5-130)
23.6 Wet Steam Model Theory
where
rk
is the phase reference density for the k
th
phase (dened as the total volume
average density of phase k), v
k
is the velocity correction for the k
th
phase, and v
k
is the
value of v
k
at the current iteration. The velocity corrections are themselves expressed as
functions of the pressure corrections.
Volume Fractions
The volume fractions are obtained from the phase continuity equations. In discretized
form, the equation of the k
th
volume fraction is
a
p,k
k
=
nb
(a
nb,k
nb,k
) + b
k
= R
k
(23.5-131)
In order to satisfy the condition that all the volume fractions sum to one,
n
k=1
k
= 1 (23.5-132)
23.6.1 Overview and Limitations of the Wet Steam Model
Overview
During the rapid expansion of steam, a condensation process will take place shortly
after the state path crosses the vapor-saturation line. The expansion process causes the
super-heated dry steam to rst subcool and then nucleate to form a two-phase mixture
of saturated vapor and ne liquid droplets known as wet steam.
Modeling wet steam is very important in the analysis and design of steam turbines. The
increase in steam turbine exit wetness can cause severe erosion to the turbine blades at
the low-pressure stages, and a reduction in aerodynamic eciency of the turbine stages
operating in the wet steam region [250].
FLUENT has adopted the Eulerian-Eulerian approach for modeling wet steam ow. The
ow mixture is modeled using the compressible Navier-Stokes equations, in addition to
two transport equations for the liquid-phase mass-fraction (), and the number of liquid-
droplets per unit volume (). The phase change model, which involves the formation of
liquid-droplets in a homogeneous nonequilibrium condensation process, is based on the
classical nonisothermal nucleation theory.
This section describes the theoretical aspects of the wet steam model. Information about
enabling the model and using your own property functions and data with the wet steam
model is provided in Section 23.13: Setting Up the Wet Steam Model. Solution settings
and strategies for the wet steam model can be found in Section 23.14.5: Wet Steam Model.
Postprocessing variables are described in Section 23.15.1: Model-Specic Variables.
Limitations
The following restrictions and limitations currently apply to the wet steam model in
FLUENT:
The wet steam model is available for the density-based solvers only.
Pressure inlet, mass-ow inlet, and pressure outlet are the only inow and outow
boundary conditions available.
When the wet steam model is active, the access to the Materials panel is restricted
because the uid mixture properties are determined from the built in steam prop-
erty functions or from the user-dened wet steam property functions. Therefore, if
solid properties need to be set and adjusted, then it must be done in the Materials
panel before activating the wet steam model.
23.6.2 Wet Steam Flow Equations
The wet steam is a mixture of two-phases. The primary phase is the gaseous-phase
consisting of water-vapor (denoted by the subscript v) while the secondary phase is the
liquid-phase consisting of condensed-water droplets (denoted by the subscript l).
The following assumptions are made in this model:
The velocity slip between the droplets and gaseous-phase is negligible.
The interactions between droplets are neglected.
The mass fraction of the condensed phase, (also known as wetness factor), is
small ( < 0.2).
Since droplet sizes are typically very small (from approximately 0.1 microns to
approximately 100 microns), it is assumed that the volume of the condensed liquid
phase is negligible.
From the preceding assumptions, it follows that the mixture density () can be related
to the vapor density (
v
) by the following equation:
=

v
(1 )
(23.6-1)
In addition, the temperature and the pressure of the mixture will be equivalent to the
temperature and pressure of the vapor-phase.
The mixture ow is governed by the compressible Navier-Stokes equations given in vector
form by Equation 25.5-4:
W
Q
V
QdV +
[F G] dA =
V
HdV (23.6-2)
where Q=(P,u,v,w,T) are mixture quantities. The ow equations are solved using the
same density-based solver algorithms employed for general compressible ows.
To model wet steam, two additional transport equations are needed [152]. The rst
transport equation governs the mass fraction of the condensed liquid phase ():
t
+ (
v ) = (23.6-3)
where is the mass generation rate due to condensation and evaporation (kg per unit
volume per second). The second transport equation models the evolution of the number
density of the droplets per unit volume:
t
+ (
v ) = I (23.6-4)
where I is the nucleation rate (number of new droplets per unit volume per second).
To determine the number of droplets per unit volume, Equation 23.6-1 and the average
droplet volume V
d
are combined in the following expression:
=

(1 )V
d
(
l
/
v
)
(23.6-5)
where
l
is the liquid density and the average droplet volume is dened as
V
d
=
4
3
r
3
d
(23.6-6)
where r
d
is the droplet radius.
Together, Equation 23.6-2, Equation 23.6-3, and Equation 23.6-4 form a closed system
of equations which, along with Equation 23.6-1, permit the calculation of the wet steam
ow eld.
23.6.3 Phase Change Model
The following is assumed in the phase change model:
The condensation is homogeneous (i.e., no impurities present to form nuclei).
The droplet growth is based on average representative mean radii.
The droplet is assumed to be spherical.
The droplet is surrounded by innite vapor space.
The heat capacity of the ne droplet is negligible compared with the latent heat
released in condensation.
The mass generation rate in the classical nucleation theory during the nonequilibrium
condensation process is given by the sum of mass increase due to nucleation (the formation
of critically sized droplets) and also due to growth/demise of these droplets [152].
Therefore, is written as:
=
4
3
l
Ir
3
+ 4
l
r
2
r
t
(23.6-7)
where r is the average radius of the droplet, and r
is the Kelvin-Helmholtz critical droplet

radius, above which the droplet will grow and below which the droplet will evaporate.
An expression for r
is given by [410].
r
=
2
l
RT ln S
(23.6-8)
where is the liquid surface tension evaluated at temperature T,
l
is the condensed
liquid density (also evaluated at temperature T), and S is the super saturation ratio
dened as the ratio of vapor pressure to the equilibrium saturation pressure:
s =
P
P
sat
(T)
(23.6-9)
The expansion process is usually very rapid. Therefore, when the state path crosses the
saturated-vapor line, the process will depart from equilibrium, and the supersaturation
ratio S can take on values greater than one.
The condensation process involves two mechanisms, the transfer of mass from the vapor
to the droplets and the transfer of heat from the droplets to the vapor in the form of
latent heat. This energy transfer relation was presented in [408] and used in [152] and
can be written as:
r
t
=
P
h
lv
2RT
+ 1
2
C
p
(T
0
T) (23.6-10)
where T
0
is the droplet temperature.
The classical homogeneous nucleation theory describes the formation of a liquid-phase
in the form of droplets from a supersaturated phase in the absence of impurities or
foreign particles. The nucleation rate described by the steady-state classical homogeneous
nucleation theory [410] and corrected for nonisothermal eects, is given by:
I =
q
c
(1 + )
2
v
2
M
m
3
4r
2
3K
b
T
(23.6-11)
where q
c
is evaporation coecient, k
b
is the Boltzmann constant, M
m
is mass of one
molecule, is the liquid surface tension, and
l
is the liquid density at temperature T.
A nonisothermal correction factor, , is given by:
=
2( 1)
( + 1)
h
lv
RT
h
lv
RT
0.5
(23.6-12)
where h
lv
is the specic enthalpy of evaporation at pressure p and is the ratio of specic
heat capacities.
23.6.4 Built-in Thermodynamic Wet Steam Properties
There are many equations that describe the thermodynamic state and properties of steam.
While some of these equations are accurate in generating property tables, they are not
suitable for fast CFD computations. Therefore, FLUENT uses a simpler form of the
thermodynamic state equations [409] for ecient CFD calculations that are accurate
over a wide range of temperatures and pressures. These equations are described below.
Equation of State
The steam equation of state used in the solver, which relates the pressure to the vapor
density and the temperature, is given by [409]:
P =
v
RT(1 + B
v
+ C
v
2
) (23.6-13)
where B, and C are the second and the third virial coecients given by the following
empirical functions:
B = a
1
(1 +

)
1
+ a
2
e
(1 e
)
5
2
+ a
3
(23.6-14)
where B is given in m
3
/kg, =
1500
T
with T given in Kelvin, = 10000.0, a
1
= 0.0015,
a
2
= -0.000942, and a
3
= -0.0004882.
C = a(
0
)e
+ b (23.6-15)
where C is given in m
6
/kg
2
, =
T
647.286
with T given in Kelvin,
o
= 0.8978, =11.16,
a= 1.772, and b= 1.5E-06.
The two empirical functions that dene the virial coecients B and C cover the temper-
ature range from 273 K to 1073 K.
The vapor isobaric specic heat capacity Cp
v
is given by:
Cp
v
= Cp
0
(T) + R
[(1
v
T)(B B
1
) B
2
]
v
+
(1 2
v
T)C +
v
TC
1
C
2
2
v
2
(23.6-16)
The vapor specic enthalpy, h
v
is given by:
h
v
= h
0
(T) + RT
(B B
1
)
v
+ (C
C
1
2
)
v
2
(23.6-17)
The vapor specic entropy, s
v
is given by:
s
v
= s
0
(T) R
ln
v
+ (B + B
1
)
v
+
(C + C
1
)
2

v
2
(23.6-18)
The isobaric specic heat at zero pressure is dened by the following empirical equation:
Cp
0
(T) =
i=1
6
a
i
T
i2
(23.6-19)
where Cp
0
is in KJ/kg K, a
1
= 46.0, a
2
= 1.47276, a
3
= 8.38930E-04, a
4
= -2.19989E-07,
a
5
= 2.46619E-10, and a
6
= -9.70466E-14.
and
B
1
= T
dB
dT
, C
1
= T
dC
dT
, B
2
= T
2 dB
2
dT
2
, and C
2
= T
2 dC
2
dT
2
.
Both h
0
(T) and s
0
(T) are functions of temperature and they are dened by:
h
0
(T) =
Cp
0
dT + h
c
(23.6-20)
s
0
(T) =
Cp
0
T
dT + s
c
(23.6-21)
where h
c
and s
c
are arbitrary constants.
The vapor dynamic viscosity
v
and thermal conductivity Kt
v
are also functions of
temperature and were obtained from [408].
Saturated Vapor Line
The saturation pressure equation as a function of temperature was obtained from [301].
The example provided in Section 23.13.5: UDWSPF Example contains a function called
wetst satP() that represents the formulation for the saturation pressure.
Saturated Liquid Line
At the saturated liquid-line, the liquid density, surface tension, specic heat Cp, dynamic
viscosity, and thermal conductivity must be dened. The equation for liquid density,
l
,
was obtained from [301]. The liquid surface tension equation was obtained from [408].
While the values of Cp
l
,
l
and Kt
l
were curve t using published data from [91] and
then written in polynomial forms. The example provided in Section 23.13.5: UDWSPF
Example contains functions called wetst cpl(), wetst mul(), and wetst ktl() that
represent formulations for Cp
l
,
l
and Kt
l
.
Mixture Properties
The mixture properties are related to vapor and liquid properties via the wetness factor
using the following mixing law:
m
=
l
+ (1 )
v
(23.6-22)
where represents any of the following thermodynamic properties: h, s, Cp, Cv, or
Kt.
23.7 Modeling Mass Transfer in Multiphase Flows
This section describes the modeling of mass transfer in the framework of FLUENTs gen-
eral multiphase models (i.e., Eulerian multiphase, mixture multiphase, VOF multiphase).
There are numerous kinds of mass transfer processes that can be modeled in FLUENT. You
can use models available in FLUENT (e.g. FLUENTs cavitation model), or dene your
own mass transfer model via user-dened functions. See Section 23.7.3: UDF-Prescribed
Mass Transfer and the separate UDF Manual for more information about the modeling
of mass transfer via user-dened functions.
Information about mass transfer is presented in the following subsections:
Section 23.7.1: Source Terms due to Mass Transfer
Section 23.7.2: Unidirectional Constant Rate Mass Transfer
Section 23.7.3: UDF-Prescribed Mass Transfer
Section 23.7.4: Cavitation Models
i
Note that FLUENTs current cavitation model can only be used in the
framework of the mixture multiphase model.
23.7.1 Source Terms due to Mass Transfer
FLUENT adds contributions due to mass transfer only to the momentum, species, and
energy equations. No source term is added for other scalars such as turbulence or user-
dened scalars.
Let m
p
i
q
j be the mass transfer rate per unit volume from the i
th
species of phase p to
the j
th
species of phase q. In case a particular phase does not have a mixture material
associated with it, the mass transfer will be with the bulk phase.
Mass Equation
The contribution to the mass source for phase p in a cell is
m
p
= m
p
i
q
j (23.7-1)
and for phase q is
m
q
= m
p
i
q
j (23.7-2)
Momentum Equation
For VOF or mixture models, there is no momentum source.
For the Eulerian model, the momentum source in a cell for phase p is
m
p
u
p
= m
p
i
q
j u
p
(23.7-3)
and for phase q is
m
q
u
q
= m
p
i
q
j u
p
(23.7-4)
Energy Equation
For all multiphase models, the following energy sources are added.
The energy source in a cell for phase p is
H
p
= m
p
i
q
j (h
i
p
) (23.7-5)
and for phase q is
H
q
= m
p
i
q
j (h
i
p
+ h
f
i
p
h
f
j
q
) (23.7-6)
where h
f
i
p
and h
f
j
q
are the formation enthalpies of species i of phase p and species j of
phase q respectively and h
i
p
is the enthalpy of species i of phase p (with reference to the
formation enthalpy).
Species Equation
The species source in a cell for species i of phase p is
m
i
p
= m
p
i
q
j (23.7-7)
and for species j of phase q is
m
j
q
= m
p
i
q
j (23.7-8)
Other Scalar Equations
No source/sink terms are added for turbulence quantities and other scalars. The transfer
of these scalar quantities due to mass transfer could be modeled using user-dened source
terms.
23.7.2 Unidirectional Constant Rate Mass Transfer
The unidirectional mass transfer model denes a positive mass ow rate per unit volume
from phase p to phase q:
m
pq
= max[0,
pq
] max[0,
pq
] (23.7-9)
where
pq
= r
p
q
(23.7-10)
and r is a constant rate of particle shrinking or swelling, such as the rate of burning of
a liquid droplet. This is not available for the VOF model.
If phase p is a mixture material and a mass transfer mechanism is dened for species i
of phase p, then
pq
= r
p
y
p,i
q
(23.7-11)
where y
p,i
is the mass fraction of species i in phase p.
23.7.3 UDF-Prescribed Mass Transfer
Because there is no universal model for mass transfer, FLUENT provides a UDF that you
can use to input models for dierent types of mass transfer, e.g. evaporation, condensa-
tion, boiling, etc. Note that when using this UDF, FLUENT will automatically add the
source contribution to all relevant momentum and scalar equations. This contribution
is based on the assumption that the mass created or destroyed will have the same
momentum and energy of the phase from which it was created or destroyed. If you would
like to input your source terms directly into momentum, energy, or scalar equations, then
the appropriate path is to use UDFs for user-dened sources for all equations, rather than
the UDF for mass transfer. See the separate UDF Manual for more information about
UDF-based mass transfer in multiphase.
23.7.4 Cavitation Models
This section provides information about the cavitation model used in FLUENT. You can
use FLUENTs current cavitation model to include cavitation eects in two-phase ows
when the mixture model is used.
Overview of the Cavitation Model
A liquid at constant temperature can be subjected to a decreasing pressure, which may
fall below the saturated vapor pressure. The process of rupturing the liquid by a decrease
of pressure at constant temperature is called cavitation. The liquid also contains the
micro-bubbles of noncondensable (dissolved or ingested) gases, or nuclei, which under
decreasing pressure may grow and form cavities. In such processes, very large and steep
density variations happen in the low-pressure/cavitating regions.
The cavitation model implemented here is based on the so-called full cavitation model,
developed by Singhal et al. [334]. It accounts for all rst-order eects (i.e., phase change,
bubble dynamics, turbulent pressure uctuations, and noncondensable gases). However,
unlike the original approach [334] assuming single-phase, isothermal, variable uid density
ows, the cavitation model in FLUENT is under the framework of multiphase ows. It
has the capability to account for multiphase (N-phase) ows or ows with multiphase
species transport, the eects of slip velocities between the liquid and gaseous phases, and
the thermal eects and compressibility of both liquid and gas phases. The cavitation
model can be used with the mixture multiphase model (with or without slip velocities).
The complete cavitation model capability in FLUENT can be presented in two parts:
the basic cavitation model
This includes a description of the fundamental modeling approach and the standard
two-phase cavitation model.
the extended cavitation model capability
This includes a description of the extension of the cavitation model for multiphase
(N-phase) ows, or ows with multiphase species transport applications.
Basic Cavitation Model
In the standard two-phase cavitation model, the following assumptions are made:
The system under investigation involves only two phases (a liquid and its vapor),
and a certain fraction of separately modeled noncondensable gases.
Both bubble formation (evaporation) and collapse (condensation) are taken into
account in the model.
The mass fraction of noncondensable gases is known in advance.
The cavitation model oers the following capabilities:
The cavitation model accounts for the mass transfer between a single liquid and its
vapor.
It is compatible with all the available turbulence models in FLUENT.
It can be solved with the mixture energy equation.
It is fully compatible with dynamic mesh and nonconformal interfaces.
Both liquid and vapor phases can be incompressible or compressible. The noncon-
densible gases are assumed to always be compressible. For compressible liquids,
the density can be described using a user-dened function. See the separate UDF
Manual for more information on user-dened density functions.
The parameters used in the mass transfer model for cavitation (vaporization pres-
sure, liquid surface tension coecient) can be either a constant or a function of
temperature.
The following limitations apply to the cavitation model in FLUENT:
The cavitation model cannot be used with the VOF model, because the surface
tracking schemes for the VOF model are incompatible with the interpenetrating
continua assumption of the cavitation model.
The cavitation model can be used only for multiphase simulations that use the
mixture model. It is always preferable to solve for cavitation using the mixture
model without slip velocity; slip velocities can be turned on if the problem suggests
that there is signicant slip between phases.
The cavitation model can only used for cavitating ow occurring in a single liquid
uid;
With the cavitation model, the primary phase must be liquid, the secondary phase
must be vapor.
Vapor Mass Fraction and Vapor Transport
The working uid is assumed to be a mixture of liquid, vapor and noncondensable gases.
Standard governing equations in the mixture model and the mixture turbulence model
describe the ow and account for the eects of turbulence. A vapor transport equation
governs the vapor mass fraction, f, given by:
t
(f) +( v
v
f) = (f) + R
e
R
c
(23.7-12)
where is the mixture density, v
v
is the velocity vector of the vapor phase, is the
eective exchange coecient, and R
e
and R
c
are the vapor generation and condensation
rate terms (or phase change rates). The rate expressions are derived from the Rayleigh-
Plesset equations, and limiting bubble size considerations (interface surface area per
unit volume of vapor) [334]. These rates are functions of the instantaneous, local static
pressure and are given by:
when p < p
sat
R
e
= C
e
V
ch
2(p
sat
p)
3
l
(1 f) (23.7-13)
when p > p
sat
R
c
= C
c
V
ch
2(p p
sat
)
3
l
f (23.7-14)
where the suxes l and v denote the liquid and vapor phases, V
ch
is a characteristic
velocity, which is approximated by the local turbulence intensity, (i.e. V
ch
=
k), is
the surface tension coecient of the liquid, p
sat
is the liquid saturation vapor pressure at
the given temperature, and C
e
and C
c
are empirical constants. The default values are
C
e
= 0.02 and C
c
= 0.01.
Turbulence-Induced Pressure Fluctuations
Signicant eect of turbulence on cavitating ows has been reported [311]. FLUENTs
cavitation model accounts for the turbulence-induced pressure uctuations by simply
raising the phase-change threshold pressure from p
sat
to
p
v
=
1
2
(p
sat
+ p
turb
) (23.7-15)
where
p
turb
= 0.39k (23.7-16)
where k is the local turbulence kinetic energy.
Effects of Noncondensable Gases
The operating liquid usually contains small nite amounts of noncondensable gases (e.g.,
dissolved gases, aeration). Even a very small amount (e.g., 10 ppm) of noncondensable
gases can have signicant eects on the cavitating ow eld due to expansion at low
pressures (following the ideal gas law). In the present approach, the working uid is
assumed to be a mixture of the liquid phase and the gaseous phase, with the gaseous
phase comprising of the liquid vapor and the noncondensable gases. The density of the
mixture, , is calculated as
=
v
v
+
g
g
+ (1
v
g
)
l
(23.7-17)
where
l
,
v
, and
g
are the densities of the liquid, the vapor, and the noncondensable
gases, respectively, and
l
,
v
, and
g
are the respective volume fractions. The relation-
ship between the mass fraction (f
i
) in Equations 23.7-1223.7-14 and the volume fraction
(
i
) in Equation 23.7-17 is
i
= f
i
i
(23.7-18)
The combined volume fraction of vapor and gas (i.e.,
v
+
g
) is commonly referred to
as the void fraction ().
It may be noted that the noncondensable gas is not dened as a phase or a material.
When using the ideal gas law to compute the noncondensable gas density, the molecular
weight and temperature are required. By default, the gas is assumed to be air and the
molecular weight is set to 29.0. However, if the noncondensable gas is not air, then
the molecular weight can be changed by using a text command. For more information,
contact your FLUENT support engineer.
As for the temperature, the default value is set to 300 K when the energy equation is not
activated. If the temperature is dierent, but still a constant (i.e., isothermal ow), you
can change the temperature in FLUENT in the following way:
Activate the energy equation.
Dene Models Energy...
Open the Solution Initialization panel.
Solve Initialize Initialize...
In the Solution Initialization, set the initial value as a desired temperature.
Open the Solution Controls panel.
Solve Controls Solution...
In the Solution Controls panel, under Equations, turn o the energy equation by
deselecting Energy in the list.. By so doing, FLUENT uses the initial values for the
temperature.
Phase Change Rates
After accounting for the eects of turbulence-induced pressure uctuations and noncon-
densable gases, the nal phase rate expressions are written as:
when p < p
v
R
e
= C
e
2(p
v
p)
3
l
(1 f
v
f
g
) (23.7-19)
when p > p
v
R
c
= C
c
2(p p
v
)
3
l
f
v
(23.7-20)
Additional Guidelines for the Cavitation Model
In practical applications of the cavitation model, several factors greatly inuence nu-
merical stability. For instance, high pressure dierence between the inlet and exit, large
ratio of liquid to vapor density, and near zero saturation pressure all cause unfavorable
eects on solution convergence. In addition, poor initial conditions very often lead to an
unrealistic pressure eld and unexpected cavitating zones, which, once present, are then
usually very dicult for the model to correct. The following is a list of factors that must
be considered when using the cavitation model, along with tips to help address potential
numerical problems:
relaxation factors
In general, small relaxation factors are advised for momentum equations, usually,
between 0.05 0.4; The relaxation factor for the pressure-correction equation should
usually be larger than those for momentum equations, say in the range 0.2 0.7.
The density and the vaporization mass (source term in the vapor equation) can also
be relaxed to improve convergence, Typically, the relaxation factor for density is set
between the values of 0.3 and 1.0, while for the vaporization mass values between
0.1 and 1.0 may be appropriate. For some extreme cases, even smaller relaxation
factors may be required for all the equations.
initial conditions
Though no special initial condition settings are required, it is suggested that the
vapor fraction is always set to inlet values. The pressure is set close to the high-
est pressure among the inlets and outlets to avoid unexpected low pressure and
cavitating spots. Also, in complicated cases, it may be benecial to obtain a real-
istic pressure eld before substantial cavities are formed. This can be achieved by
performing the following steps:
1. Set near zero relaxation factors for the vaporization mass and for density, and
increase them to reasonable values after a sucient number of iterations.
2. Obtain a converged / near-converged solution for a single phase liquid ow,
and then switch on the cavitation model.
noncondensable gases
Noncondensable gases are usually present in liquids. Even a small amount (e.g.,
15 ppm) of noncondensable gases can have signicant eects on both the physical
realism and the convergence characteristics of the solution. A value of zero for the
mass fraction of noncondensable gases should generally be avoided. In some cases, if
the liquid is puried of noncondensable gases, a much smaller value (e.g., 10
8
) may
be used to replace the default value of 1.510
5
. In fact, higher mass fractions of
the noncondensable gases may, in many cases, enhance numerical stability and lead
to more realistic results. In particular, when the saturation pressure of a liquid at a
certain temperature is zero or very small, noncondensable gases will play a crucial
role both numerically and physically.
limits for dependent variables
In many cases, setting the pressure upper limit to a reasonable value can help
convergence greatly at the early stage of the solution. It is advised to always limit
the maximum pressure when it is possible. By default, FLUENT sets the maximum
pressure limit to 5.010
10
Pascal.
the relaxation factor for the pressure correction equation
For cavitating ows, a special relaxation factor is introduced for the pressure cor-
rection equation. By default, this factor is set to 0.7, which should work well for
most of the cases. For some very complicated cases, however, you may experience
the divergence of the AMG solver. Under those circumstances, this value may be
reduced to no less than 0.4. You can set the value of this relaxation factor by typing
a text command. For more information, contact your FLUENT support engineer.
pressure discretization schemes
As for many multiphase ows, it is more desirable to use the following pressure
discretization schemes in cavitation applications:
body force weighted
second order
PRESTO!
The standard and linear schemes generally are not very eective in complex cavi-
tating ows.
Extended Cavitation Model Capability
In many practical applications, when cavitation occurs, there exist other gaseous species
in the systems investigated. For instance, in a ventilated supercavitating vehicle, air is
injected into a liquid to stabilize or increase the cavitation along the vehicle surfaces. Also
in some cases, the incoming ow is a mixture of a liquid and some gaseous species. In
order to be able to predict those type of cavitating ows, the basic two-phase cavitation
model needs to be extended to a multiphase (N-phase) ows, or a multiphase species
transport cavitation model.
Multiphase Cavitation Model
The multiphase cavitation model is an extension of the basic two-phase cavitation model
to multiphase ows. In addition to the primary liquid and secondary vapor phase, more
secondary gaseous phases can be included into the computational system under the fol-
lowing assumptions/limitations:
Mass transfer (cavitation) only occurs between the rst and the second phases.
The basic cavitation model is still used to model the phase changes between the
liquid and vapor.
Only one secondary phase can be dened as compressible gas phase, while a user-
dened density may be applied to all the phases.
The predescribed noncondensable gases can still be included in the system. To
exclude noncondensable gases from the system, the mass fraction needs to be set
to 0, and the noncondensable gas needs to be modeled by a separate compressible
gas phase.
For an noncavitating phase i, the general transport equation governing the mass
fraction f
i
given by:
t
(f
i
) +( v
v
f
i
) = (
f
i
f
i
) + S
f
i
(23.7-21)
where S
f
i
is a (user-dened) source term. By default, S
f
i
= 0.
Multiphase Species Transport Cavitation Model
In some cases, there are several gas phase components in a system. It is desirable to
consider them all compressible. Since only one compressible gas phase is allowed in the
general multiphase approach, the multiphase species transport approach oers an option
to handle these type of applications by assuming that there is one compressible gas phase
with multiple species.
The detailed description of the multiphase species transport approach can be found in
Section 23.8: Modeling Species Transport in Multiphase Flows. The multiphase species
transport cavitation model can be summarized as follows:
All the assumptions/limitations for the multiphase cavitation model also apply
here.
The primary phase can only be a single liquid.
All the secondary phases allow more than one species.
23.8 Modeling Species Transport in Multiphase Flows
The vapor, either as a phase or a species, must be in the second phase.
The mass transfer between a liquid and a vapor phase/species is modeled by the
basic cavitation model.
The mass transfer between other phases or species are modeled with the standard
mass transfer approach. In the standard model, the zero constant rate should be
chosen.
For the phases with multiple species, the phase shares the same pressure as the
other phases, but each species has its own pressure (i.e., partial pressure). As a
result, the vapor density and the pressure used in Equation 23.7-19 are the partial
density and pressure of the vapor.
Species transport, as described in Chapter 14: Modeling Species Transport and Finite-
Rate Chemistry, can also be applied to multiphase ows. You can choose to solve the
conservation equations for chemical species in multiphase ows by having FLUENT, for
each phase k, predict the local mass fraction of each species, Y
i
k
, through the solution
of a convection-diusion equation for the i
th
species. The generalized chemical species
conservation equation (Equation 14.1-1), when applied to a multiphase mixture can be
represented in the following form:
t
(
q
q
Y
i
q
)+(
q
q
v
q
Y
i
q
) =
q

J
i
q
+
q
R
i
q
+
q
S
i
q
+
n
p=1
( m
p
i
q
j m
q
j
p
i )+R (23.8-1)
where R
i
q
is the net rate of production of homogeneous species i by chemical reaction for
phase q, m
q
j
p
i is the mass transfer source between species i and j from phase q to p, and
R is the heterogeneous reaction rate. In addition,
q
is the volume fraction for phase q
and S
i
q
is the rate of creation by addition from the dispersed phase plus any user-dened
sources.
FLUENT treats homogeneous gas phase chemical reactions the same as a single-phase
chemical reaction. The reactants and the products belong to the same mixture material
(set in the Species Model panel), and hence the same phase. The reaction rate is scaled
by the volume fraction of the particular phase in the cell.
The set-up of a homogeneous gas phase chemical reaction in FLUENT is the same as it is
for a single phase. For more information, see Chapter 14: Modeling Species Transport and
Finite-Rate Chemistry. For most multiphase species transport problems, boundary con-
ditions for a particular species are set in the associated phase boundary condition panel
(see Chapter 23.9.8: Dening Multiphase Boundary Conditions), and postprocessing and
reporting of results is performed on a per-phase basis (see Section 23.15: Postprocessing
for Multiphase Modeling).
For multiphase species transport simulations, the Species Model panel allows you to in-
clude Volumetric, Wall Surface, and Particle Surface reactions. FLUENT treats multiphase
surface reactions as it would a single-phase reaction. The reaction rate is scaled with
the volume fraction of the particular phase in the cell. For more information, see Chap-
ter 14: Modeling Species Transport and Finite-Rate Chemistry.
i
To turn o reactions for a particular phase, while keeping the reactions
active for other phases. turn on Volumetric under Reactions in the Species
Model panel. Then, in the Materials panel, select none from the Reactions
drop-down list.
The species of dierent phases is entirely independent. There is no implicit relationship
between them even if they share the same name. Explicit relationships between species of
dierent phases can be specied through mass transfer and heterogeneous reactions. For
more information on mass transfer and heterogeneous reactions, see Section 23.9.7: In-
cluding Mass Transfer Eects and Section 23.9.6: Specifying Heterogeneous Reactions,
respectively.
Some phases may have a uid material associated with them instead of a mixture ma-
terial. The species equations are solved in those phases that are assigned a mixture
material. The species equation above is solved for the mass fraction of the species in a
particular phase. The mass transfer and heterogeneous reactions will be associated with
the bulk uid for phases with a single uid material.
23.8.1 Limitations
The following limitations exist for the modeling of species transport for multiphase ows:
The nonpremixed, premixed, partially-premixed combustion, or the composition
PDF transport species transport models are not available for multiphase species
reactions.
The sti chemistry solver is not available for multiphase species reactions.
Only the laminar nite-rate, nite-rate/eddy-dissipation and eddy-dissipation
turbulence-chemistry models of homogeneous reactions are available for multiphase
species transport.
The discrete phase model (DPM) is not compatible with multiphase species trans-
port.
23.8.2 Mass and Momentum Transfer with Multiphase Species Transport
The FLUENT multiphase mass transfer model accommodates mass transfer between
species belonging to dierent phases. Instead of a matrix-type input, multiple mass
transfer mechanisms need to be input. Each mass transfer mechanism denes the mass
transfer phenomenon from one entity to another entity. An entity is either a particular
species in a phase, or the bulk phase itself if the phase does not have a mixture mate-
rial associated with it. The mass transfer phenomenon could be specied either through
the inbuilt unidirectional constant-rate mass transfer (Section 23.7.2: Unidirectional
Constant Rate Mass Transfer) or through user-dened functions.
FLUENT loops through all the mass transfer mechanisms to compute the net mass
source/sink of each species in each phase. The net mass source/sink of a species is
used to compute species and mass source terms. FLUENT will also automatically add
the source contribution to all relevant momentum and energy equations based on that
assumption that the momentum and energy carried along with the transferred mass. For
other equations, the transport due to mass transfer needs to be explicitly modeled by
the user.
Source Terms due to Heterogeneous Reactions
Consider the following reaction:
aA + bB cC + dD (23.8-2)
Let as assume that A and C belong to phase 1 and B and D to phase 2.
Mass Transfer
Mass source for the phases are given by:
S
1
= R(cM
c
aM
a
) (23.8-3)
S
2
= R(dM
d
bM
b
) (23.8-4)
where S is the mass source, M is the molecular weight, and R is the reaction rate.
The general expression for the mass source for the i
th
phase is
S
r
i
= R
r
i
r
j
M
r
j
(23.8-5)
S
p
i
= R
p
i
p
j
M
p
j
(23.8-6)
S
i
= S
p
i
+ S
r
i
(23.8-7)
where is the stoichiometric coecient, p represents the product, and r represents the
reactant.
Momentum Transfer
Momentum transfer is more complicated, but we can assume that the reactants mix
(conserving momentum) and the products take momentum in the ratio of the rate of
their formation.
The net velocity, u
net
, of the reactants is given by:
u
net
=
aM
a
u
1
+ bM
b
u
2
aM
a
+ bM
b
(23.8-8)
The general expression for the net velocity of the reactants is given by:
u
net
=
r

r
j
M
r
j
u
r
j
r

r
j
M
r
j
(23.8-9)
where j represents the j
th
item (either a reactant or a product).
Momentum transfer for the phases is then given by:
S
u
1
= R(cM
c
u
net
aM
a
u
1
) (23.8-10)
S
u
2
= R(dM
d
u
net
bM
b
u
2
) (23.8-11)
The general expression is
S
u
i
= S
p
i
u
net
R
r
i
r
j
M
r
j
u
i
(23.8-12)
If we assume that there is no momentum transfer, then the above term will be zero.
Species Transfer
The general expression for source for k
th
species in the j
th
phase is
S
r
k
i
= R
r
k
i
r
k
j
M
r
k
j
(23.8-13)
S
p
k
i
= R
p
k
i
p
k
j
M
p
k
j
(23.8-14)
S
k
i
= S
p
k
i
+ S
r
k
i
(23.8-15)
Heat Transfer
For heat transfer, we need to consider the formation enthalpies of the reactants and
products as well:
The net enthalpy of the reactants is given by:
H
net
=
aM
a
(H
a
+ h
f
a
) + bM
b
(H
b
+ h
f
b
)
aM
a
+ bM
b
(23.8-16)
where h
f
represents the formation enthalpy, and H represents the enthalpy.
The general expression for H
net
is:
H
net
=
r

r
j
M
r
j
(H
r
j
+ h
f
r
j
)
r

r
j
M
r
j
(23.8-17)
If we assume that this enthalpy gets distributed to the products in the ratio of their mass
production rates, heat transfer for the phases are given by:
S
H
1
= R(cM
c
H
net
aM
a
H
a
cM
c
h
c
f
) (23.8-18)
S
H
2
= R(dM
d
H
net
bM
b
H
b
dM
d
h
d
f
) (23.8-19)
The last term in the above equations appears because our enthalpy is with reference to
the formation enthalpy.
The general expression for the heat source is:
S
H
i
= S
p
i
H
net
R
r
i
r
j
M
r
j
H
r
j
+
p
i
p
j
M
p
j
h
f
p
j
(23.8-20)
If we assume that there is no heat transfer, we can assume that the dierent species only
carry their formation enthalpies with them. Thus the expression for H
net
will be:
H
net
=
r

r
j
M
r
j
h
f
r
j
r

r
j
M
r
j
(23.8-21)
The expression S
H
i
will be
S
H
i
= S
p
i
H
net
R
p
i
p
j
M
p
j
h
f
p
j
(23.8-22)
23.9 Steps for Using a Multiphase Model
The procedure for setting up and solving a general multiphase problem is outlined below,
and described in detail in the subsections that follow. Remember that only the steps that
are pertinent to general multiphase calculations are shown here. For information about
inputs related to other models that you are using in conjunction with the multiphase
model, see the appropriate sections for those models.
See also Section 23.12.1: Additional Guidelines for Eulerian Multiphase Simulations for
guidelines on simplifying Eulerian multiphase simulations.
1. Enable the multiphase model you want to use (VOF, mixture, or Eulerian) and
specify the number of phases. For the VOF model, specify the VOF formulation
as well.
Dene Models Multiphase...
See Sections 23.9.1 and 23.10.1 for details.
2. Copy the material representing each phase from the materials database.
Dene Materials...
If the material you want to use is not in the database, create a new material.
See Section 8.1.2: Using the Materials Panel for details about copying from the
database and creating new materials. See Sections 23.10.5 and 23.11.3 for additional
information about specifying material properties for a compressible phase (VOF
and mixture models only). It is possible to turn o reactions in some materials
by selecting none in the Reactions drop-down list under Properties in the Materials
panel.
i
If your model includes a particulate (granular) phase, you will need to
create a new material for it in the uid materials category (not the solid
materials category).
3. Dene the phases, and specify any interaction between them (e.g., surface tension
if you are using the VOF model, slip velocity functions if you are using the mixture
model, or drag functions if you are using the Eulerian model).
Dene Phases...
See Sections 23.9.323.12.2 for details.
4. (Eulerian model only) If the ow is turbulent, dene the multiphase turbulence
model.
Dene Models Viscous...
See Section 23.12.3: Modeling Turbulence for details.
5. If body forces are present, turn on gravity and specify the gravitational acceleration.
Dene Operating Conditions...
See Section 23.9.4: Including Body Forces for details.
6. Specify the boundary conditions, including the secondary-phase volume fractions
at ow boundaries and (if you are modeling wall adhesion in a VOF simulation)
the contact angles at walls.
Dene Boundary Conditions...
See Section 23.9.8: Dening Multiphase Boundary Conditions for details.
7. Set any model-specic solution parameters.
See Sections 23.10.4 and 23.14 for details.
8. Initialize the solution and set the initial volume fractions for the secondary phases.
Solve Initialize Patch...
See Section 23.14.1: Setting Initial Volume Fractions for details.
9. Calculate a solution and examine the results. Postprocessing and reporting of
results is available for each phase that is selected.
See Sections 23.14 and 23.15 for details.
This section provides instructions and guidelines for using the VOF, mixture, and Eule-
rian multiphase models.
Information is presented in the following subsections:
Section 23.9.1: Enabling the Multiphase Model
Section 23.9.2: Solving a Homogeneous Multiphase Flow
Section 23.9.3: Dening the Phases
Section 23.9.4: Including Body Forces
Section 23.9.5: Modeling Multiphase Species Transport
Section 23.9.6: Specifying Heterogeneous Reactions
Section 23.9.7: Including Mass Transfer Eects
Section 23.9.8: Dening Multiphase Boundary Conditions
23.9.1 Enabling the Multiphase Model
To enable the VOF, mixture, or Eulerian multiphase model, select Volume of Fluid, Mix-
ture, or Eulerian as the Model in the Multiphase Model panel (Figure 23.9.1).
Figure 23.9.1: The Multiphase Model Panel
The panel will expand to show the relevant inputs for the selected multiphase model.
If you selected the VOF model, the inputs are as follows:
number of phases
VOF formulation (see Section 23.10.1: Choosing a VOF Formulation)
(optional) implicit body force formulation (see Section 23.9.4: Including Body
Forces)
If you selected the mixture model, the inputs are as follows:
number of phases
whether or not to compute the slip velocities (see Section 23.9.2: Solving a Homo-
geneous Multiphase Flow)
(optional) implicit body force formulation (see Section 23.9.4: Including Body
Forces)
If you selected the Eulerian model, the input is the following:
number of phases
To specify the number of phases for the multiphase calculation, enter the appropriate
value in the Number of Phases eld. You can specify up to 20 phases.
23.9.2 Solving a Homogeneous Multiphase Flow
If you are using the mixture model, you have the option to disable the calculation of
slip velocities and solve a homogeneous multiphase ow (i.e., one in which the phases all
move at the same velocity). By default, FLUENT will compute the slip velocities for the
secondary phases, as described in Section 23.4.5: Relative (Slip) Velocity and the Drift
Velocity. If you want to solve a homogeneous multiphase ow, turn o Slip Velocity under
Mixture Parameters.
23.9.3 Dening the Phases
To dene the phases (including their material properties) and any interphase interaction
(e.g., surface tension and wall adhesion for the VOF model, slip velocity for the mixture
model, drag functions for the mixture and the Eulerian models), you will use the Phases
panel (Figure 23.9.2).
Dene Phases...
Figure 23.9.2: The Phases Panel
Each item in the Phase list in this panel is one of two types, as indicated in the Type list:
primary-phase indicates that the selected item is the primary phase, and secondary-phase
indicates that the selected item is a secondary phase. To specify any interaction between
the phases, click the Interaction... button.
Instructions for dening the phases and interaction are provided in Sections 23.10.3,
23.11.1, and 23.12.2 for the VOF, mixture, and Eulerian models, respectively.
23.9.4 Including Body Forces
When large body forces (e.g., gravity or surface tension forces) exist in multiphase ows,
the body force and pressure gradient terms in the momentum equation are almost in
equilibrium, with the contributions of convective and viscous terms small in comparison.
Segregated algorithms converge poorly unless partial equilibrium of pressure gradient and
body forces is taken into account. FLUENT provides an optional implicit body force
treatment that can account for this eect, making the solution more robust.
The basic procedure involves augmenting the correction equation for the face ow rate,
Equation 25.4-13, with an additional term involving corrections to the body force. This
results in extra body force correction terms in Equation 25.4-11, and allows the ow to
achieve a realistic pressure eld very early in the iterative process.
To include this body force, turn on Gravity in the Operating Conditions panel and specify
the Gravitational Acceleration.
For VOF calculations, you should also turn on the Specied Operating Density option
in the Operating Conditions panel, and set the Operating Density to be the density of
the lightest phase. (This excludes the buildup of hydrostatic pressure within the lightest
phase, improving the round-o accuracy for the momentum balance.) If any of the phases
is compressible, set the Operating Density to zero.
i
For VOF and mixture calculations involving body forces, it is recom-
mended that you also turn on the Implicit Body Force treatment for the
Body Force Formulation in the Multiphase Model panel. This treatment im-
proves solution convergence by accounting for the partial equilibrium of
the pressure gradient and body forces in the momentum equations. See
Section 23.9.4: Including Body Forces for details.
23.9.5 Modeling Multiphase Species Transport
FLUENT lets you describe a multiphase species transport and volumetric reaction (Sec-
tion 23.8: Modeling Species Transport in Multiphase Flows) in a fashion that is similar
to setting up a single-phase chemical reaction using the Species Model panel (e.g., Fig-
ure 23.9.3).
Dene Models Species Transport & Reaction...
Figure 23.9.3: The Species Model Panel with a Multiphase Model Enabled
1. Select Species Transport under Model.
2. Turn on Volumetric under Reactions.
3. Select a specic phase using the Phase drop-down list under Phase Properties.
4. Click the Set... button to display the Phase Properties panel (Figure 23.9.4).
Figure 23.9.4: The Phase Properties Panel
In the Phase Properties panel, the material for each phase is listed in the Material
drop-down list. From this list, you can choose the material that you want to use
for a specic phase. The drop-down list contains all of the materials that have been
dened for your simulation. If you want to inspect or edit any of the properties
of any of the materials, then you need to open the Materials panel by clicking the
Edit... button.
5. In the Species Model panel, choose the Turbulence-Chemistry Interaction model.
Three models are available:
Laminar Finite-Rate computes only the Arrhenius rate (see Equation 14.1-8) and
neglects turbulence-chemistry interaction.
Eddy-Dissipation (for turbulent ows) computes only the mixing rate (see Equa-
tions 14.1-26 and 14.1-27).
Finite-Rate/Eddy-Dissipation (for turbulent ows) computes both the Arrhenius
rate and the mixing rate and uses the smaller of the two.
When modeling multiphase species transport, additional inputs may also be required
depending on your modeling needs. See, for example, Section 23.9.6: Specifying Het-
erogeneous Reactions for more information dening heterogeneous reactions, or Sec-
tion 23.9.7: Including Mass Transfer Eects for more information on mass transfer eects.
23.9.6 Specifying Heterogeneous Reactions
You can use FLUENT to dene multiple heterogeneous reactions and stoichiometry using
the Phase Interaction panel (e.g., Figure 23.9.5).
Dene Phases...
1. In the Phases panel (Figure 23.9.2), click the Interaction... button to open the Phase
Interaction panel.
Figure 23.9.5: The Phase Interaction Panel for Heterogeneous Reactions
2. Click the Reactions tab in the Phase Interaction panel.
3. Set the total number of reactions (volumetric reactions, wall surface reactions, and
particle surface reactions) in the Total Number of Heterogeneous Reactions eld.
(Use the arrows to change the value, or type in the value and press <Enter>.)
4. Specify the Reaction Name of each reaction that you want to dene.
5. Set the ID of each reaction you want to dene. (Again, if you type in the value be
sure to press <Enter>.)
6. For each reaction, specify how many reactants and products are involved in the
reaction by increasing the value of the Number of Reactants and the Number of
Products. Select each reactant or product in the Reaction tab and then set its stoi-
chiometric coecient in the Stoich. Coecient eld. (The stoichiometric coecient
is the constant
i,r
or
i,r
in Equation 14.1-6.)
7. For each reaction, indicate the Phase and Species and the stoichiometric coecient
for each of your reactants and products.
8. For each reaction, indicate an applicable user-dened function using the Reaction
Rate Function drop-down list.
i
The heterogeneous reaction rates can only be specied using a user-dened
function. A UDF is available for an Arrhenius-type reaction with rate
exponents that are equivalent to the stoichiometric coecients.
For more information, see the separate UDF Manual.
i
FLUENT assumes that the reactants are mixed thoroughly before reacting
together, thus the heat and momentum transfer is based on this assump-
tion. This assumption can be deactivated using a text command. For more
information, contact your FLUENT support engineer.
23.9.7 Including Mass Transfer Effects
As discussed in Section 23.7: Modeling Mass Transfer in Multiphase Flows, mass transfer
eects in the framework of FLUENTs general multiphase models (i.e., Eulerian multi-
phase, mixture multiphase, or VOF multiphase) can be modeled in one of three ways:
unidirectional constant rate mass transfer (not available for VOF calculations)
UDF-prescribed mass transfer
mass transfer through cavitation (only valid for the mixture multiphase model)
Because of the dierent procedures and limitations involved, dening mass transfer
through cavitation is described separately in Section 23.11.2: Including Cavitation Eects.
To dene mass transfer in a multiphase simulation, either as unidirectional constant or
using a UDF, you will need to use the Phase Interaction panel (e.g., Figure 23.9.6).
Dene Phases...
1. In the Phases panel (Figure 23.9.2), click the Interaction... button to open the Phase
Interaction panel.
Figure 23.9.6: The Phase Interaction Panel for Mass Transfer
2. Click the Mass tab in the Phase Interaction panel.
3. Specify the Number of Mass Transfer Mechanisms. You can include any number
of mass transfer mechanisms in your simulation. Note also that the same pair of
phases can have multiple mass transfer mechanisms and you have the ability to
activate and deactivate the mechanisms of your choice.
4. For each mechanism, specify the phase of the source material under From Phase.
5. If species transport is part of the simulation, and the source phase is composed of
a mixture material, then specify the species of the source phase mixture material
in the corresponding Species drop-down list.
6. For each mechanism, specify the phase of the destination material phase under To
Phase.
7. If species transport is part of the simulation, and the destination phase is composed
of a mixture material, then specify the species of the destination phase mixture
material in the corresponding Species drop-down list.
8. For each mass transfer mechanism, select the desired mass transfer correlation
under Mechanism. The following choices are available:
constant-rate enables a constant, unidirectional mass transfer.
user-dened allows you to implement a correlation reecting a model of your
choice, through a user-dened function.
FLUENT will automatically include the terms needed to model mass transfer in all
relevant conservation equations. Another option to model mass transfer between
phases is through the use of user-dened sources and their inclusion in the rele-
vant conservation equations. This approach is a more involved but more powerful,
allowing you to split the source terms according to a model of your choice.
i
Note that momentum, energy, and turbulence are also transported with the
mass that is transferred. FLUENT assumes that the reactants are mixed
thoroughly before reacting together, thus the heat and momentum transfer
is based on this assumption. This assumption can be deactivated using
a text command. For more information, contact your FLUENT support
engineer.
When your model involves the transport of multiphase species, you can dene a mass
transfer mechanism between species from dierent phases. If a particular phase does not
have a species associated with it, then the mass transfer throughout the system will be
performed by the bulk uid material.
i
Note that including species transport eects in the mass transport of multi-
phase simulation requires that Species Transport be turned on in the Species
Model panel.
Dene Models Species Transport & Reaction...
23.9.8 Dening Multiphase Boundary Conditions
Multiphase boundary conditions are set in the Boundary Conditions panel (Figure 23.9.7),
but the procedure for setting multiphase boundary conditions is slightly dierent than
for single-phase models. You will need to set some conditions separately for individual
phases, while other conditions are shared by all phases (i.e., the mixture), as described
in detail below.
Dene Boundary Conditions...
Figure 23.9.7: The Boundary Conditions Panel
Boundary Conditions for the Mixture and the Individual Phases
The conditions you need to specify for the mixture and those you need to specify for the
individual phases will depend on which of the three multiphase models you are using.
Details for each model are provided below.
VOF Model
If you are using the VOF model, the conditions you need to specify for each type of zone
are listed below and summarized in Table 23.9.1.
For an exhaust fan, inlet vent, intake fan, outlet vent, pressure inlet, pressure outlet,
or velocity inlet, there are no conditions to be specied for the primary phase. For
each secondary phase, you will need to set the volume fraction as a constant, a
prole (see Section 7.26: Boundary Proles), or a user-dened function (see the
separate UDF Manual). All other conditions are specied for the mixture.
For a mass ow inlet, you will need to set the mass ow rate or mass ux for each
individual phase. All other conditions are specied for the mixture.
i
Note that if you read a VOF case that was set up in a version of FLUENT
prior to 6.1, you will need to redene the conditions at the mass ow inlets.
For an axis, fan, outow, periodic, porous jump, radiator, solid, symmetry, or wall
zone, all conditions are specied for the mixture. There are no conditions to be set
for the individual phases.
For a wall zone, you can specify the contact angle if wall adhesion option is enabled.
For a uid zone, mass sources are specied for the individual phases, and all other
sources are specied for the mixture.
If the uid zone is not porous, all other conditions are specied for the mixture.
If the uid zone is porous, you will enable the Porous Zone option in the Fluid panel
for the mixture. The porosity inputs (if relevant) are also specied for the mixture.
The resistance coecients and direction vectors, however, are specied separately
for each phase. See Section 7.19.6: User Inputs for Porous Media for details about
these inputs. All other conditions are specied for the mixture.
See Chapter 7: Boundary Conditions for details about the relevant conditions for each
type of boundary. Note that the pressure far-eld boundary is not available with the
VOF model.
Table 23.9.1: Phase-Specic and Mixture Conditions for the VOF Model
Type Primary Phase Secondary Phase Mixture
exhaust fan;
inlet vent;
intake fan;
outlet vent;
pressure inlet;
pressure outlet;
velocity inlet
nothing volume fraction all others
mass ow inlet mass ow/ux mass ow/ux all others
axis;
fan;
outow;
periodic;
porous jump;
radiator;
solid;
symmetry;
wall
nothing nothing all others
pressure far-eld not available not available not available
uid mass source;
other porous inputs
mass source;
other porous inputs
porous zone;
porosity;
all others
Mixture Model
If you are using the mixture model, the conditions you need to specify for each type of
zone are listed below and summarized in Table 23.9.2.
For an exhaust fan, outlet vent, or pressure outlet, there are no conditions to be
specied for the primary phase. For each secondary phase, you will need to set the
volume fraction as a constant, a prole (see Section 7.26: Boundary Proles), or
a user-dened function (see the separate UDF Manual). All other conditions are
specied for the mixture.
For an inlet vent, intake fan, or pressure inlet, you will specify for the mixture which
direction specication method will be used at this boundary (Normal to Boundary
or Direction Vector). If you select the Direction Vector specication method, you
will specify the coordinate system (3D only) and ow-direction components for
the individual phases. For each secondary phase, you will need to set the volume
fraction (as described above). All other conditions are specied for the mixture.
individual phase. All other conditions are specied for the mixture.
i
Note that if you read a mixture multiphase case that was set up in a version
of FLUENT previous to 6.1, you will need to redene the conditions at the
mass ow inlets.
For a velocity inlet, you will specify the velocity for the individual phases. For each
secondary phase, you will need to set the volume fraction (as described above). All
other conditions are specied for the mixture.
For an axis, fan, outow, periodic, porous jump, radiator, solid, symmetry, or wall
zone, all conditions are specied for the mixture. There are no conditions to be set
for the individual phases. Outow boundary conditions are not available for the
cavitation model.
For a uid zone, mass sources are specied for the individual phases, and all other
sources are specied for the mixture.
type of boundary. Note that the pressure far-eld boundary is not available with the
mixture model.
Table 23.9.2: Phase-Specic and Mixture Conditions for the Mixture Model
exhaust fan;
outlet vent;
pressure outlet
nothing volume fraction all others
inlet vent;
intake fan;
pressure inlet
coord. system;
ow direction
coord. system;
ow direction;
volume fraction
dir. spec.
method;
all others
mass ow inlet mass ow/ux mass ow/ux all others
velocity inlet velocity velocity;
volume fraction
all others
axis;
fan;
outow (n/a for
cavitation
model);
periodic;
porous jump;
radiator;
solid;
symmetry;
wall
pressure far-eld not available not available not available
uid mass source;
other porous inputs
mass source;
other porous inputs
porous zone;
porosity;
all others
Eulerian Model
If you are using the Eulerian model, the conditions you need to specify for each type
of zone are listed below and summarized in Tables 23.9.3, 23.9.4, 23.9.5, and 23.9.6.
Note that the specication of turbulence parameters will depend on which of the three
multiphase turbulence models you are using, as indicated in Tables 23.9.423.9.6. See
Sections 23.5.10 and 23.12.3 for more information about multiphase turbulence models.
For an exhaust fan, outlet vent, or pressure outlet, there are no conditions to be
specied for the primary phase if you are modeling laminar ow or using the mixture
turbulence model (the default multiphase turbulence model), except for backow
total temperature if heat transfer is on.
For each secondary phase, you will need to set the volume fraction as a constant,
a prole (see Section 7.26: Boundary Proles), or a user-dened function (see the
separate UDF Manual). If the phase is granular, you will also need to set its
granular temperature. If heat transfer is on, you will also need to set the backow
total temperature.
If you are using the mixture turbulence model, you will need to specify the turbu-
lence boundary conditions for the mixture. If you are using the dispersed turbulence
model, you will need to specify them for the primary phase. If you are using the
per-phase turbulence model, you will need to specify them for the primary phase
and for each secondary phase.
All other conditions are specied for the mixture.
For an inlet vent, intake fan, or pressure inlet, you will specify for the mixture which
direction specication method will be used at this boundary (Normal to Boundary
or Direction Vector). If you select the Direction Vector specication method, you
will specify the coordinate system (3D only) and ow-direction components for
the individual phases. If heat transfer is on, you will also need to set the total
temperature for the individual phases.
For each secondary phase, you will need to set the volume fraction (as described
above). If the phase is granular, you will also need to set its granular temperature.
individual phase. You will also need to specify the temperature of each phase, since
the energy equations are solved for each phase.
For mass ow inlet boundary conditions, you can specify the slip velocity between
phases. When you select a mass ow inlet boundary for the secondary phase, two
options will be available for the Slip Velocity Specication Method, as shown in
Figure 23.9.8:
Velocity Ratio
The value for the phase velocity ratio is the secondary phase to primary phase
velocity ratio. By default, it is 1.0, which means velocities are the same (no
slip). By entering a ratio that is greater than 1.0, you are indicating a larger
secondary phase velocity. Otherwise, you can enter a ratio that is less than
1.0 to indicate a smaller secondary phase velocity.
Volume Fraction
If you specify the volume fraction at an inlet, FLUENT will calculate the phase
velocities.
i
If a secondary phase has zero mass ux (i.e., the Eulerian model is used to
run a single phase case), neither Phase Velocity Ratio nor Volume Fraction
will aect the solution.
Figure 23.9.8: Mass-Flow Inlet Boundary Condition Panel
For a velocity inlet, you will specify the velocity for the individual phases. If heat
transfer is on, you will also need to set the total temperature for the individual
phases.
For each secondary phase, you will need to set the volume fraction (as described
above). If the phase is granular, you will also need to set its granular temperature.
For an axis, outow, periodic, solid, or symmetry zone, all conditions are specied
for the mixture. There are no conditions to be set for the individual phases.
For a wall zone, shear conditions are specied for the individual phases. All other
conditions are specied for the mixture, including thermal boundary conditions, if
heat transfer is on.
For a uid zone, all source terms and xed values are specied for the individual
phases, unless you are using the mixture turbulence model or the dispersed tur-
bulence model. If you are using the mixture turbulence model, source terms and
xed values for turbulence are specied instead for the mixture. If you are using
the dispersed turbulence model, they are specied only for the primary phase.
type of boundary. Note that the pressure far-eld, fan, porous jump, radiator, and mass
ow inlet boundaries are not available with the Eulerian model.
Table 23.9.3: Phase-Specic and Mixture Conditions for the Eulerian Model
(for Laminar Flow)
exhaust fan;
outlet vent;
pressure outlet
(tot. temperature) volume fraction;
gran. temperature
(tot. temperature)
all others
inlet vent;
intake fan;
pressure inlet
coord. system;
ow direction
(tot. temperature)
coord. system;
ow direction;
volume fraction;
gran. temperature
(tot. temperature)
dir. spec.
method;
all others
velocity inlet velocity
(tot. temperature)
velocity;
volume fraction;
gran. temperature
(tot. temperature)
all others
axis;
outow;
periodic;
solid;
symmetry
wall shear condition shear condition all others
pressure
far-eld;
fan;
porous jump;
radiator;
mass ow inlet
not available not available not available
uid all source terms;
all xed values;
other porous inputs
all source terms;
all xed values;
other porous inputs
porous zone;
porosity;
all others
(with the Mixture Turbulence Model)
exhaust fan;
outlet vent;
pressure outlet
(tot. temperature) volume fraction;
gran. temperature
(tot. temperature)
all others
inlet vent;
intake fan;
pressure inlet
coord. system;
ow direction
(tot. temperature)
coord. system;
ow direction;
volume fraction;
gran. temperature
(tot. temperature)
dir. spec.
method;
all others
velocity inlet velocity
(tot. temperature)
velocity;
volume fraction;
gran. temperature
(tot. temperature)
all others
axis;
outow;
periodic;
solid;
symmetry
pressure
far-eld;
fan;
porous jump;
radiator;
mass ow inlet
uid other source terms;
other xed values;
other porous inputs
other source terms;
other xed values;
other porous inputs
source terms for
turbulence;
xed values for
turbulence;
porous zone;
porosity;
all others
(with the Dispersed Turbulence Model)
exhaust fan;
outlet vent;
pressure outlet
turb. parameters
(tot. temperature)
volume fraction;
gran. temperature
(tot. temperature)
all others
inlet vent;
intake fan;
pressure inlet
coord. system;
ow direction;
turb. parameters;
(tot. temperature)
coord. system;
ow direction;
volume fraction;
gran. temperature
(tot. temperature)
dir. spec.
method;
all others
velocity inlet velocity;
turb. parameters
(tot. temperature)
velocity;
volume fraction;
gran. temperature
(tot. temperature)
all others
axis;
outow;
periodic;
solid;
symmetry
pressure
far-eld;
fan;
porous jump;
radiator;
mass ow inlet
uid momentum, mass,
turb. sources;
momentum, mass,
turb. xed values;
other porous inputs
momentum and mass
sources;
momentum and mass
xed values;
other porous inputs
porous zone;
porosity;
all others
(with the Per-Phase Turbulence Model)
exhaust fan;
outlet vent;
pressure outlet
turb. parameters
(tot. temperature)
volume fraction;
turb. parameters;
gran. temperature
(tot. temperature)
all others
inlet vent;
intake fan;
pressure inlet
coord. system;
ow direction;
turb. parameters
(tot. temperature)
coord. system;
ow direction;
volume fraction;
turb. parameters;
gran. temperature
(tot. temperature)
dir. spec.
method;
all others
velocity inlet velocity;
turb. parameters
(tot. temperature)
velocity;
volume fraction;
turb. parameters;
gran. temperature
(tot. temperature)
all others
axis;
outow;
periodic;
solid;
symmetry
pressure
far-eld;
fan;
porous jump;
radiator;
mass ow inlet
uid momentum, mass,
turb. sources;
momentum, mass,
turb. xed values;
other porous inputs
momentum, mass,
turb. sources;
momentum, mass,
turb. xed values;
other porous inputs
porous zone;
porosity;
all others
Steps for Setting Boundary Conditions
The steps you need to perform for each boundary are as follows:
1. Select the boundary in the Zone list in the Boundary Conditions panel.
2. Set the conditions for the mixture at this boundary, if necessary. (See above for
information about which conditions need to be set for the mixture.)
(a) In the Phase drop-down list, select mixture.
(b) If the current Type for this zone is correct, click Set... to open the corresponding
panel (e.g., the Pressure Inlet panel); otherwise, choose the correct zone type
in the Type list, conrm the change (when prompted), and the corresponding
panel will open automatically.
(c) In the corresponding panel for the zone type you have selected (e.g., the Pres-
sure Inlet panel, shown in Figure 23.9.9), specify the mixture boundary condi-
tions.
Figure 23.9.9: The Pressure Inlet Panel for a Mixture
Note that only those conditions that apply to all phases, as described above,
will appear in this panel.
i
For a VOF calculation, if you enabled the Wall Adhesion option in the
Phase Interaction panel, you can specify the contact angle at the wall for
each pair of phases as a constant (as shown in Figure 23.9.10) or a UDF
(see the UDF manual for more information).
The contact angle (
w
in Figure 23.3.3) is the angle between the wall and the
tangent to the interface at the wall, measured inside the phase listed in the
left column under Wall Adhesion in the Momentum tab of the Wall panel. For
example, if you are setting the contact angle between the oil and air phases in
the Wall panel shown in Figure 23.9.10,
w
is measured inside the oil phase.
Figure 23.9.10: The Wall Panel for a Mixture in a VOF Calculation with
Wall Adhesion
The default value for all pairs is 90 degrees, which is equivalent to no wall
adhesion eects (i.e., the interface is normal to the adjacent wall). A contact
angle of 45
, for example, corresponds to water creeping up the side of a

container, as is common with water in a glass.
(d) Click OK when you are done setting the mixture boundary conditions.
3. Set the conditions for each phase at this boundary, if necessary. (See above for
information about which conditions need to be set for the individual phases.)
(a) In the Phase drop-down list, select the phase (e.g., water).
i
Note that, when you select one of the individual phases (rather than the
mixture), only one type of zone appears in the Type list. It is not possible
to assign phase-specic zone types at a given boundary; the zone type is
specied for the mixture, and it applies to all of the individual phases.
(b) Click Set... to open the panel for this phases conditions (e.g., the Pressure
Inlet panel, shown in Figure 23.9.11).
Figure 23.9.11: The Pressure Inlet Panel for a Phase
(c) Specify the conditions for the phase. Note that only those conditions that
apply to the individual phase, as described above, will appear in this panel.
(d) Click OK when you are done setting the phase-specic boundary conditions.
23.10 Setting Up the VOF Model
Steps for Copying Boundary Conditions
The steps for copying boundary conditions for a multiphase ow are slightly dierent
from those described in Section 7.1.5: Copying Boundary Conditions for a single-phase
ow. The modied steps are listed below:
1. In the Boundary Conditions panel, click the Copy... button. This will open the Copy
BCs panel.
2. In the From Zone list, select the zone that has the conditions you want to copy.
3. In the To Zones list, select the zone or zones to which you want to copy the condi-
tions.
4. In the Phase drop-down list, select the phase for which you want to copy the
conditions (either mixture or one of the individual phases).
i
Note that copying the boundary conditions for one phase does not auto-
matically result in the boundary conditions for the other phases and the
mixture being copied as well. You need to copy the conditions for each
phase on each boundary of interest.
5. Click Copy. FLUENT will set all of the selected phases (or mixtures) boundary
conditions on the zones selected in the To Zones list to be the same as that phases
conditions on the zone selected in the From Zone list. (You cannot copy a subset
of the conditions, such as only the thermal conditions.)
See Section 7.1.5: Copying Boundary Conditions for additional information about copying
boundary conditions, including limitations.
23.10.1 Choosing a VOF Formulation
To specify the VOF formulation to be used, select the appropriate VOF Scheme under
VOF Parameters in the Multiphase Model panel.
The VOF formulations that are available in FLUENT are the Explicit and Implicit schemes.
Explicit Schemes
Time-dependent with the explicit interpolation scheme: Since the donor-acceptor
scheme is available only for quadrilateral and hexahedral meshes, it cannot be used
for a hybrid mesh containing twisted hexahedral cells. For such cases, you should
use the time-dependent explicit scheme. This formulation can also be used for
other cases in which the geometric reconstruction scheme does not give satisfactory
results, or the ow calculation becomes unstable. Note that the CICSAM scheme or
the modied HRIC scheme can be computationally inexpensive when compared to
the geometric reconstruction scheme and improves the robustness and stability of
the calculations. The Volume Fraction discretizations, Modied HRIC and CICSAM,
are available in the Solution Controls panel when the explicit VOF scheme is selected.
Note that FLUENT will automatically turn on the unsteady formulation with rst-
order discretization for time in the Solver panel.
Time-dependent with the geometric reconstruction interpolation scheme: This for-
mulation should be used whenever you are interested in the time-accurate transient
behavior of the VOF solution.
To use this formulation, make sure Explicit is selected as the VOF Scheme in the
Multiphase panel, then select Geo-Reconstruct as the Volume Fraction Discretization
scheme in the Solution Controls panel.
Time-dependent with the donor-acceptor interpolation scheme: This formulation
should be used instead of the time-dependent formulation with the geometric re-
construction scheme if your mesh contains highly twisted hexahedral cells. For such
cases, the donor-acceptor scheme may provide more accurate results.
The Donor-Acceptor scheme is used when Explicit is selected as the VOF Scheme
in the Multiphase panel. Initially, this formulation is not available in the GUI. To
make it available, use the following text command:
solve set expert
You will be asked a series of questions, one of which is
Allow selection of all applicable discretization schemes? [no]
If your response is yes, then many more discretization schemes will be available
for your selection. You can now use this formulation by selecting Donor-Acceptor
as the Volume Fraction Discretization in the Solution Controls panel.
The CICSAM scheme gives interface sharpness of the same level as the geometric
reconstruction scheme and is particularly suitable for ows with high viscosity ratios
between the phases.
To use this formulation, select Explicit as the VOF Scheme in the Multiphase panel,
then select CICSAM as the Volume Fraction Discretization in the Solution Controls
panel.
While the explicit time-dependent formulation is less computationally expensive
than the geometric reconstruction scheme, the interface between phases will not be
as sharp as that predicted with the geometric reconstruction scheme. To reduce this
diusivity, it is recommended that you use the second-order discretization scheme
for the volume fraction equations. In addition, you may want to consider turning
the geometric reconstruction scheme back on after calculating a solution with the
implicit scheme, in order to obtain a sharper interface.
i
For the geometric reconstruction and donor-acceptor schemes, if you are
using a conformal grid (i.e., if the grid node locations are identical at the
boundaries where two subdomains meet), you must ensure that there are
no two-sided (zero-thickness) walls within the domain. If there are, you
will need to slit them, as described in Section 6.8.6: Slitting Face Zones.
i
The issues discussed above for the explicit time-dependent formulation
also apply to the implicit steady-state and time-dependent formulations,
described below. You should take the precautions described above to im-
prove the sharpness of the interface.
Implicit Schemes
Time-dependent with the implicit interpolation scheme: This formulation can be
used if you are looking for a steady-state solution and you are not interested in the
intermediate transient ow behavior, but the nal steady-state solution is dependent
on the initial ow conditions and/or you do not have a distinct inow boundary
for each phase.
To use this formulation, select Implicit as the VOF Scheme, and enable an Unsteady
calculation in the Solver panel (opened with the Dene/Models/Solver... menu
item).
Steady-state with the implicit interpolation scheme: This formulation can be used if
you are looking for a steady-state solution, you are not interested in the intermediate
transient ow behavior, and the nal steady-state solution is not aected by the
initial ow conditions and there is a distinct inow boundary for each phase. Note
that the implicit modied HRIC scheme can be used as a robust alternative to the
explicit geometric reconstruction scheme.
To use this formulation, select Implicit as the VOF Scheme in the Multiphase panel,
then select Modied HRIC as the Volume Fraction Discretization in the Solution Con-
trols panel.
Examples
To help you determine the best formulation to use for your problem, examples that use
dierent formulations are listed below:
jet breakup
Use the explicit scheme (time-dependent with the geometric reconstruction scheme
or the donor-acceptor) if problems occur with the geometric reconstruction scheme.
shape of the liquid interface in a centrifuge
Use the time-dependent with the implicit interpolation scheme.
ow around a ships hull
Use the steady-state with the implicit interpolation scheme.
23.10.2 Modeling Open Channel Flows
Using the VOF formulation, open channel ows can be modeled in FLUENT. To start
using the open channel ow boundary condition, perform the following:
1. Turn on gravity.
(a) Open the Operating Conditions panel.
(b) Turn on Gravity and set the gravitational acceleration elds.
2. Enable the volume of uid model.
(a) Open the Multiphase Model panel.
(b) Under Model, turn on Volume of Fluid.
(c) Under VOF Scheme, select either Implicit, Explicit.
3. Under VOF Parameters, select Open Channel Flow.
In order to set specic parameters for a particular boundary for open channel ows,
turn on the Open Channel Flow option in the corresponding boundary condition panel.
Table 23.10.1 summarizes the types of boundaries available to the open channel ow
boundary condition, and the additional parameters needed to model open channel ow.
For more information on setting boundary condition parameters, see Chapter 7: Boundary
Conditions.
Table 23.10.1: Open Channel Boundary Parameters for the VOF Model
Boundary Type Parameter
pressure inlet Inlet Group ID;
Secondary Phase for Inlet;
Flow Specication Method;
Free Surface Level, Bottom Level;
Velocity Magnitude
pressure outlet Outlet Group ID;
Pressure Specication Method;
Free Surface Level; Bottom Level
mass ow inlet Inlet Group ID;
Secondary Phase for Inlet;
Free Surface Level;
Bottom Level
outow Flow Rate Weighting
Dening Inlet Groups
Open channel systems involve the owing uid (the secondary phase) and the uid above
it (the primary phase).
If both phases enter through the separate inlets (e.g., inlet-phase2 and inlet-phase1),
these two inlets form an inlet group. This inlet group is recognized by the parameter
Inlet Group ID, which will be same for both the inlets that make up the inlet group. On
the other hand, if both the phases enter through the same inlet (e.g., inlet-combined),
then the inlet itself represents the inlet group.
i
In three-phase ows, only one secondary phase is allowed to pass through
one inlet group.
Dening Outlet Groups
Outlet-groups can be dened in the same manner as the inlet groups.
i
In three-phase ows, the outlet should represent the outlet group, i.e.,
separate outlets for each phase are not recommended in three-phase ows.
Setting the Inlet Group
For pressure inlets and mass ow inlets, the Inlet Group ID is used to identify the dierent
inlets that are part of the same inlet group. For instance, when both phases enter through
the same inlet (single face zone), then those phases are part of one inlet group and you
would set the Inlet Group ID to 1 for that inlet (or inlet group).
In the case where the same inlet group has separate inlets (dierent face zones) for each
phase, then the Inlet Group ID will be the same for each inlet of that group.
When specifying the inlet group, use the following guidelines:
Since the Inlet Group ID is used to identify the inlets of the same inlet group, general
information such as Free Surface Level, Bottom Level, or the mass ow rate for each
phase should be the same for each inlet of the same inlet group.
You should specify a dierent Inlet Group ID for each distinct inlet group.
For example, consider the case of two inlet groups for a particular problem. The
rst inlet group consists of water and air entering through the same inlet (a single
face zone). In this case, you would specify an inlet group ID of 1 for that inlet (or
inlet group). The second inlet group consists of oil and air entering through the
same inlet group, but each uses a dierent inlet (oil-inlet and air-inlet) for
each phase. In this case, you would specify the same Inlet Group ID of 2 for both of
the inlets that belong to the inlet group.
Setting the Outlet Group
For pressure outlet boundaries, the Outlet Group ID is used to identify the dierent outlets
that are part of the same outlet group. For instance, when both phases enter through
the same outlet (single face zone), then those phases are part of one outlet group and
you would set the Outlet Group ID to 1 for that outlet (or outlet group).
In the case where the same outlet group has separate outlets (dierent face zones) for
each phase, then the Outlet Group ID will be the same for each outlet of that group.
When specifying the outlet group, use the following guidelines:
Since the Outlet Group ID is used to identify the outlets of the same outlet group,
general information such as Free Surface Level or Bottom Level should be the same
for each outlet of the same outlet group.
You should specify a dierent Outlet Group ID for each distinct outlet group.
For example, consider the case of two outlet groups for a particular problem. The
rst inlet group consists of water and air exiting from the same outlet (a single face
zone). In this case, you would specify an outlet number of 1 for that outlet (or
outlet group). The second outlet group consists of oil and air exiting through the
same outlet group, but each uses a dierent outlet (oil-outlet and air-outlet)
for each phase. In this case, you would specify the same Outlet Group ID of 2 for
both of the outlets that belong to the outlet group.
i
For three-phase ows, when all the phases are leaving through the same
outlet, the outlet should consist only of a single face zone.
Determining the Free Surface Level
For the appropriate boundary, you need to specify the Free Surface Level value. This pa-
rameter is available for all relevant boundaries, including pressure outlet, mass ow inlet,
and pressure inlet. The Free Surface Level, is represented by y
local
y
local
= (
a g) (23.10-1)
where

a is the position vector of any point on the free surface, and g is the unit vector
in the direction of the force of gravity. Here we assume a horizontal free surface that is
normal to the direction of gravity.
We can simply calculate the free surface level in two steps:
1. Determine the absolute value of height from the free surface to the origin in the
2. Apply the correct sign based on whether the free surface level is above or below
the origin.
If the liquids free surface level lies above the origin, then the Free Surface Level is positive
(see Figure 23.10.1). Likewise, if the liquids free surface level lies below the origin, then
the Free Surface Level is negative.
Determining the Bottom Level
For the appropriate boundary, you need to specify the Bottom Level value. This parameter
is available for all relevant boundaries, including pressure outlet, mass ow inlet, and
pressure inlet. The Bottom Level, is represented by a relation similar to Equation 23.3-25.
y
bottom
= (
b g) (23.10-2)
where

b is the position vector of any point on the bottom of the channel, and g is the
unit vector of gravity. Here we assume a horizontal free surface that is normal to the
We can simply calculate the bottom level in two steps:
1. Determine the absolute value of depth from the bottom level to the origin in the
2. Apply the correct sign based on whether the bottom level is above or below the
origin.
If the channels bottom lies above the origin, then the Bottom Level is positive (see
Figure 23.10.1). Likewise, if the channels bottom lies below the origin, then the Bottom
Level is negative.
Origin
Reference Level
Bottom Level (positive)
Free Surface Level (positive)
g
Figure 23.10.1: Determining the Free Surface Level and the Bottom Level
Specifying the Total Height
The total height, along with the velocity, is used as an option for describing the ow.
The total height is given as
y
tot
= y
local
+
V
2
2g
(23.10-3)
where V is the velocity magnitude and g is the gravity magnitude.
Determining the Velocity Magnitude
Pressure inlet boundaries require the Velocity Magnitude for calculating the dynamic
pressure at the boundary. This is to be specied as the magnitude of the upstream inlet
velocity in the ow.
Determining the Secondary Phase for the Inlet
For pressure inlets and mass ow inlets, the Secondary Phase for Inlet eld is signicant
in cases of three-phase ows.
i
Note that only one secondary phase is allowed to pass through one inlet
group.
Consider a problem involving a three-phase ow consisting of air as the primary phase,
and oil and water as the secondary phases. Consider also that there are two inlet groups:
water and air
oil and air
For the former inlet group, you would choose water as the secondary phase. For the
latter inlet group, you would choose oil as the secondary phase.
Choosing the Pressure Specication Method
For a pressure outlet boundary, the outlet pressure can be specied in one of two ways:
by prescribing the local height (i.e., a hydrostatic pressure prole)
by specifying the constant pressure
i
This option is not available in the case of three-phase ows since the pres-
sure on the boundary is taken from the neighboring cell.
Limitations
The following list summarizes some issues and limitations associated with the open chan-
nel boundary condition.
The conservation of the Bernoulli integral does not provide the conservation of
mass ow rate for the pressure boundary. In the case of a coarser mesh, there can
be a signicant dierence in mass ow rate from the actual mass ow rate. For
ner meshes, the mass ow rate comes closer to the actual value. So, for problems
having constant mass ow rate, the mass ow rate boundary condition is a better
option. The pressure boundary should be selected when steady and nonoscillating
drag is the main objective.
Specifying the top boundary as the pressure outlet can sometimes lead to a diver-
gent solution. This may be due to the corner singularity at the pressure boundary
in the air region or due to the inability to specify local ow direction correctly if
the air enters through the top locally.
Only the heavier phase should be selected as the secondary phase.
In the case of three-phase ows, only one secondary phase is allowed to enter
through one inlet group (i.e., the mixed inow of dierent secondary phases is not
allowed).
Recommendations for Setting Up an Open Channel Flow Problem
The following list represents a list of recommendations for solving problems using the
open channel ow boundary condition:
In the cases where the inlet group has a dierent inlet for each phase of uid, then
the parameter values (such as Free Surface Level, Bottom Level, and Mass Flow Rate)
for each inlet should correspond to all other inlets that belong to the inlet group.
The solution begins with an estimated pressure prole at the outlet boundary.
In general, you can start the solution by assuming that the level of liquid at the
outlet corresponds to the level of liquid at the inlet. The convergence and solution
time is very dependent on the initial conditions. When the ow is completely
subcritical (upstream and downstream), in marine applications for instance, the
above approach is recommended.
If the nal conditions of the ow can be predicted by other means, the solution
time can be signicantly reduced by using the proper boundary condition.
The initialization procedure is very critical in the open channel analysis.
If you are interested in the nal steady state solution, then perform the following
initialization procedure:
1. Initialize the domain by setting the volume fraction of the secondary phase to
0, and providing the inlet velocity.
2. Patch the domain using a volume fraction value of the secondary phase to 1,
up to the Free Surface Level specied at the inlet.
3. Patch the inlet velocity again in the full domain.
If the Free Surface Level values are dierent at the inlet and outlet, then patching
some regions with inlet Free Surface Level values and some regions with outlet Free
Surface Level values could be useful for some problems.
The same steps for initialization are also recommended for unsteady ows, but now
the initial conditions are dependent on the user.
For the initial stability of the solution, a smaller time step is recommended. You
can increase the time step once the solution becomes more stable.
23.10.3 Dening the Phases for the VOF Model
Instructions for specifying the necessary information for the primary and secondary
phases and their interaction in a VOF calculation are provided below.
i
In general, you can specify the primary and secondary phases whichever
way you prefer. It is a good idea, especially in more complicated problems,
to consider how your choice will aect the ease of problem setup. For
example, if you are planning to patch an initial volume fraction of 1 for
one phase in a portion of the domain, it may be more convenient to make
that phase a secondary phase. Also, if one of the phases is a compressible
ideal gas, it is recommended that you specify it as the primary phase to
improve solution stability.
i
Recall that only one of the phases can be a compressible ideal gas. Be sure
that you do not select a compressible ideal gas material (i.e., a material
that uses the compressible ideal gas law for density) for more than one of
the phases. See Sections 23.10.5 and 23.11.3 for details.
Dening the Primary Phase
To dene the primary phase in a VOF calculation, perform the following steps:
1. Select phase-1 in the Phase list.
2. Click Set... to open the Primary Phase panel (Figure 23.10.2).
Figure 23.10.2: The Primary Phase Panel
3. In the Primary Phase panel, enter a Name for the phase.
4. Specify which material the phase contains by choosing the appropriate material in
the Phase Material drop-down list.
5. Dene the material properties for the Phase Material.
(a) Click Edit..., and the Material panel will open.
(b) In the Material panel, check the properties, and modify them if necessary. (See
Chapter 8: Physical Properties for general information about setting material
properties, Section 23.10.5: Modeling Compressible Flows for specic informa-
tion related to compressible VOF calculations, and Section 23.10.6: Modeling
Solidication/Melting for specic information related to melting/solidication
VOF calculations.)
i
If you make changes to the properties, remember to click Change before
closing the Material panel.
6. Click OK in the Primary Phase panel.
Dening a Secondary Phase
To dene a secondary phase in a VOF calculation, perform the following steps:
1. Select the phase (e.g., phase-2) in the Phase list.
2. Click Set... to open the Secondary Phase panel (Figure 23.10.3).
Figure 23.10.3: The Secondary Phase Panel for the VOF Model
3. In the Secondary Phase panel, enter a Name for the phase.
5. Dene the material properties for the Phase Material, following the procedure out-
lined above for setting the material properties for the primary phase.
6. Click OK in the Secondary Phase panel.
Including Surface Tension and Wall Adhesion Effects
As discussed in Section 23.3.8: When Surface Tension Eects Are Important, the impor-
tance of surface tension eects depends on the value of the capillary number, Ca (dened
by Equation 23.3-16), or the Weber number, We (dened by Equation 23.3-17). Surface
tension eects can be neglected if Ca 1 or We 1.
i
Note that the calculation of surface tension eects will be more accurate
if you use a quadrilateral or hexahedral mesh in the area(s) of the compu-
tational domain where surface tension is signicant. If you cannot use a
quadrilateral or hexahedral mesh for the entire domain, then you should
use a hybrid mesh, with quadrilaterals or hexahedra in the aected areas.
FLUENT also oers an option to use VOF gradients at the nodes for cur-
vature calculations on meshes when more accuracy is desired. For more
information, see Section 23.3.8: Surface Tension and Wall Adhesion.
If you want to include the eects of surface tension along the interface between one or
more pairs of phases, as described in Section 23.3.8: Surface Tension and Wall Adhesion,
click Interaction... to open the Phase Interaction panel (Figure 23.10.4).
Figure 23.10.4: The Phase Interaction Panel for the VOF Model (Surface Ten-
sion Tab)
Perform the following steps to include surface tension (and, if appropriate, wall adhesion)
eects along the interface between one or more pairs of phases:
1. Click the Surface Tension tab.
2. If you want to include wall adhesion, turn on the Wall Adhesion option. When Wall
Adhesion is enabled, you will need to specify the contact angle at each wall as a
boundary condition (as described in Section 23.9.8: Dening Multiphase Boundary
Conditions).
3. For each pair of phases between which you want to include the eects of surface
tension, specify a constant surface tension coecient. Alternatively you can spec-
ify a temperature dependent, polynomial, piece-wise polynomial, piecewise linear,
or a user-dened surface tension coecient. See Section 23.3.8: Surface Tension
and Wall Adhesion for more information on surface tension, and the separate UDF
Manual for more information on user-dened functions. All surface tension coe-
cients are equal to 0 by default, representing no surface tension eects along the
interface between the two phases.
i
For calculations involving surface tension, it is recommended that you also
turn on the Implicit Body Force treatment for the Body Force Formulation
in the Multiphase Model panel. This treatment improves solution conver-
gence by accounting for the partial equilibrium of the pressure gradient and
surface tension forces in the momentum equations. See Section 23.9.4: In-
cluding Body Forces for details.
23.10.4 Setting Time-Dependent Parameters for the VOF Model
If you are using the time-dependent VOF formulation in FLUENT, an explicit solution
for the volume fraction is obtained either once each time step or once each iteration,
depending upon your inputs to the model. You also have control over the time step used
for the volume fraction calculation.
To compute a time-dependent VOF solution, you will need to enable the Unsteady option
in the Solver panel (and choose the appropriate Unsteady Formulation, as discussed in
Section 25.17.1: User Inputs for Time-Dependent Problems). If you choose the Explicit
scheme, FLUENT will turn on the rst-order unsteady formulation for you automatically,
so you need not visit the Solver panel yourself.
Dene Models Solver...
There are two inputs for the time-dependent calculation for the VOF model:
By default, FLUENT will solve the volume fraction equation(s) once for each time
step. This means that the convective ux coecients appearing in the other trans-
port equations will not be completely updated each iteration, since the volume
fraction elds will not change from iteration to iteration.
If you want FLUENT to solve the volume fraction equation(s) at every iteration
within a time step, use the text command:
define models multiphase
and select vof as the model. When prompted to solve vof every iteration?,
enter yes. When FLUENT solves these equations every iteration, the convective ux
coecients in the other transport equations will be updated based on the updated
volume fractions at each iteration. This choice is the less stable of the two, and
requires more computational eort per time step than the default choice.
i
If you are using sliding meshes, or dynamic meshes with layering and/or
remeshing, using the solve vof every iteration? option will yield
more accurate results, although at a greater computational cost.
When FLUENT performs a time-dependent VOF calculation, the time step used
for the volume fraction calculation will not be the same as the time step used for
the rest of the transport equations. FLUENT will rene the time step for VOF
automatically, based on your input for the maximum Courant Number allowed near
the free surface. The Courant number is a dimensionless number that compares
the time step in a calculation to the characteristic time of transit of a uid element
across a control volume:
t
x
cell
/v
uid
(23.10-4)
In the region near the uid interface, FLUENT divides the volume of each cell by
the sum of the outgoing uxes. The resulting time represents the time it would
take for the uid to empty out of the cell. The smallest such time is used as
the characteristic time of transit for a uid element across a control volume, as
described above. Based upon this time and your input for the maximum allowed
Courant Number in the Multiphase Models panel, a time step is computed for use
in the VOF calculation. For example, if the maximum allowed Courant number
is 0.25 (the default), the time step will be chosen to be at most one-fourth the
minimum transit time for any cell near the interface.
Note that these inputs are not required when the implicit scheme is used.
23.10.5 Modeling Compressible Flows
If you are using the VOF model for a compressible ow, note the following:
Only one of the phases can be dened as a compressible ideal gas (i.e., you can
select the ideal gas law for the density of only one phases material). There is no
When using the VOF model, for stability reasons, it is better (although not re-
quired) if the primary phase is a compressible ideal gas.
If you specify the total pressure at a boundary (e.g., for a pressure inlet or intake
fan) the specied value for temperature at that boundary will be used as total
temperature for the compressible phase, and as static temperature for the other
phases (which are incompressible).
For each mass ow inlet, you will need to specify mass ow or mass ux for each
individual phase.
i
Note that if you read a case le that was set up in a version of FLUENT
previous to 6.1, you will need to redene the conditions at the mass ow
inlets. See Section 23.9.8: Dening Multiphase Boundary Conditions for
more information on dening conditions for a mass ow inlet in VOF mul-
tiphase calculations.
See Section 9.6: Compressible Flows for more information about compressible ows.
23.10.6 Modeling Solidication/Melting
If you are including melting or solidication in your VOF calculation, note the following:
It is possible to model melting or solidication in a single phase or in multiple
phases.
For phases that are not melting or solidifying, you must set the latent heat (L),
liquidus temperature (T
liquidus
), and solidus temperature (T
solidus
) to zero.
See Chapter 24: Modeling Solidication and Melting for more information about melting
and solidication.
23.11 Setting Up the Mixture Model
23.11.1 Dening the Phases for the Mixture Model
phases and their interaction for a mixture model calculation are provided below.
i
Recall that only one of the phases can be a compressible ideal gas. Be sure
that you do not select a compressible ideal gas material (i.e., a material
that uses the compressible ideal gas law for density) for more than one of
the phases. See Section 23.11.3: Modeling Compressible Flows for details.
The procedure for dening the primary phase in a mixture model calculation is the same
as for a VOF calculation. See Section 23.10.3: Dening the Primary Phase for details.
Dening a Nongranular Secondary Phase
To dene a nongranular (i.e., liquid or vapor) secondary phase in a mixture multiphase
calculation, perform the following steps:
Figure 23.11.1: The Secondary Phase Panel for the Mixture Model
5. Dene the material properties for the Phase Material, following the same pro-
cedure you used to set the material properties for the primary phase (see Sec-
tion 23.10.3: Dening the Primary Phase). For a particulate phase (which must
be placed in the uid materials category, as mentioned in Section 23.9: Steps for
Using a Multiphase Model), you need to specify only the density; you can ignore
the values for the other properties, since they will not be used.
6. In the Secondary Phase panel, specify the Diameter of the bubbles, droplets, or
particles of this phase (d
p
in Equation 23.4-12). You can specify a constant value,
or use a user-dened function. See the separate UDF Manual for details about
user-dened functions. Note that when you are using the mixture model without
slip velocity, this input is not necessary, and it will not be available to you.
Dening a Granular Secondary Phase
To dene a granular (i.e., particulate) secondary phase in a mixture model multiphase
Figure 23.11.2: The Secondary Phase Panel for a Granular Phase Using the
Mixture Model
tion 23.10.3: Dening the Primary Phase). For a granular phase (which must be
placed in the uid materials category, as mentioned in Section 23.9: Steps for Us-
ing a Multiphase Model), you need to specify only the density; you can ignore the
values for the other properties, since they will not be used.
i
Note that all properties for granular ows can utilize user-dened functions
(UDFs).
See the separate UDF Manual for details about user-dened functions.
6. Turn on the Granular option.
7. In the Secondary Phase panel, specify the following properties of the particles of
this phase:
Diameter species the diameter of the particles. You can select constant in the
drop-down list and specify a constant value, or select user-dened to use a user-
dened function. See the separate UDF Manual for details about user-dened
functions.
Granular Viscosity species the kinetic part of the granular viscosity of the par-
ticles (
s,kin
in Equation 23.4-18). You can select constant (the default) in the
drop-down list and specify a constant value, select syamlal-obrien to compute
the value using Equation 23.4-20, select gidaspow to compute the value using
Equation 23.4-21, or select user-dened to use a user-dened function.
Granular Temperature species temperature for the solids phase and is propor-
tional to the kinetic energy of the random motion of the particles. Choose
either the algebraic, the constant, or user-dened option.
Solids Pressure species the pressure gradient term, p
s
, in the granular-phase
momentum equation. Choose either the lun-et-al, the syamlal-obrien, the ma-
ahmadi, or the user-dened option.
Radial Distribution species a correction factor that modies the probability of
collisions between grains when the solid granular phase becomes dense. Choose
either the lun-et-al, the syamlal-obrien, the ma-ahmadi, the arastoopour, or a
user-dened option.
Elasticity Modulus is dened as
G =
P
s
s
(23.11-1)
with G 0.
Choose either the derived or user-dened options.
Packing Limit species the maximum volume fraction for the granular phase
(
s,max
). For monodispersed spheres, the packing limit is about 0.63, which is
the default value in FLUENT. In polydispersed cases, however, smaller spheres
can ll the small gaps between larger spheres, so you may need to increase the
maximum packing limit.
Dening Drag Between Phases
For mixture multiphase ows with slip velocity, you can specify the drag function to be
used in the calculation. The functions available here are a subset of those discussed in
Section 23.12.2: Dening the Phases for the Eulerian Model. See Section 23.4.5: Relative
(Slip) Velocity and the Drift Velocity for more information.
To specify drag laws, click Interaction... to open the Phase Interaction panel (Figure 23.11.3),
and then click the Drag tab.
Figure 23.11.3: The Phase Interaction Panel for the Mixture Model (Drag
Tab)
Dening the Slip Velocity
If you are solving for slip velocities during the mixture calculation, and you want to
modify the slip velocity denition, click Interaction... to open the Phase Interaction panel
(Figure 23.11.4), and then click the Slip tab.
Figure 23.11.4: The Phase Interaction Panel for the Mixture Model (Slip Tab)
Under Slip Velocity, you can specify the slip velocity function for each secondary phase
with respect to the primary phase by choosing the appropriate item in the adjacent
drop-down list.
Select maninnen-et-al (the default) to use the algebraic slip method of Manninen et
al. [229], described in Section 23.4.5: Relative (Slip) Velocity and the Drift Velocity.
Select none if the secondary phase has the same velocity as the primary phase (i.e.,
no slip velocity).
Select user-dened to use a user-dened function for the slip velocity. See the
separate UDF Manual for details.
23.11.2 Including Cavitation Effects
For mixture model calculations, it is possible to include the eects of cavitation, using
FLUENTs cavitation model described in Section 23.7.4: Cavitation Models. To enable the
cavitation model, turn on the Cavitation option in the Mass tab of the Phase Interaction
panel.
Figure 23.11.5: The Phase Interaction Panel for Mass Transfer with Cavita-
tion Enabled
When you are using FLUENTs cavitation model, you will specify three parameters to be
used in the calculation of mass transfer due to cavitation. Under Cavitation Parameters
in the Phase Interaction panel, set the Vaporization Pressure (p
sat
in Equation 23.7-15),
the Surface Tension Coecient , and the Non-Condensable Gas Mass Fraction . The default
value of p
sat
is 2540 Pa, the vaporization pressure for water at ambient temperature.
Note that p
sat
and the surface tension are properties of the liquid, depending mainly on
temperature. Non-Condensable Gas Mass Fraction is the mass fraction of dissolved gases,
which depends on the purity of the liquid.
When multiple species are included in one or more secondary phases, or the heat transfer
due to phase change needs to be taken into account, the mass transfer mechanism must
be dened before turning on the Cavitation option. This is dened in the same way as
described Section 23.9.7: Including Mass Transfer Eects. It may be noted, however,
that for cavitation problems, at least two mass transfer mechanisms are dened:
mass transfer from liquid to vapor.
mass transfer from vapor to liquid.
In the Phase Interaction panel (Figure 23.11.6), you should choose the constant-rate op-
tion in the Mechanism drop-down list and leave the value as 0 for both mass transfer
mechanisms before turning on the Cavitation option.
Figure 23.11.6: The Phase Interaction Panel for Mass Transfer with Cavita-
tion Disabled
If you are using the mixture model for a compressible ow, note the following:
Only one of the phases can be dened as a compressible ideal gas (i.e., you can
select the ideal gas law for the density of only one phases material). There is no
fan) the specied value for temperature at that boundary will be used as total
temperature for the compressible phase, and as static temperature for the other
phases (which are incompressible).
individual phase.
i
more information on dening conditions for a mass ow inlet in mixture
multiphase calculations.
23.12 Setting Up the Eulerian Model
23.12.1 Additional Guidelines for Eulerian Multiphase Simulations
Once you have determined that the Eulerian multiphase model is appropriate for your
problem (as described in Section 23.2: Choosing a General Multiphase Model), you should
consider the computational eort required to solve your multiphase problem. The re-
quired computational eort depends strongly on the number of transport equations be-
ing solved and the degree of coupling. For the Eulerian multiphase model, which has a
large number of highly coupled transport equations, computational expense will be high.
Before setting up your problem, try to reduce the problem statement to the simplest
form possible.
Instead of trying to solve your multiphase ow in all of its complexity on your rst
solution attempt, you can start with simple approximations and work your way up to
the nal form of the problem denition. Some suggestions for simplifying a multiphase
ow problem are listed below:
Use a hexahedral or quadrilateral mesh (instead of a tetrahedral or triangular
mesh).
Reduce the number of phases.
You may nd that even a very simple approximation will provide you with useful infor-
mation about your problem.
See Section 23.14.4: Eulerian Model for more solution strategies for Eulerian multiphase
calculations.
23.12.2 Dening the Phases for the Eulerian Model
phases and their interaction for an Eulerian multiphase calculation are provided below.
The procedure for dening the primary phase in an Eulerian multiphase calculation is
the same as for a VOF calculation. See Section 23.10.3: Dening the Primary Phase for
details.
Dening a Nongranular Secondary Phase
To dene a nongranular (i.e., liquid or vapor) secondary phase in an Eulerian multiphase
Figure 23.12.1: The Secondary Phase Panel for a Nongranular Phase
tion 23.10.3: Dening the Primary Phase).
6. In the Secondary Phase panel, specify the Diameter of the bubbles or droplets of
this phase. You can specify a constant value, or use a user-dened function. See
the separate UDF Manual for details about user-dened functions.
Dening a Granular Secondary Phase
To dene a granular (i.e., particulate) secondary phase in an Eulerian multiphase calcu-
lation, perform the following steps:
Figure 23.12.2: The Secondary Phase Panel for a Granular Phase
tion 23.10.3: Dening the Primary Phase). For a granular phase (which must be
placed in the uid materials category, as mentioned in Section 23.9: Steps for Us-
ing a Multiphase Model), you need to specify only the density; you can ignore the
values for the other properties, since they will not be used.
i
Note that all properties for granular ows can utilize user-dened functions
(UDFs).
See the separate UDF Manual for details about user-dened functions.
6. Turn on the Granular option.
7. (optional) Turn on the Packed Bed option if you want to freeze the velocity eld for
the granular phase. Note that when you select the packed bed option for a phase,
you should also use the xed velocity option with a value of zero for all velocity
components for all interior cell zones for that phase.
8. Specify the Granular Temperature Model. Choose either the default Phase Prop-
erty option or the Partial Dierential Equation option. See Section 23.5.8: Granular
Temperature for details.
9. In the Secondary Phase panel, specify the following properties of the particles of
this phase:
Diameter species the diameter of the particles. You can select constant in the
drop-down list and specify a constant value, or select user-dened to use a user-
dened function. See the separate UDF Manual for details about user-dened
functions.
Granular Viscosity species the kinetic part of the granular viscosity of the par-
ticles (
s,kin
in Equation 23.5-62). You can select constant (the default) in the
drop-down list and specify a constant value, select syamlal-obrien to compute
the value using Equation 23.5-64, select gidaspow to compute the value using
Equation 23.5-65, or select user-dened to use a user-dened function.
Granular Bulk Viscosity species the solids bulk viscosity (
q
in Equation 23.5-6).
You can select constant (the default) in the drop-down list and specify a con-
stant value, select lun-et-al to compute the value using Equation 23.5-66, or
select user-dened to use a user-dened function.
Frictional Viscosity species a shear viscosity based on the viscous-plastic ow
(
s,fr
in Equation 23.5-62). By default, the frictional viscosity is neglected,
as indicated by the default selection of none in the drop-down list. If you
want to include the frictional viscosity, you can select constant and specify a
constant value, select schaeer to compute the value using Equation 23.5-67,
select johnson-et-al to compute the value using Equation 23.5-72, or select
user-dened to use a user-dened function.
Angle of Internal Friction species a constant value for the angle used in Scha-
eers expression for frictional viscosity (Equation 23.5-67). This parameter
is relevant only if you have selected schaeer or user-dened for the Frictional
Viscosity.
Frictional Pressure species the pressure gradient term, P
friction
, in the granular-
phase momentum equation. Choose none to exclude frictional pressure from
your calculation, johnson-et-al to apply Equation 23.5-72, syamlal-obrien to ap-
ply Equation 23.5-30, based-ktgf, where the frictional pressure is dened by the
kinetic theory [79]. The solids pressure tends to a large value near the packing
limit, depending on the model selected for the radial distribution function.
You must hook a user-dened function when selecting the user-dened option.
See the separate UDF manual for information on hooking a UDF.
Frictional Modulus is dened as
G =
P
friction
friction
(23.12-1)
with G 0, which is the derived option. You can also specify a user-dened
function for the frictional modulus.
Friction Packing Limit species the maximum volume fraction for the granular
phase (
s,max
). For monodispersed spheres, the packing limit is about 0.63,
which is the default value in FLUENT. In polydispersed cases, however, smaller
spheres can ll the small gaps between larger spheres, so you may need to
increase the maximum packing limit.
Granular Conductivity species the solids granular conductivity (k
s
in
Equation 23.5-75). You can select syamlal-obrien to compute the value using
Equation 23.5-76, select gidaspow to compute the value using Equation 23.5-77,
or select user-dened to use a user-dened function. Note, however, that FLU-
ENT currently uses an algebraic relation for the granular temperature. This
has been obtained by neglecting convection and diusion in the transport
equation, Equation 23.5-75 [363].
Granular Temperature species temperature for the solids phase and is propor-
tional to the kinetic energy of the random motion of the particles. Choose
either the algebraic, the constant, or user-dened option.
Solids Pressure species the pressure gradient term, p
s
, in the granular-phase
momentum equation. Choose either the lun-et-al, the syamlal-obrien, the ma-
ahmadi, none, or a user-dened option.
Radial Distribution species a correction factor that modies the probability of
collisions between grains when the solid granular phase becomes dense. Choose
either the lun-et-al, the syamlal-obrien, the ma-ahmadi, the arastoopour, or a
user-dened option.
Elasticity Modulus is dened as
G =
P
s
s
(23.12-2)
with G 0.
Packing Limit species the maximum volume fraction for the granular phase
(
s,max
). For monodispersed spheres, the packing limit is about 0.63, which is
the default value in FLUENT. In polydispersed cases, however, smaller spheres
can ll the small gaps between larger spheres, so you may need to increase the
maximum packing limit.
Dening the Interaction Between Phases
For both granular and nongranular ows, you will need to specify the drag function to
be used in the calculation of the momentum exchange coecients. For granular ows,
you will also need to specify the restitution coecient(s) for particle collisions. It is also
possible to include an optional lift force and/or virtual mass force (described below) for
both granular and nongranular ows.
To specify these parameters, click Interaction... to open the Phase Interaction panel (Fig-
ure 23.12.3).
Figure 23.12.3: The Phase Interaction Panel for the Eulerian Model
Specifying the Drag Function
FLUENT allows you to specify a drag function for each pair of phases. Perform the
following steps:
1. Click the Drag tab to display the Drag Function inputs.
2. For each pair of phases, select the appropriate drag function from the corresponding
drop-down list.
Select schiller-naumann to use the uid-uid drag function described by Equa-
tion 23.5-18. The Schiller and Naumann model is the default method, and it
is acceptable for general use in all uid-uid multiphase calculations.
Select morsi-alexander to use the uid-uid drag function described by Equa-
tion 23.5-22. The Morsi and Alexander model is the most complete, adjusting
the function denition frequently over a large range of Reynolds numbers, but
calculations with this model may be less stable than with the other models.
Select symmetric to use the uid-uid drag function described by
Equation 23.5-27. The symmetric model is recommended for ows in which
the secondary (dispersed) phase in one region of the domain becomes the
primary (continuous) phase in another. For example, if air is injected into the
bottom of a container lled halfway with water, the air is the dispersed phase
in the bottom half of the container; in the top half of the container, the air is
the continuous phase.
Select wen-yu to use the uid-solid drag function described by Equation 23.5-39.
The Wen and Yu model is applicable for dilute phase ows, in which the total
secondary phase volume fraction is signicantly lower than that of the primary
phase.
Select gidaspow to use the uid-solid drag function described by
Equation 23.5-41. The Gidaspow model is recommended for dense uidized
beds.
Select syamlal-obrien to use the uid-solid drag function described by Equa-
tion 23.5-31. The Syamlal-OBrien model is recommended for use in conjunc-
tion with the Syamlal-OBrien model for granular viscosity.
Select syamlal-obrien-symmetric to use the solid-solid drag function described
by Equation 23.5-43. The symmetric Syamlal-OBrien model is appropriate
for a pair of solid phases.
Select constant to specify a constant value for the drag function, and then
specify the value in the text eld.
Select user-dened to use a user-dened function for the drag function (see the
separate UDF Manual for details).
If you want to temporarily ignore the interaction between two phases, select
none.
Specifying the Restitution Coefcients (Granular Flow Only)
For granular ows, you need to specify the coecients of restitution for collisions between
particles (e
ls
in Equation 23.5-43 and e
ss
in Equation 23.5-44). In addition to specifying
the restitution coecient for collisions between each pair of granular phases, you will also
specify the restitution coecient for collisions between particles of the same phase.
Perform the following steps:
1. Click the Collisions tab to display the Restitution Coecient inputs.
2. For each pair of phases, specify a constant restitution coecient. All restitution
coecients are equal to 0.9 by default.
Including the Lift Force
For both granular and nongranular ows, it is possible to include the eect of lift forces
(
F
lift
in Equation 23.5-8) on the secondary phase particles, droplets, or bubbles. These
lift forces act on a particle, droplet, or bubble mainly due to velocity gradients in the
primary-phase ow eld. In most cases, the lift force is insignicant compared to the
drag force, so there is no reason to include it. If the lift force is signicant (e.g., if the
phases separate quickly), you may want to include this eect.
i
Note that the lift force will be more signicant for larger particles, but the
FLUENT model assumes that the particle diameter is much smaller than the
interparticle spacing. Thus, the inclusion of lift forces is not appropriate
for closely packed particles or for very small particles.
To include the eect of lift forces, perform the following steps:
1. Click the Lift tab to display the Lift Coecient inputs.
2. For each pair of phases, select the appropriate specication method from the cor-
responding drop-down list. Note that, since the lift forces for a particle, droplet, or
bubble are due mainly to velocity gradients in the primary-phase ow eld, you will
not specify lift coecients for pairs consisting of two secondary phases; lift coe-
cients are specied only for pairs consisting of a secondary phase and the primary
phase.
Select none (the default) to ignore the eect of lift forces.
Select constant to specify a constant lift coecient, and then specify the value
in the text eld.
Select user-dened to use a user-dened function for the lift coecient (see the
separate UDF Manual for details).
Including the Virtual Mass Force
For both granular and nongranular ows, it is possible to include the virtual mass force
(
F
vm
in Equation 23.5-9) that is present when a secondary phase accelerates relative to the
primary phase. The virtual mass eect is signicant when the secondary phase density
is much smaller than the primary phase density (e.g., for a transient bubble column).
To include the eect of the virtual mass force, turn on the Virtual Mass option in the
Phase Interaction panel. The virtual mass eect will be included for all secondary phases;
it is not possible to enable it just for a particular phase.
23.12.3 Modeling Turbulence
If you are using the Eulerian model to solve a turbulent ow, you will need to choose
one of turbulence models described in Section 23.5.10: Turbulence Models in the Viscous
Model panel (Figure 23.12.4).
Figure 23.12.4: The Viscous Model Panel for an Eulerian Multiphase Calcu-
lation
The procedure is as follows:
1. Select either k-epsilon or Reynolds Stress under Model.
2. Select the desired k-epsilon Model or RSM Multiphase Model and any other related
parameters, as described for single-phase calculations in Section 12.12: Steps in
Using a Turbulence Model.
3. Under k-epsilon Multiphase Model or RSM Multiphase Model, indicate the desired
multiphase turbulence model (see Section 23.5.10: Turbulence Models for details
about each):
Select Mixture to use the mixture turbulence model. This is the default model.
Select Dispersed to use the dispersed turbulence model. This model is ap-
plicable when there is clearly one primary continuous phase and the rest are
dispersed dilute secondary phases.
Select Per Phase to use a k- turbulence model for each phase. This model is
appropriate when the turbulence transfer among the phases plays a dominant
role.
Including Source Terms
By default, the interphase momentum, k, and sources are not included in the calcula-
tion. If you want to include any of these source terms, you can enable them using the
multiphase-options command in the define/models/viscous/multiphase-turbulence/
text menu. Note that the inclusion of these terms can slow down convergence noticeably.
If you are looking for additional accuracy, you may want to compute a solution rst
without these sources, and then continue the calculation with these terms included. In
most cases these terms can be neglected.
Customizing the k- Multiphase Turbulent Viscosity
If you are using the k- multiphase turbulence model, a user-dened function can be
used to customize the turbulent viscosity for each phase. This option will enable you to
modify
t
in the k- model. For more information, see the separate UDF Manual.
In the Viscous Model panel, under User-Dened Functions, select the appropriate user-
dened function in the Turbulent Viscosity drop-down list.
23.12.4 Including Heat Transfer Effects
To dene heat transfer in a multiphase Eulerian simulation, you will need to visit the
Phase Interaction panel, after you have turned on the energy equation in the Energy panel.
Dene Phases...
1. Click the Interaction... button to open the Phase Interaction panel (e.g., Fig-
ure 23.12.5).
Figure 23.12.5: The Phase Interaction Panel for Heat Transfer
2. Click on the Heat tab in the Phase Interaction panel.
3. Select the desired correlation for the Heat Transfer Coecient. Note the following
regarding the available choices:
gunn is frequently used for Eulerian multiphase simulations involving a granular
phase.
ranz-marshall is frequently used for Eulerian multiphase simulations not involv-
ing a granular phase.
none allows you to ignore the eects of heat transfer between the two phases
user-dened allows you to implement a correlation reecting a model of your
choice, through a user-dened function.
4. Set the appropriate thermal boundary conditions. You will specify the thermal
boundary conditions for each individual phase on most boundaries, and for the
mixture on some boundaries. See Chapter 7: Boundary Conditions for more in-
formation on boundary conditions, and Section 23.9.8: Eulerian Model for more
information on specifying boundary conditions for a Eulerian multiphase calcula-
tion.
See Section 23.5.9: Description of Heat Transfer for more information on heat transfer in
the framework of a Eulerian multiphase simulation.
You can model compressible multiphase ows, and can use it in conjunction with the
energy multiphase equations and available multiphase turbulence models. When using
the Eulerian multiphase model for a compressible ow, note the following:
While you can specify both compressible gas phases and compressible liquid phases,
you can only dene one of the phases as a compressible ideal gas (i.e., you can select
the ideal-gas for the density in the Materials panel of only one phases material).
There is no limitation on using compressible liquids using user-dened functions.
You can dene only one compressible uid phase.
individual phase.
fan), FLUENT will use the specied value for temperature at that boundary as
total temperature for the compressible phase, and as static temperature for the
other phases (which are incompressible).
i
more information on dening conditions for a mass ow inlet in Eulerian
multiphase calculations.
23.13 Setting Up the Wet Steam Model
Once you have enabled either of the density-based solvers in FLUENT, you can activate the
wet steam model (see Section 23.6: Wet Steam Model Theory) by opening the Multiphase
panel and selecting the Wet Steam option.
Figure 23.13.1: The Multiphase Model Panel with the Wet Steam Model Ac-
tivated
This section includes information about using your own property functions and data with
the wet steam model. Solution settings and strategies for the wet steam model can be
found in Section 23.14.5: Wet Steam Model. Postprocessing variables are described in
Section 23.15.1: Model-Specic Variables.
23.13.1 Using User-Dened Thermodynamic Wet Steam Properties
FLUENT allows you to use your own property functions and data with the wet steam
model. This is achieved with user-dened wet steam property functions (UDWSPF).
These user-dened functions are written in the C programming language and there is a
certain programming format that must be used so that you can build a successful library
that can be loaded into the FLUENT code.
The following is the procedure for using the user-dened wet steam property functions
(UDWSPF):
1. Dene the wet steam equation of state and all related thermodynamic and transport
property equations.
2. Create a C source code le that conforms to the format dened in this section.
3. Start FLUENT and set up your case le in the usual way.
4. Turn on the wet steam model.
5. Compile your UDWSPF C functions and build a shared library le using the text
user interface.
wet-steam compile-user-defined-wetsteam-functions
6. Load your newly created UDWSPF library using the text user interface.
wet-steam load-unload-user-defined-wetsteam-library
7. Run your calculation.
i
Note that the UDWSPF can only be used when the wet steam model is
activated. Therefore, the UDWSPF are available for use with the density-
based solver only.
23.13.2 Writing the User-Dened Wet Steam Property Functions (UDWSPF)
Creating a UDWSPF C function library is reasonably straightforward:
The code must contain the udf.h le inclusion directive at the beginning of the
source code. This allows the denitions for DEFINE macros and other FLUENT
functions to be accessible during the compilation process.
The code must include at least one of the UDFs DEFINE functions
(i.e. DEFINE ON DEMAND) to be able to use the compiled UDFs utility.
Any values that are passed to the solver by the UDWSPF or returned by the solver
to the UDWSPF are assumed to be in SI units.
You must use the principle set of user-dened wet steam property functions in
your UDWSPF library, as described in the list that follows. These functions are
the mechanism by which your thermodynamic property data is transferred to the
FLUENT solver.
The following lists the user-dened wet steam property function names and arguments,
as well as a short description of their functions. Function inputs from the FLUENT solver
consist of one or more of the following variables: T = temperature (K), P = pressure
(Pa), and = vapor-phase density (kg/m
3
).
void wetst init(Domain *domain)
This will be called when you load the UDWSPF. You use it to initialize wet steam
model constants or your own model constants. It returns nothing.
real wetst satP(real T)
This is the saturated pressure function, which takes on temperature in K and
returns saturation pressure in Pa.
real wetst satT(real P, real T)
This is the saturated temperature function, which takes on pressure in Pa and a
starting guess temperature in K and returns saturation temperature in K.
real wetst eosP(real rho, real T)
This is the equation of state, which takes on vapor density in kg/m
3
and Temper-
ature in K and returns pressure in Pa.
real wetst eosRHO(real P, real T)
This is the equation of state, which takes on pressure in Pa and temperature in K
and returns vapor density in kg/m
3
.
real wetst cpv(real T, real rho)
This is the vapor specic heat at constant pressure, which takes on temperature
in K and vapor density in kg/m
3
and returns specic heat at constant pressure in
J/kg/K.
real wetst cvv(real T, real rho)
This is the vapor specic heat at constant volume, which takes on temperature
in K and vapor density in kg/m
3
and returns specic heat at constant volume in
J/kg/K.
real wetst hv(real T,real rho)
This is the vapor specic enthalpy, which takes on temperature in K and vapor
density in kg/m
3
and returns specic enthalpy in J/Kg.
real wetst sv(real T, real rho)
This is the vapor specic entropy, which takes on temperature in K and vapor
density in kg/m
3
and returns specic entropy in J/Kg/K.
real wetst muv(real T, real rho)
This is the vapor dynamic viscosity, which takes on temperature in K and vapor
density in kg/m
3
and returns viscosity in kg/m/s.
real wetst ktv(real T, real rho)
This is the vapor thermal conductivity, which takes on temperature in K and vapor
density in kg/m
3
and returns thermal conductivity in W/m/K.
real wetst rhol(real T)
This is the saturated liquid density, which takes on temperature in K and returns
liquid density in kg/m
3
.
real wetst cpl(real T)
This is the saturated liquid specic heat at constant pressure, which takes on tem-
perature in K and returns liquid specic heat in J/kg/K.
real wetst mul(real T)
This is the liquid dynamic viscosity, which takes on Temperature in K and returns
dynamic viscosity in kg/m/s.
real wetst ktl(real T)
This is the liquid thermal conductivity, which takes on temperature in K and returns
thermal conductivity in W/m/K.
real wetst surft(real T)
This is the liquid surface tension, which takes on Temperature in K and returns
surface tension N/m.
At the end of the code you must dene a structure of type WS Functions whose mem-
bers are pointers to the principle functions listed previously. The structure is of type
WS Functions and its name is WetSteamFunctionList.
UDF_EXPORT WS_Functions WetSteamFunctionList =
{
wetst_init, /*initialization function*/
wetst_satP, /*Saturation pressure*/
wetst_satT, /*Saturation temperature*/
wetst_eosP, /*equation of state*/
wetst_eosRHO, /*equation of state*/
wetst_hv, /*vapor enthalpy*/
wetst_sv, /*vapor entropy*/
wetst_cpv, /*vapor isobaric specific heat*/
wetst_cvv, /*vapor isochoric specific heat*/
wetst_muv, /*vapor dynamic viscosity*/
wetst_ktv, /*vapor thermal conductivity*/
wetst_rhol, /*sat. liquid density*/
wetst_cpl, /*sat. liquid specific heat*/
wetst_mul, /*sat. liquid viscosity*/
wetst_ktl, /*sat. liquid thermal conductivity*/
wetst_surft /*liquid surface tension*/
};
23.13.3 Compiling Your UDWSPF and Building a Shared Library File
This section presents the steps you will need to follow to compile your UDWSPF C code
and build a shared library le. This process requires the use of a C compiler. Most UNIX
operating systems provide a C compiler as a standard feature. If you are using a PC,
you will need to ensure that a C ++ compiler is installed before you can proceed (e.g.,
Microsoft Visual C ++, v6.0 or higher).
i
To use the UDWSPF you will need to rst build the UDWSPF library
by compiling your UDWSPF C code and then loading the library into the
FLUENT code.
The UDWSPF shared library is built in the same way that the FLUENT executable itself
is built. Internally, a script called Makefile is used to invoke the system C compiler
to build an object code library that contains the native machine language translation of
your higher-level C source code. This shared library is then loaded into FLUENT (either
at runtime or automatically when a case le is read) by a process called dynamic loading.
The object libraries are specic to the computer architecture being used, as well as to the
particular version of the FLUENT executable being run. The libraries must, therefore,
be rebuilt any time FLUENT is upgraded, when the computers operating system level
changes, or when the job is run on a dierent type of computer.
The general procedure for compiling UDWSPF C code is as follows:
Place the UDWSPF C code in your working directory (i.e., where your case le
resides).
Launch FLUENT.
Read your case le into FLUENT.
You can now compile your UDWSPF C code and build a shared library le using
the commands provided in the text command interface (TUI):
Select the define/models/multiphase/wet-steam menu item
define models multiphase wet-steam
Select the compile-user-defined-wetsteam-functions option.
Enter the compiled UDWSPF library name.
The name given here is the name of the directory where the shared library
(e.g., libudf) will reside. For example, if you hit <Enter> then a directory
should exist with the name libudf, and this directory will contain library le
called libudf. If, however, you type a new library name such as mywetsteam,
then a directory called mywetsteam will be created and it will contain the
library libudf.
Continue on with the procedure when prompted.
Enter the C source le names.
i
Ideally you should place all of your functions into a single le. However,
you can split them into separate les if desired.
Enter the header le names, if applicable. If you do not have an extra header
le, then press <Enter> when prompted.
FLUENT will then start compiling the UDWSPF C code and put it in the
appropriate architecture directory.
23.13.4 Loading the UDWSPF Shared Library File
To load the UDWSPF library, perform the following steps:
Go to the define/models/multiphase/wet-steam menu item in the text user
interface.
define models multiphase wet-steam
Select the load-unload-user-defined-wetsteam-library option and follow the
procedure when prompted.
If the loading of the UDWSPF library is successful, you will see a message similar
to the following:
Opening user-defined wet steam library "libudf"...
Library "libudf/lnx86/2d/libudf.so" opened
Setting material properties to Wet-Steam...
Initializing user defined material properties...
23.13.5 UDWSPF Example
This section describe a simple UDWSPF. You can use this example as a the basis for your
own UDWSPF code. For approximate calculations at low pressure, the simple ideal-gas
equation of state and constant isobaric specic heat is assumed and used. The properties
at the saturated liquid line and the saturated vapor line used in this example are similar
to the one used by FLUENT.
/**********************************************************************/
/* User Defined Wet Steam Properties:
EOS : Ideal Gas Eq.
Vapor Sat. Line : W.C.Reynolds tables (1979)
Liquid Sat. Line: E. Eckert & R. Drake book (1972)
Use ideal-gas EOS with Steam properties
to model wet steam condensation in low pressure nozzle
Author: L. Zori
Date : Jan. 29 2004
*/
/**********************************************************************/
#include "udf.h"
#include "stdio.h"
#include "ctype.h"
#include "stdarg.h"
/*Global Constants for this model*/
real ws_TPP = 338.150 ;
real ws_aaa = 0.01 ;
real cpg = 1882.0 ;/* Cp-vapor at low-pressure region*/
DEFINE_ON_DEMAND(I_do_nothing)
{
/* This is a dummy function to allow us to use */
/* the Compiled UDFs utility */
}
void
wetst_init(Domain *domain)
{
/*
You must initialize these material property constants..
they will be used in the wet steam model in fluent
*/
ws_Tc = 647.286 ;/*Critical Temp. */
ws_Pc = 22089000.00 ;/*Critical Pressure */
mw_f = 18.016 ;/*fluid droplet molecular weight (water) */
Rgas_v = 461.50 ;/*vapor Gas Const*/
}
real
wetst_satP(real T)
{
real psat ;
real SUM=0.0;
real pratio;
real F ;
real a1 = -7.41924200 ;
real a2 = 2.97210000E-01 ;
real a3 = -1.15528600E-01 ;
real a4 = 8.68563500E-03 ;
real a5 = 1.09409899E-03 ;
real a6 = -4.39993000E-03 ;
real a7 = 2.52065800E-03 ;
real a8 = -5.21868400E-04 ;
if (T > ws_Tc) T = ws_Tc ;
F = ws_aaa*(T - ws_TPP) ;
SUM = a1 + F*(a2+ F*(a3+ F*(a4+ F*(a5+ F*(a6+ F*(a7+ F*a8)))))) ;
pratio = (ws_Tc/T - 1.0)*SUM;
psat = ws_Pc *exp(pratio) ;
return psat; /*Pa */
}
real
wetst_satT(real P, real T)
{
real tsat ;
real dT, dTA,dTM,dP,p1,p2,dPdT;
int i ;
for (i=0; i<25; ++i)
{
if (T > ws_Tc) T = ws_Tc-0.5;
p1= wetst_satP(T) ;
p2= wetst_satP(T+0.1) ;
dPdT = (p2-p1)/0.1 ;
dP = P - p1 ;
dT = dP/dPdT ;
dTA = fabs(dT);
dTM = 0.1*T ;
if (dTA > dTM) dT=dT*dTM/dTA ;
T = T + dT;
if (fabs(dT) < TEMP_eps*T) break;
}
tsat = T;
return tsat; /*K */
}
real
wetst_eosP(real rho, real T)
{
real P ;
P = rho* Rgas_v * T ;
return P; /*Pa */
}
real
wetst_eosRHO(real P, real T)
{
real rho ;
rho = P/(Rgas_v * T) ;
return rho; /*kg/m3 */
}
real
wetst_cpv(real T, real rho)
{
real cp;
cp = cpg ;
return cp; /* (J/Kg/K) */
}
real
wetst_cvv(real T, real rho)
{
real cv;
cv = wetst_cpv(T,rho) - Rgas_v ;
return cv; /* (J/Kg/K) */
}
real
wetst_hv(real T,real rho)
{
real h;
h = T* wetst_cpv(T,rho) ;
return h; /* (J/Kg) */
}
real
wetst_sv(real T, real rho)
{
real s ;
real TDatum=288.15;
real PDatum=1.01325e5;
s=wetst_cpv(T,rho)*log(T/TDatum)+
Rgas_v*log(PDatum/(Rgas_v*T*rho));
return s; /* (J/Kg/K) */
}
real
wetst_muv(real T, real rho)
{
real muv ;
muv=1.7894e-05 ;
return muv; /* (Kg/m/s) */
}
real
wetst_ktv(real T, real rho)
{
real ktv ;
ktv=0.0242 ;
return ktv; /* W/m/K */
}
real
wetst_rhol(real T)
{
real rhol;
real SUM = 0.0 ;
int ii ;
int i ;
real rhoc = 317.0 ;
real D[8] ;
D[0] = 3.6711257 ;
D[1] = -2.8512396E+01 ;
D[2] = 2.2265240E+02 ;
D[3] = -8.8243852E+02 ;
D[4] = 2.0002765E+03 ;
D[5] = -2.6122557E+03 ;
D[6] = 1.8297674E+03 ;
D[7] = -5.3350520E+02 ;
for(ii=0;ii < 8;++ii)
{
i = ii+1 ;
SUM += D[ii] * pow((1.0 - T/ws_Tc), i/3.0) ;
}
rhol = rhoc*(1.0+SUM);
return rhol; /* (Kg/m3) */
}
real
wetst_cpl(real T)
{
real cpl;
real a1= -36571.6 ;
real a2= 555.217 ;
real a3= -2.96724 ;
real a4= 0.00778551;
real a5= -1.00561e-05;
real a6= 5.14336E-09;
cpl = a1 + T*(a2+ T*(a3+ T*(a4+ T*(a5+ T*a6)))) ;
return cpl; /* (J/Kg/K) */
}
real
wetst_mul(real T)
{
real mul ;
real a1= 0.530784;
real a2= -0.00729561;
real a3= 4.16604E-05 ;
real a4= -1.26258E-07;
real a5= 2.13969E-10;
real a6= -1.92145E-13;
real a7= 7.14092E-17;
mul = a1 + T*(a2+ T*(a3+ T*(a4+ T*(a5+ T*(a6+ T*a7))))) ;
return mul; /* (Kg/m/s) */
}
real
wetst_ktl(real T)
{
real ktl ;
real a1= -1.17633;
real a2= 0.00791645;
real a3= 1.48603E-05;
real a4= -1.31689E-07;
real a5= 2.47590E-10;
real a6= -1.55638E-13;
ktl = a1 + T*(a2+ T*(a3+ T*(a4+ T*(a5+ T*a6)))) ;
return ktl; /* W/m/K */
}
real
wetst_surft(real T)
{
real sigma ;
real Tr ;
real a1= 82.27 ;
real a2= 75.612 ;
real a3= -256.889 ;
real a4= 95.928 ;
Tr = T/ws_Tc ;
sigma = 0.001*(a1 + Tr*(a2+ Tr*(a3+ Tr*a4))) ;
return sigma ;/* N/m */
}
/* do not change the order of the function list */
UDF_EXPORT WS_Functions WetSteamFunctionList =
{
wetst_init, /*initialization function*/
wetst_satP, /*Saturation pressure*/
wetst_satT, /*Saturation temperature*/
wetst_eosP, /*equation of state*/
wetst_eosRHO, /*equation of state*/
wetst_hv, /*vapor enthalpy*/
wetst_sv, /*vapor entropy*/
wetst_cpv, /*vapor isobaric specific heat*/
wetst_cvv, /*vapor isochoric specific heat*/
wetst_muv, /*vapor dynamic viscosity*/
wetst_ktv, /*vapor thermal conductivity*/
wetst_rhol, /*sat. liquid density*/
wetst_cpl, /*sat. liquid specific heat*/
wetst_mul, /*sat. liquid viscosity*/
wetst_ktl, /*sat. liquid thermal conductivity*/
wetst_surft /*liquid surface tension*/
};
/**********************************************************************/
23.14 Solution Strategies for Multiphase Modeling
23.14.1 Setting Initial Volume Fractions
Once you have initialized the ow (as described in Section 25.14: Initializing the Solution),
you can dene the initial distribution of the phases. For a transient simulation, this dis-
tribution will serve as the initial condition at t = 0; for a steady-state simulation, setting
an initial distribution can provide added stability in the early stages of the calculation.
You can patch an initial volume fraction for each secondary phase using the Patch panel.
Solve Initialize Patch...
If the region in which you want to patch the volume fraction is dened as a separate
cell zone, you can simply patch the value there. Otherwise, you can create a cell reg-
ister that contains the appropriate cells and patch the value in the register. See Sec-
tion 25.14.2: Patching Values in Selected Cells for details.
Solution strategies for the VOF, mixture, and Eulerian models are provided in Sec-
tions 23.14.2, 23.14.3, and 23.14.4, respectively.
23.14.2 VOF Model
Several recommendations for improving the accuracy and convergence of the VOF solu-
tion are presented here.
Setting the Reference Pressure Location
The site of the reference pressure can be moved to a location that will result in less round-
o in the pressure calculation. By default, the reference pressure location is the center
of the cell at or closest to the point (0,0,0). You can move this location by specifying a
new Reference Pressure Location in the Operating Conditions panel.
The position that you choose should be in a region that will always contain the least
dense of the uids (e.g., the gas phase, if you have a gas phase and one or more liquid
phases). This is because variations in the static pressure are larger in a more dense
uid than in a less dense uid, given the same velocity distribution. If the zero of the
relative pressure eld is in a region where the pressure variations are small, less round-o
will occur than if the variations occur in a eld of large nonzero values. Thus in systems
containing air and water, for example, it is important that the reference pressure location
be in the portion of the domain lled with air rather than that lled with water.
Pressure Interpolation Scheme
For all VOF calculations, you should use the body-force-weighted pressure interpolation
scheme or the PRESTO! scheme.
Discretization Scheme Selection for the Implicit and Explicit Formulations
When the implicit scheme is used, the available options for Volume Fraction Discretization
are
First Order Upwind
Second Order upwind
Modied HRIC
QUICK
When the explicit scheme is used, the available options for Volume Fraction Discretization
are
Geo-Reconstruct
CICSAM
Modied HRIC
QUICK
When using the explicit scheme, First Order Upwind, Second Order upwind, and Donor-
Acceptor can be made available under Volume Fraction Discretization by using the following
text command:
solve set expert
You will be asked a series of questions, one of which is
Allow selection of all applicable discretization schemes? [no]
to which you will respond yes.
i
You are encouraged to use the CICSAM scheme, as it gives a sharper
interface than the modied HRIC scheme.
i
In VOF modeling, using a high-order discretization scheme for the momen-
tum transport equations may reduce the stability of the solution compared
to cases using rst-order discretization. In such situations, it is recom-
mended to use a low-order variant of Rhie-Chow face ux interpolation,
which can be turned on using the text command:
solve set numerics
When asked to disable high order Rhie-Chow flux?[no], enter yes.
Pressure-Velocity Coupling and Under-Relaxation for the Time-dependent
Formulations
Another change that you should make to the solver settings is in the pressure-velocity
coupling scheme and under-relaxation factors that you use. The PISO scheme is recom-
mended for transient calculations in general. Using PISO allows for increased values on
all under-relaxation factors, without a loss of solution stability. You can generally in-
crease the under-relaxation factors for all variables to 1 and expect stability and a rapid
rate of convergence (in the form of few iterations required per time step). For calculations
on tetrahedral or triangular meshes, an under-relaxation factor of 0.70.8 for pressure is
recommended for improved stability with the PISO scheme.
As with any FLUENT simulation, the under-relaxation factors will need to be decreased
if the solution exhibits unstable, divergent behavior with the under-relaxation factors set
to 1. Reducing the time step is another way to improve the stability.
Under-Relaxation for the Steady-State Formulation
If you are using the steady-state implicit VOF scheme, the under-relaxation factors for
all variables should be set to values between 0.2 and 0.5 for improved stability.
23.14.3 Mixture Model
Setting the Under-Relaxation Factor for the Slip Velocity
You should begin the mixture calculation with a low under-relaxation factor for the slip
velocity. A value of 0.2 or less is recommended. If the solution shows good convergence
behavior, you can increase this value gradually.
Calculating an Initial Solution
For some cases (e.g., cyclone separation), you may be able to obtain a solution more
quickly if you compute an initial solution without solving the volume fraction and slip
velocity equations. Once you have set up the mixture model, you can temporarily disable
these equations and compute an initial solution.
In the Solution Controls panel, deselect Volume Fraction and Slip Velocity in the Equations
list. You can then compute the initial ow eld. Once a converged ow eld is obtained,
turn the Volume Fraction and Slip Velocity equations back on again, and compute the
mixture solution.
23.14.4 Eulerian Model
Calculating an Initial Solution
To improve convergence behavior, you may want to compute an initial solution before
solving the complete Eulerian multiphase model. There are three methods you can use
to obtain an initial solution for an Eulerian multiphase calculation:
Set up and solve the problem using the mixture model (with slip velocities) instead
of the Eulerian model. You can then enable the Eulerian model, complete the
setup, and continue the calculation using the mixture-model solution as a starting
point.
Set up the Eulerian multiphase calculation as usual, but compute the ow for only
the primary phase. To do this, deselect Volume Fraction in the Equations list in the
Solution Controls panel. Once you have obtained an initial solution for the primary
phase, turn the volume fraction equations back on and continue the calculation for
all phases.
Use the mass ow inlet boundary condition to initialize the ow conditions. It is
recommended that you set the value of the volume fraction close to the value of
the volume fraction at the inlet.
i
You should not try to use a single-phase solution obtained without the
mixture or Eulerian model as a starting point for an Eulerian multiphase
calculation. Doing so will not improve convergence, and may make it even
more dicult for the ow to converge.
Temporarily Ignoring Lift and Virtual Mass Forces
If you are planning to include the eects of lift and/or virtual mass forces in a steady-state
Eulerian multiphase simulation, you can often reduce stability problems that sometimes
occur in the early stages of the calculation by temporarily ignoring the action of the lift
and the virtual mass forces. Once the solution without these forces starts to converge,
you can interrupt the calculation, dene these forces appropriately, and continue the
calculation.
Using W-Cycle Multigrid
For problems involving a packed-bed granular phase with very small particle sizes (on
the order of 10 m), convergence can be obtained by using the W-cycle multigrid for the
pressure. Under Fixed Cycle Parameters in the Multigrid Controls panel, you may need to
use higher values for Pre-Sweeps, Post-Sweeps, and Max Cycles. When you are choosing
the values for these parameters, you should also increase the Verbosity to 1 in order to
monitor the AMG performance; i.e., to make sure that the pressure equation is solved to
a desired level of convergence within the AMG solver during each global iteration. See
Section 23.12.2: Dening the Phases for the Eulerian Model for more information about
granular phases, and Sections 25.6.2 and 25.22.3 for details about multigrid cycles.
23.14.5 Wet Steam Model
Boundary Conditions, Initialization, and Patching
When you use the wet steam model (described in Section 23.6: Wet Steam Model Theory
and Section 23.13: Setting Up the Wet Steam Model), the following two eld variables
will show up in the inow, outow boundary panels, and in the Solution Initialization and
Patch panels.
Liquid Mass Fraction (or the wetness factor)
In general, for dry steam entering ow boundaries the wetness factor is zero.
Log10(Droplets Per Unit Volume)
In general this value is set to zero, indicating zero droplets entering the domain.
Solution Limits for the Wet Steam Model
When you activate the wet steam model for the rst time, a message is displayed indicat-
ing that the Minimum Static Temperature should be adjusted to 273 K since the accuracy
of the built-in steam data is not guaranteed below a value of 273 K. If you use your own
steam property functions, you can adjust this limit to whatever is permissible for your
data.
To adjust the temperature limits, go to the Solution Limits panel.
Solve Controls Limits...
The default maximum wetness factor or liquid mass fraction () is set to 0.1. In general,
during the convergence process, it is common that this limit will be reached, but even-
tually the wetness factor will drop below the value of 0.1. However, in cases where the
limit must be adjusted, you can do so using the text user interface.
define models multiphase wet-steam set
max-liquid-mass-fraction
i
Note that the maximum wetness factor should not be set beyond 0.2 since
the present model assumes a low wetness factor. When the wetness factor is
greater than 0.1, the solution tends to be less stable due to the large source
terms in the transport equations. Thus, the maximum wetness factor has
been set to a default value of 0.1, which corresponds to the fact that most
nozzle and turbine ows will have a wetness factor less that 0.1.
Solution Strategies for the Wet Steam Model
If you face convergence diculties while solving wet steam ow, try to initially lower
the CFL value and use rst-order discretization schemes for the solution. If you are still
unable to obtain a converged solution, then try the following solver settings:
1. Lower the under-relaxation factor for the wet steam equation below the current set
value. The under-relaxation factor can be found in the Solution Controls panel.
2. Solve for an initial solution with no condensation. Once you have obtained a proper
initial solution, turn on the condensation.
To turn condensation on or o, go to the Solution Controls panel.
In the Solution Controls panel, deselect Wet Steam in the Equations list. When
doing so, you are preventing condensation from taking place while still computing
the ow based on steam properties. Once a converged ow eld is obtained, turn
the Wet Steam equation back on again and compute the mixture solution.
23.15 Postprocessing for Multiphase Modeling
Each of the three general multiphase models provides a number of additional eld func-
tions that you can plot or report. You can also report ow rates for individual phases
for all three models, and display velocity vectors for the individual phases in a mixture
or Eulerian calculation.
Information about these postprocessing topics is provided in the following subsections:
Section 23.15.1: Model-Specic Variables
Section 23.15.2: Displaying Velocity Vectors
Section 23.15.3: Reporting Fluxes
Section 23.15.4: Reporting Forces on Walls
Section 23.15.5: Reporting Flow Rates
23.15.1 Model-Specic Variables
When you use one of the general multiphase models, some additional eld functions
will be available for postprocessing, as listed in this section. Most eld functions that
are available in single phase calculations will be available for either the mixture or each
individual phase, as appropriate for the general multiphase model and specic options
that you are using. See Chapter 30: Field Function Denitions for a complete list of eld
functions and their denitions. Chapters 28 and 29 explain how to generate graphics
displays and reports of data.
VOF Model
For VOF calculations you can generate graphical plots or alphanumeric reports of the
following additional item:
Volume fraction (in the Phases... category)
This item is available for each phase.
The variables that are not phase specic are available (e.g., variables in the Pressure... and
Velocity... categories) represent mixture quantities. Thermal quantities will be available
only for calculations that include the energy equation.
Mixture Model
For calculations with the mixture model, you can generate graphical plots or alphanu-
meric reports of the following additional items:
Diameter (in the Properties... category)
This item is available only for secondary phases.
The variables that are not phase specic are available (e.g., variables in the Pressure...
category) represent mixture quantities. Thermal quantities will be available only for
calculations that include the energy equation.
Eulerian Model
For Eulerian multiphase calculations you can generate graphical plots or alphanumeric
reports of the following additional items:
Diameter (in the Properties... category)
This item is available only for secondary phases.
Granular Conductivity (in the Properties... category)
This item is available only for granular phases.
Granular Pressure (in the Granular Pressure... category)
Granular Temperature (in the Granular Temperature... category)
The availability of turbulence quantities will depend on which multiphase turbulence
model you used in the calculation. Thermal quantities will be available (on a per-phase
basis) only for calculations that include the energy equation.
Multiphase Species Transport
For calculations using species transport with either of the multiphase models, you can
generate graphical plots or alphanumeric reports of the following additional items:
Mass Fraction of species-n (in the Species... category)
This item is available for each species.
Mole Fraction of species-n (in the Species... category)
Molar Concentration of species-n (in the Species... category)
Lam. Di Coe of species-n (in the Species... category)
E. Di. Coe. of species-n (in the Species... category)
Enthalpy of species-n (in the Species... category)
Relative Humidity (in the Species... category).
Turbulent Rate of Reaction-n (in the Reactions... category)
Rate of Reaction (in the Reactions... category).
Mass Transfer Rate n (in the Phase Interaction... category)
This item is available for each mass transfer mechanism that you dened.
Thermal quantities will be available only for calculations that include the energy equation.
Wet Steam Model
FLUENT provides a wide range of postprocessing information related to the wet steam
model.
The wet steam related items can be found in Wet Steam.... category of the variable
selection drop-down list that appears in the postprocessing panels.
Liquid Mass Fraction
Liquid Mass Generation Rate
Log10(Droplets Per Unit Volume)
Log10(Droplets Nucleation Rate)
Steam Density (Gas-Phase)
Liquid Density (Liquid-Phase)
Mixture Density
Saturation Ratio
Saturation Pressure
Saturation Temperature
Subcooled Vapor Temperature
Droplet Surface Tension
Droplet Critical Radius (microns)
Droplet Average Radius (microns)
Droplet Growth Rate (microns/s)
23.15.2 Displaying Velocity Vectors
For mixture and Eulerian calculations, it is possible to display velocity vectors for the
individual phases using the Vectors panel.
Display Vectors...
To display the velocity of a particular phase, select Velocity in the Vectors Of drop-
down list, and then select the desired phase in the Phase drop-down list. You can also
choose Relative Velocity to display the phase velocity relative to a moving reference frame.
To display the mixture velocity v
m
(relevant for mixture model calculations only), select
Velocity (or Relative Velocity for the mixture velocity relative to a moving reference frame),
and mixture as the Phase. Note that you can color vectors by values of any available
variable, for any phase you dened. To do so, make the appropriate selections in the
Color by and following Phase drop-down lists.
23.15.3 Reporting Fluxes
When you use the Flux Reports panel to compute uxes through boundaries, you will be
able to specify whether the report is for the mixture or for an individual phase.
Report Fluxes...
Select mixture in the Phase drop-down list at the bottom of the panel to report uxes for
the mixture, or select the name of a phase to report uxes just for that phase.
23.15.4 Reporting Forces on Walls
For Eulerian calculations, when you use the Force Reports panel to compute forces or
moments on wall boundaries, you will be able to specify the individual phase for which
you want to compute the forces.
Report Forces...
Select the name of the desired phase in the Phase drop-down list on the left side of the
panel.
23.15.5 Reporting Flow Rates
You can obtain a report of mass ow rate for each phase (and the mixture) through each
ow boundary using the report/mass-flow text command:
report mass-flow
When you specify the phase of interest (the mixture or an individual phase), FLUENT
will list each zone, followed by the mass ow rate through that zone for the specied
phase. An example is shown below.
/report> mf
(mixture water air)
domain id/name [mixture] air
zone 10 (spiral-press-outlet): -1.2330244
zone 3 (pressure-outlet): -9.7560663
zone 11 (spiral-vel-inlet): 0.6150589
zone 8 (spiral-wall): 0
zone 1 (walls): 0
zone 4 (velocity-inlet): 4.9132133
net mass-flow: -5.4608185

Fluent Chapter 23. Modeling Multi Phase Flows

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Fluent Chapter 23. Modeling Multi Phase Flows

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Chapter 23.

Modeling Multiphase Flows

. Information about these parameters is important for determining how the

is the source term.

pairs ij, i<j

g | is the gravity magnitude, g is the unit

0, 24, 0 0 < Re < 0.1

= 1.8 1.35 cos

is the Kelvin-Helmholtz critical droplet

, for example, corresponds to water creeping up the side of a

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