FJAX0111

1. TRIGONOMETRY
1.1 ANGLES

y Trigonometric function is a function of angles. y A positive angle measures a rotation in an anticlockwise direction with respect to x-axis whereas a negative angle measures a rotation in a clockwise direction.

50 Q -110 Q

410 Q

yA y

l ( Q)

b i

i (

i ).

it t

f t

it b ily 2T radians = 360 Q. y Si ilarly, Q 180 1 rad ! T and

Q T rad 1 ! . 180

Example
2

1.2

IC U C I

y ri nometri f nction is a f nction of angles based on a nit circle. y Let U be t e angle from line OA ntil line OB. Let t e arclengt AB, say t equals rU or U (as r = 1). Here, U is in degree ile t is in radians.
B (cos t, sin t) t

x y !

y rigonometric functions sine, cosine, tangent, cotangent, secant and cosecant are defined as:

sin t = y, cos t = x y tan t = x (x { 0 ), cot t = sec t = x x { , csc t = y y {

W ere (x,y) is coordinate oint x2  y2 ! 1. on a unit circle y Values of t e trigonometric function can be obtained from tables or calculators.

Graph of sin x

Graph of cos x

serve the plots of sine and cosine function. If the plot of sine to the function is shifted 90 or right, then it will ecome a cosine function.
Q

T 2

y Similarl , if the plot of cosine

or to the right, then it will ecome a sine function. That means, function is shifted 90
Q

T 2

si (90 Q x) ! cos x cos(90 Q x ! si x

y
n the other hand, it can also o served that e

si (  x ) !  si x cos(  x) ! cos x

y hat is, sine function is an odd function hile cosine function is an even function. Example 2

Graph of tan x

y Above is the plot of tangent. It can be seen that tangent function is periodic ith period . y Mathematically, a function is if periodic function ith period f (t  ) ! f (t ) for all t in the domain.

y Note that there are vertical asymptotes at any positive integers.

!s nT , n are 2

y Note that tan(  x ) ! tan x . y he plots of contangent, secant and cosecant functions can be obtained by taking the reciprocal of tangent, cosine and sine function respectively.

Graph of cot x

Graph of sec x
7

Graph of cosec x

y It can be seen that secant and cosecant functions are periodic ith period 2 hile cotangent function is periodic ith period T .

1.3

y = a sin kx, y = a cos kx and y = a tan kx

y Graph of y = a sin kx, y = a cos kx and y = a tan kx, where k is positive real number, take similar shape as the original graphs of

y = a sin kx, y = a cos kx and y = a tan kx respectively.

8

a)

The period of the new function:

2T k

Period function) Period

for sine and cosine

T k

for tangent function)

) Amplitude of the new function: a for sine and cosine functions onl ).

y Period will determine whether the graph is compressed k>1) or expanded 0<k<1) along the xaxis a out the y-axis if compared to the reference graph of y = si x, y = cos x and y = t x.

y Amplitude will compressed/expand the reference graph of y = si x, y = cos x and y = t x along the yaxis a out the x-axis.
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(1). Above is the plot of y = sin 2x with k = 2 and a = 1. he period is

2T ! T , meaning one complete 2 0 cycle is observed in ? , A. he graph

start at (0,0) and the curve follows the pattern of y = sin x. hus, we have a more compressed plot compared to y = sin x.

10

3T

(2). Above is the plot of y = sin Now, the period is

T ! 4T 1

, meaning

that a complete cycle is observed in

?0,4T A.
Now, the graph of y = sin x is expanded to give the graph of
x

y = sin

11

(3). Above gives the plot of y = 3 sin 2x. he period is T meaning that one complete cycle is observed in 0, T . he amplitude is 3 meaning that the minimum occurs at -3 while the maximum occurs at 3. hat means the curve of y = sin 2x is expanded along the y-axis about the x-axis giving the graph of y = 3 sin 2x.

12

(4). Similarly, the effects are also observed for cosine function. Above is the overlapping graphs of y = cos x, y = cos 2x and y = 3 cos2x.
x

a complete cycle is observed in (T , T ) with period 2T and repeated accordingly.

,

(5). For y = tan

(6). For y = 2 tan x, a complete cycle remains the same as for y = tan x. However, the graph is pulled up/down around the y-axis from the graph of y = tan x.
13

In order to determine exactl the value of a, we need to know at least one point on the graph. or example, for y = 2 t x, it is given that one of the curves passes
T through 4 , 2 .

Thus, 2 = a t

T 4

giving a = 2.

1.4 TRIGONOMETRI

RATIO

Trigonometr functions are usuall remem ered ased on a right-angled triangle as given.

14

(1). Six basics trigonometry functions are defined as

sin U ! cos U tan U csc U sec U cot U opposite hypotenuse adjacent ! hypotenuse opposite ! adjacent 1 ! sin U 1 ! sin U 1 ! tan U

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(2). Note that tan U can also be given by

tan U ! sin U cos U

Similarly, it can be shown that sin( 90 Q U ) ! cos U , cos( 90 Q U ) ! sin U and tan( 90 Q U ) ! cot U . Based on a right-angled triangle, if one acute angle is U , then the other angle is ( 90 Q U ) as shown below.
90 Q U

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(3). hus, we have

sin(90 Q U ) ! dj cent / hypotenuse ! cos U cos(90 Q U ) ! opposite / hypotenuse ! sin U tan(90 Q U ) ! dj cent / opposite ! cot U

Example

(4). Values of the trigonometric ratios can be obtained from statistical tables or calculators. However, values for special angles can be described using the triangles below.

2
1 3 2

17

Ta le
UQ

Urad
0rad
T rad 6 T rad 4 T rad 3 T rad 2

0Q
30 Q 45 Q 60 Q 90 Q

si U 0
1 2

cosU
3 2 1 2

U
1 3

1 2

3 2

1 2

m l 5

(5). Trigonometric functions can e evaluated for angles of an sizes including o tuse angle (greater than 90 Q) and negative angles. This can e done in two steps. (i). Identif the quadrants where U is situated as illustrated elow. If an angle U (measured from the positive x-axis) is in the first

18

quadrant, then si U , cos U and t U take positive values. If the angle U is in the second quadrant, then si U takes positive values while cos U and t U take negative value. If the angle U is in the third quadrant, then t U takes positive values while si U and cos U take negative value. If the angle U is in the fourth quadrant, then cos U takes positive values while si U and t U take negative value.

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Second quadrant Sine positive

First quadrant All positive

Third quadrant Tangent positive

Forth quadrant Cosine positive

(ii). Determine the basic angle U A . Basic angle, U A , for an angle is the acute angle measured from the x-axis to terminal line of angle U . he calculation for u 0 is given in the table below. able 2 Figure (a) (b) (c) (d) he quadrant I II III IV Basic angle, U A
UA !U
U A ! 18
A
Q

U

 180 Q

U A ! 360 Q U
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y It is illustrated below. For example, U lies in the third quadrant as illustrated in (c), then the basic angle U A is given by  180 Q which is measured A from the x-axis to the terminal line of angle U .
(b) (a) Terminal line

UA

UA

UA

UA

(c)

(d)

y However, the formula given in able 2 will have to be adjusted when angle is negative.

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-150 , y or example, when U then the angle is in the second quadrant. Thus, U A is given
Q

(180 -150 )

0 .

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1.5

BASI TRIGONOMETRI IDENTITIES

y The definition of trigonometric has een given ased on a unit circle

x2  y2 ! 1

(1)

y urther, it is decided that coordinate points B(x,y) = B(cos U , si U ) is on the circle where U is the angle from positive x-axis till line OB.

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Thus, su stituting x = cos U , y = si U , (1) gives

si
y

U  cos 2 U ! 1
cos 2 U , gives

(2)

ivide (2)

1 t
y

U ! sec 2 U
2

(3)

si U , gives 1  cot 2 U ! csc 2 U (4)

ivide (2)

y These identities are also called the ph tagorean identities and ver useful in solving trigonometric function.

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1.6

OMPO ND ANGLE
y

P (cos A, si A) Q (cos B, si B)

1
x2  y2 ! 1

et P and Q e two points on the x 2  y 2 ! 1 . urther unit circle assume that the angles etween the positive x-axis and lines OP and OQ are A and B respectivel . Thus, the coordinates of points P and Q are given

P(cos A, si A) and Q(cosB, si B).

y Thus, using the ph tagoras theorem, the distance PQ is given the
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PQ 2 ! (cos  cos B) 2  (si ! 2  2(cos cos B  si

 si B) 2 si B ) (1)

S (cos (A-B), si (A-B)) (A-B) x R (1,0)

x2  y2 ! 1

y Consider now, igure 2. et R and S e two points on the unit circle x 2  y 2 ! 1 with coordinate R (1,0) and S(cos(A-B), si (A-B)). The distance RS is given

RS 2 ! (cos(  B)  1) 2  (si (  B )) 2

! cos 2 (  B )  2 cos(  B)  1  si

(  B)

! 2  2 cos( A  B )

(2)
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ow, PQ = RS as P, Q, R and S on similar unit circle and the angle POQ and ROS are equal. Thus, comparing (1) and (2), we ma conclude that

cos(  B ) ! cos cos B  si

y The com ound ngl are given : ormul

si B
(3)

cos( OB ) ! cos cos B s si si B si ( s B ) ! si cos B s cos si B st B t t ( s B) ! 1O t t B

E m l 8

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y The doubl - ngl given :

ormul are

si 2 A ! 2 si A cos A cos 2 A ! cos 2 A  si ! 2 cos 2 A  1 ! 1  2 si t

2 2

A A 2 A

2t 2A ! 1 t

m l 9

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y The hal -angl ormula for trigonometric function are given elow:

A A cos si A ! 2 si 2 2 A A cos A ! cos 2  si 2 2 2 2 A ! 2 cos 2 A  1 ! 1  2 si 2 2 A 2t 2 t A! 2 A 1 t 2

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y rom the half-angled formula, we have

1  cos A A !s si 2 2 cos t 1  cos A A !s 2 2 A 1  cos A !s 2 1  cos A

the

where the sign is determined

A quadrant in which angle 2 lies.

E am l 10

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y The factor formula for trigonometric functions are given :

PQ PQ cos si P  si Q ! 2 si 2 2 PQ P Q si P  si Q ! 2 cos si 2 2 PQ P Q cos P  cos Q ! 2 cos cos 2 2 PQ P Q si cos P  cos Q ! 2 si 2 2
here P = (A+B) and Q = (A B).

E am l 11

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1.7

SOL TION OF TRIGONOMETRI

EQ ATION

y our different t pes of trigonometric equations are:

(i). Simple/linear form: .

si U ! k , cos U ! k , t U !k

(ii). Quadratic form: a cos 2 U  b cos U  c ! 0 . (iii). Addition form: expressing a cos U s b si U as R cos( U OE ) and R si ( U s E ) . (iv). ther t pe of trigonometric function where si U , cos U , t U can e expressed in terms of t where t ! t
U 2 .
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1.7.1 TRIGONOMETRI EQ ATION IN LINEAR FORM y Trigonometric equations of the forms 1 si U ! 3 3 cos x ! 2 t (2y  T ) ! 2
are called the simple trigonometric equations. The solution can e o tained in two steps: (1). ind the principal and secondar angles. The principal angle, U p , is the smallest positive or negative value in the range  180 Q U e 180 Q that satisf the trigonometric equation. The secondar angle, U s , is the second angle satisf ing the trigonometric equation in the range  180 Q U e 180 Q.
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(2). etermining the solution in a given interval. Based on the principal and secondar angles, the solutions in specified range can e determined. That is, the solutions are determined the principal and secondar angles in the specified intervals.

E am l 1

1.7.

TRIGONOMETRI EQ ATION IN Q ADRATI FORM

Some trigonometric equation is in quadratic form. or initial understanding, it is helpful to make su stitution such as y = si x so that the trigonometric equation is reduced to standard quadratic equation of the ax 2  bx  c ! 0 . ence, the form equation can e factorised.

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Consequentl , trigonometric equations of linear form are o tained and the solution can e found.

E am l 1

1.7.

TRIGONOMETRI EQ ATIONS IN ADDITION FORM

y Trigonometric equation of the form a cosU s b si U ! c is called in addition form. y Such equation can e expressed E as R cos(U O ) ! c or R si (U s E ) ! c where E is acute and R " 0 . y The choice of using either one of

R cos(U O ) ! c or E R si (U s E ) ! c can e
summarized in the next ta le.

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a cos U  b si U ! c Example

Addition Form

a and b (+) a (+) , b (-) a (-) , b (+)

cosU  3 si U ! 1 R cos(U  E ) cosU  3 si U ! 1 R cos(U  E )

 cos U  3 si U ! 1 R si (U  E )

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1.7.4 SOLVING TRIGONOMETRI EQ ATION SING THE t FORM LA y Trigonometric equation of the form a cosU s b si U ! c can e solved expressing si U , cos U , t U in
terms of t where t ! t e descri ed elow:
U 2 . It can

the triangle

35

1 t 2

e can derive the t formulae for si U , cos U , t U su stituting U t ! t 2 into the half-angle formulae.

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Thus, we have
si U ! 2si U U cos 2 2 1 t ! 2 2 2 1  t 1  t 2t ! 1 t 2 U U cos U ! cos 2  si 2 2 2 1 t !  2 2 1 t 1 t 1 t 2 ! 1 t2 si U 2t U! ! cos U 1  t 2
2 2

E am l 15

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2.
2.1 C y I

E SYS E

oordinate system in a plane by means of two perpendicular coordinate line, called coordinate axes that intersect at the origin O, as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1 y he hori ontal line is known as the x-axis and the vertical line is known as the y-axis and label then as x and y respectively.

38

y he plane is then a coordinate plane or an xy-plane. he coordinate axes divide the plane into four parts called the first, second, third and fourth quadrants, labelled I, II, III and IV respectively. y Each point P in an xy-plane may be assigned an ordered pair (a, b) as shown in Figure 2. We call a the x-coordinate of P, and b the ycoordinate.

Figure 2
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2.1.1 DISTAN E BETWEEN TWO POINTS y The distance d ( P1 , P2 ) etween an two points P1 ( x1 , y1 ) and P2 ( x2 , y 2 ) in a coordinate plane is
d ( P1 , P2 ) ! ( x 2  x1 ) 2  ( y 2  y1 ) 2

y The midpoint M of the line segment from P1 ( x1 , y1 ) to P2 ( x 2 , y 2 ) is

x1  x 2 y 1  y 2 , 2 2

2.1.2 SLOPE y et L be a line that is not parallel to the y-axis, and let P1 ( x1 , y1 ) and P2 ( x2 , y 2 ) be distinct points on L. The slope m of L is
m ! y 2  y1 x 2  x1
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y If L is parallel to the y-axis, then the slope of L is not defined.

( x2 , y2 )

'1 ( x '1 , y '1 )

( x1 , y1 )

Figure 3 y he definition of slope is independent of the two points that are chosen on L. If other points P '1 ( x'1 , y '1 ) and P ' 2 ( x' 2 , y ' 2 ) are used, then as Figure 3, the triangle with vertices P'1 , P' 2 and P'3 ( x ' 2 , y '1 ) is similar to the triangle with vertices P1 , P2 and 3 ( x , y ) .

' 2 ( x'2 , y ' 2 )

' 3 ( x ' 2 , y '1 )

( x 2 , y1 )

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Since the ratio of corresponding sides of similar triangles are equal.

y 2  y1 y ' 2  y '1 ! x 2  x1 x ' 2  x '1

2.1. EQ ATION OF A LINE y An equation for the line through the point ( x1 , y1 ) with slope m is

y  y1 ! m( x  x1 )
y The point-slope form is onl one possibilit for an equation of a line. There are man equivalent equations. e sometimes simplif the equation obtained using the point-slope form to either

ax + by = c

or ax + by + d = 0

42

here a, b, and c are integers with no common factor, a > 0, and d = -c.

y The graph of y = mx + c is a line having slope m and y-intercept, c.

y Two nonvertical lines are parallel if and onl if the have the same slope.

E am l

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2.1.4 DISTAN E OF A POINT FROM A LINE y The

perpendicular distance of P ( x1 , y1 ) from the line ax + by + c = 0 is given by

ax1  by1  c a2  b2
2.1.5 ANGLE BETWEEN TWO STRAIGHT LINES y The
angle,
U ,

between

the

straight line y ! m1 x  c1 and the straight line y ! m2 x  c2 is given by

m 2  m1 U ! 1  m 2 m1

E am l 4
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2.2

IR LES

r x-h C(h, k) y-k Q

P(x, y)

y A circle is the set of all points in a plane, which are at a fixed distance from a fixed point. The fixed point is the centre of the circle, and the fixed distance is the radius of the circle. y rom the definition of the circle, a point P(x,y) lies on the circle if and only if |PC| = r, that is

( x  h) 2  ( y  k ) 2 ! r
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y Squaring both sides we have

( x  h) 2  ( y  k ) 2 ! r 2

(1)

y Eq. (1) is the equation of a circle with centre at point (h, k) and radius of length r. It is called the centre-radius equation of the circle. If the centre is the origin then (h, k) (0, 0) and we have

x y !r

y If we expand Eq. (1), we have

x 2  y 2  2 gx  2 fy  c ! 0 (2)
y Eq. (2) is called the general form of a circle. An equation of a circle in centre-radius form can be written in general form and vice versa.
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y If a circle is given in the general form, the radius and the centre of the circle can be determined by completing the square on Eq. (2).

( x 2  2 gx)  ( y 2  2 fy )  c ! 0 ( x 2  2 gx  g 2 )  ( y 2  2 fy  f 2 ) ! g 2  f 2 (x  g)2  ( y  f )2 ! g 2  f 2  c
y
hich is in centre-radius form. Thus, the centre is (-g, -f) and the

g2  f 2 c . radius is y If three points on a circle are given, the equation of the circle can be obtained by substituting the points into the general equation of the circle.

E am l 6

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2.2.1 FAMILY OF

IR LES

y et us consider two circles C1 ! 0 and C 2 ! 0 where

C1 ! x 2  y 2  2 g1 x  2 f 1 y  c1 C2 ! x 2  y 2  2 g 2 x  2 f 2 y  c2
y
ere going to look at cases where 1) the two circles intersects at two points and 2) the two circles intersects at one point y Equation

C1  kC 2 ! 0
y

(3)

here k is an arbitrary constant, is the equation obtained when the two circles intersects.

48

Intersection of two circles

Case 1

igure 1
Case 2

igure 2

igure 3

igure 4

igure 5

igure

or Case 1: y If two circles intersect at two points, then for k 1 , Eq. (3) represents a family of circles which pass through the two intersection points.

49

hen k ! 1 Eq. (3) becomes a linear equation C1  C 2 ! 0 . This is the equation of the line passing through the two intersection points. This line is the common chord. Refer to igure 2. or Case 2: y hen the circles touch and k { 1 , then Eq. (3) represents the family of circles as shown in igure 3 and 4. y hen k ! 1, then Eq. (3) becomes a linear equation and it is the tangent line to both circles as shown in igure 5 and .

E am l 7

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2.2.2 POINTS OF INTERSE TION OF STRAIGHT LINE AND A IR LE y Consider a line with equation
and a circle C : x 2  y 2  2 gx  2 fy  c ! 0 . To find the points of intersection of the line and the circle, we substitute y ! mx  c' into C. e will then obtain a quadratic equation in x. y et the quadratic equation be If the 2 D ! b1  4 a1c1 " 0 , discriminant the line cuts the circle at two 2 ! b1  4 a1 c1 ! 0 , then points. If the line actually touches the 2 D ! b1  4a1c1 0 , the circle. If line and the circle never meet, that is, does not touch or intersect.
51

y ! mx  c'

y ! a1 x 2  b1 x  c1 .

2.2. EQ ATION TANGENT TO A IR LE

normal

y P( x , y )
1 1

ent

y et P( x1 , y1 ) be a point on a circle. A tangent to the circle at point P( x1 , y1 ) is the line which touches the circle at this point. The equation of the tangent is obtained by finding the gradient and then forming the equation. The gradient is usually found using differentiation.

52

y But in this topic, we will not use differentiation but the general method to find the gradient. A normal to a circle at point P ( x1 , y1 ) is the line that is perpendicular to the tangent line at that point. If the gradient of the tangent is m T and the gradient of the normal is m N , then the product of m T and m N is -1; m T m N !  1 . b) If the equation of the circle 2 2 is x  y  2 gx  2 fy  c ! 0 , then the tangent to the circle at point P( x1 , y1 ) is xx1  yy1  g ( x  x1 )  f ( y  y1 )  c ! 0
c) If the equation of the circle is x 2  y 2 ! r 2 , then the tangent to the circle at point P ( x1 , y1 ) is xx1  yy1 ! r 2 .

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2.2.4 THE LENGTH OF A TANGENT FROM A POINT TO A IR LE

y C(-g, -f) y P( x , y )
1 1

Q(a, b)

y The length d of a tangent from point Q (a, b) to the circle x 2  y 2  2 gx  2 fy  c ! 0 is

d ! a 2  b 2  2 ga  2 fb  c

E am l 10

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2.

PARABOLAS

2. .1 EQ ATION OF A PARABOLA WITH VERTEX AT (0 0) AND FO S (0 p) y The focus with coordinates (0, p) of this parabola is on the y-axis. If p is positive, then the parabola opens upwards y rom the figure below, the distance from F to V is p. The distance from V to the directrix is also p, thus, the equation of the directrix is y = -p. et P ( x, y ) be any point on the parabola, then
| PF |!| PD | x 2  ( y  p ) 2 !| y  p | x 2  ( y  p) 2 ! ( y  p) 2 x 2  y 2  2 py  p 2 ! y 2  2 py  p 2 x 2 ! 4 py
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y If the coordinates of the focus is (0, -p) and the graph of the parabola opens downwards. he directrix is the line y = p. using the same method as for p > 0, it can be shown that the equation of this parabola is

x 2 ! 4 py

P ( x, y )

F(0,p) }p p{ V D

Example 11
56

2.3.2 E U I I VE EX CUS p, 0)

0, 0)

D p

P( x, y)

p F(p,0)

y he focus of this parabola is on the x-axis. If p positive, then the parabola opens to the right as shown above. y he distance from F to V is p, therefore the coordinates of the focus is (p, 0), p > 0.

57

y The equation of the directrix is x = -p. If P ( x, y ) be any point on the parabola, then
| PF |!| P | ( x  p) 2  y 2 !| x  p | x 2  2 px  p 2  y 2 ! ( x  p ) 2 x 2  y 2  2 px  p 2 ! x 2  2 px  p 2 y 2 ! 4 px

y If the coordinate focus is (-p, 0) and the graph of the parabola opens to the left. The equation of the directrix is x = p. It can be shown that the equation of this parabola is y 2 ! 4 px E am l 12

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2. . EQ ATION OF A PARABOLA WITH VERTEX (h, k) AND FO S (h, k+p) Equation, ocus, directri
( x  h) 2 ! 4 p ( y  k )

Graph or Graph p>0 or p<0

y ! ax 2  bx  c 1 p! here 4a
F

V(h, k)

ocus:
F ( h, k  p )

irectrix:
y!kp
( y  k ) 2 ! 4 p ( x  h)

V(h, k)

x ! ay 2  by  c 1 p! here 4a
V(h, k)

F F

V(h, k)

ocus:
F ( h  p, k )

irectrix:
x !h p

E ample 1
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2. .4 DETERMINING THE VERTEX AND FO S BY OMPLETING THE SQ ARE y If the equation of the parabola is ax 2  bx  cy  d ! 0 or given as ay 2  by  cx  d ! 0 , instead of the 2 standard forms ( y  k ) ! 4 p( x  h) or ( x  h) 2 ! 4 p ( y  k ) , then we use completing the square method to determine the vertex and the focus of the parabola. E ample 14

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2. .5 PARAMETRI EQ ATIONS OF PARABOLA y If P( x, y ) is a point on a parabola

2 a) x ! at and y ! 2at are the parametric equations of parabola y 2 ! 4ax .
2 b) x ! 2at and y ! at are the parametric equations of parabola x 2 ! 4ay .

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2.4 ELLIPSES y An ellipse is the set of all points in a plane, the sum of whose distances from two fixed points (the foci) in the plane is a positive constant.

M 2 (0, b )

P(x, y)

V2 (a,0)

F2 ( c,0)

F1 (c,0)

V1 (a,0)

M 1 ( 0 , b )

y Ellipse has its foci on the x-axis, that is the major axis along the xaxis. Its centre at the origin. If we let the coordinates of F1 be (c, 0),

c > 0, then the coordinates of F2 is (-c, 0) and | F1 F2 | 2c.

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y rom the definition of ellipse,

| PF1 |  | PF2 |! a constant et the constant sum be 2a

| PF1 |  | PF2 |! 2a ( x  c) 2  y 2  ( x  c) 2  y 2 ! 2a ( x  c) 2  y 2 ! 2a  ( x  c ) 2  y 2
Squaring both sides,
( x  c ) 2  y 2 ! 4a 2  4 a ( x  c ) 2  y 2  ( x  c ) 2  y 2

a ( x  c) 2  y 2 ! a 2  cx Simplify, Square both sides again,

a 2 ( x  c) 2  y 2 ! a 4  2a 2 cx  c 2 x 2 a 2 ( x 2  2cx  c 2  y 2 ) ! a 4  2a 2 cx  c 2 x 2
Simplify, x 2 (a 2  c 2 )  a 2 y 2 ! a 2 (a 2  c 2 )

63

a 2 (a 2  c 2 ) ivide both sides with x2 y2 x2 y2  2 !1  !1 2 2 or a 2 b 2 a (a  c )

b 2 ! a 2  c 2 , it y Since c > 0 and a 2 " b 2 and hence follows that a > b.

y
e summarised the properties of the ellipse with horizontal major axis as follows x2 y2 Equation: a 2  b 2 ! 1 with

a>b>0
Vertices: ( s a,0) ajor axis: horizontal, length 2a inor axis: vertical, length 2b
64

Foci: ( s c ,0) where

c! a2  b2

atus rectum: vertical, length 2b 2 a

y Conversely, if (x, y) is a solution of this equation, then by reversing the preceding steps we see that the point (x, y) is on the ellipse.
V1 (0, b )

F1 (0, c)

M 2 (0,a )

M 1 (0, a )
F2 (0,c )

V2 (0,b)

65

y This ellipse has its foci on the yaxis. The major axis is along the yaxis. Its centre is at the origin. et the foci be F1 (0, c) and F2 (0, -c), then | F1 F2 | 2c. y For this ellipse, we let the constant sum | PF1 |  | PF2 | be 2b. Then,
| PF1 |  | PF2 |! 2b x 2  ( y  c ) 2  x 2  ( y  c ) 2 ! 2b x 2  ( y  c) 2 ! 2a  x 2  ( y  c) 2

Squaring both sides,

x 2  ( y  c) 2 ! 4b 2  4b x 2  ( y  c ) 2  x 2  ( y  c) 2
2 2 2 Simplify, b x  ( y  c ) ! b  cy Square both sides again,

b 2 x 2  ( y  c ) 2 ! b 4  2b 2 cy  c 2 y 2 b 2 ( x 2  2cy  c 2  y 2 ) ! b 4  2b 2 cy  c 2 y 2

Simplify,
y 2 (b 2  c 2 )  b 2 x 2 ! b 2 ( b 2  c 2 )
66

2 2 2 ivide both sides with a ( a  c )

x2 y2  2 !1 2 2 b c b

e summarised the properties of the ellipse with horizontal major axis as follows
x2 y2 Equation: a 2  b 2 ! 1 with

b>a>0
Vertices: (0,sb) ajor axis: horizontal, length 2b inor axis: vertical, length 2a Foci: (0,s c ) where
c ! b2  a2

67

Latus rectum: vertical, length

2a 2 b
E ample 16

2.4.1 THE EQ ATION OF AN ELLIPSE WITH ENTRE (h, k) AND FO I (h s c, k)

V2 ( h  a , k )

F2 ( h  c, k )

F1 ( h  c, k )

V1 (h  a, k )

68

y If an ellipse with centre at the origin and its major axis horizontal, is shifted h units horizontally and k units vertically, we will get an ellipse with its centre at (h, k). If the foci were originally at ( s c, 0), the new foci will be at (h s c, k). y The equation of this ellipse is
( x  h) 2 ( y  k ) 2  ! 1, a " b " 0 2 2 a b

y Its properties below

Equation:

are

summarise

( x  h) 2 ( y  k ) 2  !1 2 2 a b

with a > b > 0 Vertices: ( h s a, k ) ajor axis: horizontal, length 2a

69

Minor axis: vertical, length 2b Foci:

( h s c, k )

where

c ! a2  b2
Latus rectum: vertical, length

2b 2 a
E ample 17

70

2.4.2 THE EQ ATION OF AN ELLIPSE WITH ENTRE ( h, k) AND FO I (h, k s c)

V1 (h, k  b )

F1 (h, k  c)
M 2 (h  a, k )

C(h,k)

M 1 ( h  a, k )

F2 (h, k  c)

V2 (h, k  b)

y If an ellipse with centre at the origin and its major axis vertical, is shifted h units horizontally and k units vertically, we will get an ellipse with centre at (h, k) and foci at (h, k s c).

71

y The equation of this ellipse is

( x  h) 2 ( y  k ) 2  ! 1, b " a " 0 2 2 a b

y Its properties below

Equation:

are

summarised

( x  h) 2 ( y  k ) 2  !1 2 2 a b

with b > a > 0 Vertices: ( h, k s b) Major axis: horizontal, length 2b Minor axis: vertical, length 2a Foci:

( h, k s c )

where

c ! b2  a2
Latus rectum: vertical, length 2a 2 b
72

y If the equation of the ellipse is not given in the form of

we use completing the square method to determine the centre and foci.
( x  h) 2 ( y  k ) 2  ! 1, 2 2 a b

y Let P(x, y) be a point on an ellipse. x = a cos t, y = b sin t are the parametric equations of ellipse

x2 y2  2 !1 2 . a b
E ample 17

73

2.

HYPE

y A hyperbola is the set of all points in a plane, the difference of whose distances from two fixed points is a constant. 2. .1 HE E U HYPE 0, 0)
b y! x a

I I H CE CI s c, 0)
y! b x a

W1 (0, b)

b L1 c, a

W2 (0 b

F2 (c,0

V2  a

V a

F c

b2 L1 ' c, a

74

y Let F1 (c,0) and F2 (c,0) be the foci, and P(x, y) be a point on the hyperbola but not on the x-axis. y From the definition of hyperbola | PF1 |  | PF2 | = a constant Let the constant be 2a. Then,

| PF1 |  | PF2 |! 2a ( x  c) 2  y 2  ( x  c ) 2  y 2 ! 2a ( x  c) 2  y 2 ! 2a  ( x  c) 2  y 2
Employing the procedures that we have done for ellipse, we can finally simplify the equation as x2 y2  2 !1 2 2 a c a

c2  a2 ! b riting c 2  a 2 ! b 2 , we have x2 y2  2 !1 2 a b

or

75

Letting y = 0, gives the xintercept. Thus, we find that vertices are at V1 ( a,0) and V2 (a,0) . This hyperbola has no y-intercept. The endpoints of the conjugate axis are W1 (0, b) and W2 (0,b) . Plotting the points V1 (a,0) and V2 ( a,0) , W1 (0, b) and W2 (0,b) and drawing vertical and horizontal lines connecting these points helps us to sketch the asymptotes. The gradient of the asymptotes
b s . Thus, the equation of are a

the asymptotes are The two branches of the hyperbola are sketched using the asymptotes as guides.

y!s

b x. a

76

Substituting x = c in equation x2 y2  2 ! 1 , we have 2 a b

y2 c2 c2  a2 2 2 ! 2 1 y ! b 2 2 b a a
2 2 2 Since c  a ! b , we have

b4 b2 y ! 2 y!s a a
2

Thus the end points of the

b2 c,s latus rectum is a 2b 2 rectum as a . , and

we have the length of the latus

e summarised the properties of the hyperbola with centre (0, 0) and foci ( s c, 0) as follows.
x2 y2 Equation: a 2  b 2 ! 1 ;

a > 0, b > 0
77

Vertices: ( s a, 0) Transverse length 2a axis: horizontal,

Conjugate axis: vertical, length 2b b Asymptotes: y ! s a x Foci: ( s c,0) where

c2 ! a2  b2
Centre: (0, 0) Latus rectum: vertical, length 2b 2 a

78

2. .2 HE E U HYPE 0, 0)

I I H CE CI 0, s c)
b


!

y!

V2 (0,b)

F2

c

W a


 

W ( a ,0 )

79

y From the definition of hyperbola | PF1 |  | PF2 | = a constant Let the constant be 2b. Then,
| PF1 |  | PF2 |! 2b x 2  ( y  c) 2  x 2  ( y  c) 2 ! 2b x 2  ( y  c) 2 ! 2b  x 2  ( y  c) 2

Employing the procedures that we have done for ellipse, we can finally simplify the equation as
y2 x2  2 !1 2 2 b c b

c 2  b 2 ! a or riting c 2  b 2 ! a 2 , we have
y2 x2  2 ! 1. b2 a

Letting x = 0, gives the yintercept. Thus, we find that vertices are at V1 (0, b) and V2 (0,b) .
80

This hyperbola has no xintercept. The endpoints of the conjugate axis are W1 (a,0) and W2 (  a,0) . The gradient of the asymptotes are
s b a

. Thus, the equation of

b y ! s x. the asymptotes are a

The two branches of the hyperbola are sketched using the asymptotes as guides. Substituting y = c in equation
x2 y2  2 ! 1 , we have 2 a b

c2 x2 c2  b2 2 2  2 !1 x ! a 2 2 b a b

81

c 2  b 2 ! a 2 , we have Since
a4 a2 x2 ! 2 y ! s b b

Thus the end points of the

a2 s ,c latus rectum is b , and

we have the length of the latus 2a 2 rectum as b .

e summarised the properties of the hyperbola with centre (0, 0) and foci ( s c, 0) as follows.

82

y2 x2  !1 ; a > 0, b > 0 Equation: b 2 a 2

Vertices: (0, s b), Centre: (0, 0) Transverse axis: horizontal, length 2b Conjugate axis: vertical, length 2a b y!s x Asymptotes: a
2 2 2 Foci: (0, s c) where c ! a  b Latus rectum: horizontal,

length

2a 2 b

83

2. .3 HE E U HYPE h, k)
b ( y  k ) !  (  h)


I I H CE CI h s c, k)
yk !
!

xh

(h, k) ( h  a, k ) ( h  a, k )
#

F hc k
"

F hc k

y Its properties are summarised below:

84

( x  h) 2 ( y  k ) 2  ! 1; 2 2 Equation: a b

a > 0, b > 0
Vertices: (h s a, k) Transverse axis: horizontal, length 2a Conjugate axis: vertical, length 2b Asymptotes:
y  k ! s b (x  h) a

Foci: (h s c,k) where

c2 ! a2  b2
Latus rectum: vertical, length

2b 2 a

85

2. .

HE E U HYPE h, k)

I I H CE CI h, k s c) E

(y  k) !

b ( x  h) a

F h k c
$

( h, k  b )

(h, k)

( h, k  b ) F h k c
%

(y  k) !

b ( x  h) a

y Its properties are summarised below:

86

(y  k)2 (x  h)2  !1 2 2 Equation: b a

a > 0, b > 0
Vertices: (h, k s b) Transverse axis: vertical, length 2b Conjugate axis: horizontal, length 2a b y  k ! s ( x  h) Asymptotes: a Foci: (h,k s c) where

c2 ! a2  b2
Latus rectum: horizontal,
2a 2 length b

87

y If the equation of the hyperbola is not given in the form

( x  h) 2 ( y  k ) 2  !1 a2 b2 ( y  k ) 2 ( x  h) 2  ! 1, 2 2 b a

or

we use completing square method to determine the centre and foci.

y Equations x = a sec t and y = b tan t x2 y2  ! 1 , since satisfy a 2 b 2 ( a sec t ) 2 (b tan t ) 2 a 2 sec 2 t b 2 tan 2 t  !  2 2 2 a b a b2 ! sec 2 t  tan 2 t ! 1 y Thus x = a sec t and y = b tan t are
x2 y2 parametric equations of a 2  b 2 ! 1

88

y Let P(x, y) be a point on a hyperbola

a) x = a sec t, y = tan t are parametrics equations of
x2 y2 hyperbola a 2  b 2 ! 1

b) x = a tan t, y = b sec t are parametric equations of hyperbola

y2 x2  2 ! 1. 2 b a

E ample 19

89