UNINTERRUPTIBLE POWER SUPPLY (UPS) AS A BACKUP ENERGY SOURCE FOR HIGH AVAILABILITY NETWORK SERVERS BY ONOKA IKECHUKWU.

E MOUAU/PG/MSC/1349 SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, COLLEGE OF NATURAL AND APPLIED SCIENCES IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE

CHAPTER ONE 1.1 Introduction

As the general population continues to grow, there is an ever -increasing demand for electricity placed on the worlds power -generation and distribution facilities. Although significant measures are taken to ensure a reliable supply of electric power, the significant demand for power increases the likelihood that power outages and other electrical disruptions such as brownouts will occur. All over the world there is a significant electrical power supply interruption and a wide range of factors has been identified for this problem. They include natural disasters, vandalism, maintainability and sustainability inadequacies, lack of local content, and absence of integrated and collaborated capacity building programme. The problem of poor quality power supply cannot be properly addressed without a review of other factors such as lack of political will to invest adequately in power sector, absence o f replacement policy resulting in obsolete equipment, unsustainable human capacity building, and inadequate reward and remuneration system to motivate human resources team to perform well. In view of our societys increased reliance on technology coupled with the high sensitivity and sophistication of modern technological equipment in use today, frequent power supply disturbances may affect the performance of sensitive equipment in private and corporate organizations causing critical loss of data,

business disruption and even damage to equipment. Also sensitive sectors which could be considered as a live wire in worlds economy are grossly affected by a single second of power supply interruption. Such sectors include telecommunications, broadcasting, medi cine, security amongst others. Uninterruptible power supplies provide instantaneous power to critical loads to enable them operate between the time interval of primary power source failure and restoration of an alternative energy source.

CHAPTER ONE 1.2 Background

During the late 1990s, the rise of internet -based companies those heavily dependent on servers and other computer loads resulted in an explosion in demand for electrical infrastructure capable of protecting delicate equipment from outages (as short as 1.5 cycles). While these particular companies have suffered a recent downturn, the need for conditioned power continues due to the increased dependence on computer -controlled equipment in fields such as medicine, bio-technology, and semiconductor manufacturing.

An uninterruptible power supply (UPS) is a device which provides emergency power and line regulation (depends on topology) to connected equipment by supplying power from a separate source when utility power is not available (wikipedia encyclopedia). It differs from an emergency power system or standby generator, which does not provide instant protection from a momentary power interruption. A UPS is inserted between the source of power (typically commercial utility power) and the load it is protecting. When a power failure or abnormality occurs, the UPS will effectively switch from utility power to its own power source almost instantaneously.

A UPS not only provides protection against all types of power supply failure, but can also filter a vast range of disturbances found in the mains supply, thus providing more sensitive loads with a clean power supply. Uninterruptible power supplies have many types, configuration size and its applications, but almost all ups units have three main units. i. ii. iii. Battery (or other supply acting as DC source) Rectifier (converts AC to DC to charge batteries) Inverter (converts DC to AC to power loads).

UPS units have wide applications in a variety of industries. Their common applications range from small power ratings for personal computer systems to medium power ratings for medical facilities, life supporting systems, data storage and emergency equipments and high power rating for telecommunications, industrial processing and online management sy stems. In North America, to prevent blackouts, electrical utilities will sometimes use a process called load shedding, which involves cutting the power to large groups of customers for short periods of time. Here, the need for UPS as power backup units is essentially crucial. (yusuf 2009) Below are common power problems that UPS units are used to correct. They are as follows: i. ii. Power failure - Total loss of utility power. Power sag - Short term under-voltage.

iii. iv.

Power surge (spike) - Quick burst of over-voltage. Under-voltage (brownout) - Low line voltages for an extended period of time.

v. vi. vii. viii.

Over-voltage - Increased voltages for an extended period of time. Line noise - distortions superimposed on the power waveform. Frequency - variation of the power waveform. Switching transient - under-voltage or over-voltage for up to a few nanoseconds.

ix.

Harmonic Distortion - multiples of power frequency superimposed on the power waveform (Yusuf 2009).

In summary, Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPSs) are used to improve power source quality as well as protect these critical loads against disturbances, such as frequency shifts, voltage spikes and interruptions.[ Prasad P, et al ]

1.3

PROBLEM STATEMENT

The growth in voice and data communications and online processing, such as mobile phones, email and online banking, has made having a secure power supply an increasingly important issue.

Many electrical loads, for example computer systems, are equally susceptible to power sags, brown-outs, black-outs, power spikes and surges, noise and radio frequency interference, and supply frequency changes. Such loads are often referred to as critical loads, partly because their continuous operation is fundamental to the functioning of the business, and also because they require a more stable and reliable power source than that generally offered by the utility mains supply in order to guarantee their correct function. The numbers and types of load falling into the critical category are rapidly expanding as an ever increasing range of microprocessor -based equipment enters both the industrial and commercial market places. This is typified by the growth of on-line transaction processing and Ecommerce where 24 hour trading demands absolute power quality with zero downtime. Among typical critical loads are: Computers e.g. data processing and control systems. Industrial process equipment e.g. precision manufacturing. Medical equipment e.g. life support and monitoring systems. Telecommunications network equipment e.g. PABX. Point of sales (POS) terminals e.g. retailing environment. On-line business transactions e.g. internet shopping.

The effects of an inadequate supply to a critical load can inc lude:

 Cessation of the business process i.e. a total inability to trade and/or communicate data loss or corruption due to software crashing Expensive hardware failure including component damage e.g. due to power sags,spikes etc. Production loss due to incorrect operation of a manufacturing process and possible production equipment damage Inappropriate control system operation Lost business due to failed POS or telecommunications equipment Possible time penalty paid to repair/reset affected systems. With the above negative effects associated with inadequate power supply to critical loads, the need for the execution of this project cannot be better justified. Moreover, the poor state of the nations Electric power system calls for urgent measures to produce locally made alternative power supply units which will play a significant part in maximizing the availability of systems.

1.4

Aims and Objectives

The main aim of this study is to investigate and analyze the various topologies and to develop a realizable UPS design that would be reliable, cost effective, efficient maintainable for critical load applications.

The UPS is to be powered from a 12VDc/100Ah battery source and is to generate a 110- 220Vac/50Hz with a power rating of 3000VA. To realize this goal requires vigorous design and assemblage of different electronics components and devices that constitute the UPS system. As a result, the objectives of this study include: i. Study and analyze the various UPS topologies in literature to id entify the suitable one for this project. ii. Development of a rectifier circuit capable of meeting the charging requirements of the battery. iii. Development of an inverter with the desired frequency and voltage rating capable of providing the power rating of 3000 VA and also meeting critical load requirements. iv. Development of a switching network of relays and their associated timing and driving circuits to provide the needed control. v. Design and winding of a suitable transformer for the rectification and inversion process. vi. Coupling all the developed subsystems and installing them in a suitable enclosure (housing/casing) provided with appropriate connectors/socket for input/output power and system status visual indicators.

1.5

Methodology

This project applies certain methodology to guarantee it success. First there is literature review about UPS topologies currently in existence and other important aspects of inverter and rectifier circuits. It works as giving an early idea and understanding of the project. Da ta will be sourced from the internet and other material like journal, thesis and reports. From here we can have the reliable information about the circuit, component been used and topology reliability. For reasons of fault tracing and maintenance, a modula r approach will be adopted. The various units that constitute the system shall as far as possible be seperatley built on printed circuit boards, tested and then eventually inter connected as appropriate to give the desired result. For reasons of operationa l flexibility, reliability reproducibility, specialized integrated circuits (Ics) will be used as much as applicable. The developed UPS will finally be subjected to extensive functional and performance tests to ascertain its efficiency.

1.6

Thesis Outline

CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter presents the classification of UPS and fundamental of the inverter circuit, focusing on the basic conversion of DC to AC and the operation of the inverter circuit based on the switches. The total harmonic distortion (THD) calculation and its importance is also presented here. Apart from that, the principle of the PWM technique was included in this chapter . Fundamentals of the rectifier circuit in the AC to DC conversion stage are discussed.

2.1

Introduction

Our first task was to study the various types of UPS topologies in literature particularly those that are commonly used for critical load applications and assess the efficiency of various designs through a data collection effort. This investigation revealed that UPS modules fall within one of three operational design architectures, namely off -line, line interactive and online. However, irrespective of their individual design criteria certain features are common to all forms of static UPS systems i.e. they all contain batteries which store energy when the mains supply is available and a means of converting the battery charge into an alternating current (ac) supply in times of

mains failure. All systems must therefore include a battery, charger and a power inverter circuit, as illustrated in figure 1.

BYPASS LINE

RECTIFIER/

DC BUSBAR

UPS OUTPUT INVERTER STATIC SWITCH TO CRITICAL LOAD

BATTERY

MAINS SUPPLY

Fig2.1

Typical UPS block diagram.

As described above, the battery provides a power source for the inverter when the mains supply fails, whereupon it discharges at a rate determined by the critical load connected to the UPS output. The inverter automatically shuts down when its dc supply falls below a certain voltage, therefore the duration for which the critical load can be supported in times of mains failure depends upon the battery capacity and the power rating of the applied load.

A typical UPS system will contain sufficient battery capacity to support its fully rated output load for 5 to 15 minutes. However, in most cases this can be extended by adding further battery cabinets or selecting batteries of a higher capacity. The battery backup time is often referred to as the autonomy time. Virtually all systems contain a bypass system which, in con junction with some form of output switching circuit, provides a means of connecting the critical load directly to the mains supply. In most cases the output switching circuit is implemented using solid-state switching devices, hence the static switch annotation to the block diagram in Figure 2.1, but this function is sometimes carried out using switching relays in smaller units. The rules governing the static switch control depend on the UPS operating mode, as described in the remainder of this chapter. Some of the major questions that we hope to answer in our overview of UPS topologies include:
y What specific factors separate one design topology from another? y Which topologies are likely to be relevant for critical load applications? y Which topology would guarantee high efficiency and ensure overall

system availability?

2.2

OVERVIEW OF OTHER UPS TOPOLOGIES

A general description of the topologies follows in this section . Three basic UPS topologies have been identified: off -line, line interactive and online. Their overall efficiency and trade-offs in line with the project goals and objectives are discussed in this section.

2.2.1 OFFLINE OR STANDBY UPS TOPOLOGY

The offline or standby UPS is the simplest and oldest UPS topology. The operating principle of a standby UPS is, as the name suggests, standing by in case of a disruption in power to a critical load. The UPS only delivers power to its connected load when power from the utility does not meet its required specifications.

Figure 2.2 Off-line UPS Illustration

A typical off-line UPS module is shown in Figure 2.2. With this design the critical load is powered from the bypass line (i.e. raw mains) and transferred to the inverter if the bypass supply fails or its voltage goes outside preset acceptable limits. During normal operation the load is subjected to any mains disturbances that fall within the acceptable bypass voltage range although

most modules of this type include a degree of spike suppression and radio frequency filtering in their bypass circuit. Under normal conditions the battery charger operates continuously to keep the battery fully charged. In some designs the inverter may be turned off to improve the overall system efficiency, although its control electronics are fully operational in order to provide a very fast inverter start when called for. If the bypass voltage falls below a minimum value the inverter is immediately started (if not already running) and the load transferred to the inverter supply by the static switch (or output transfer relay). Due to the fact that the bypass supply is already failing when the transfer sequence is initiated there is an inevitable load supply break while the transfer takes place, albeit brief and typically in the range 2 to 10ms. Most loads may, however, ride through this period satisfactorily without adverse effects while many will not. The load is retransferred to the bypass line once the bypass supply is restored. Due to the inevitable load br eak during transfer some purists argue that this type of system is really a form of stand-by power supply rather than a true UPS. When the load is transferred to inverter in this type of module the inverter immediately operates from battery power and can sustain the load only until the battery voltage falls to its end-of-discharge level, whereupon the UPS output supply will fail if the bypass supply is not restored. Standby UPSs are most common in low-power applications (0 2 kVA) such as individual workstation backup power, small office server backup power, etc.

Even though some higher quality designs might be capable of filtering utility power or protecting loads from power surges, the lack of complete power conditioning and load isolation generally make standby UPSs unsuitable to critical loads such as industrial facilities or data centers.

2.2.2 LINE-INTERACTIVE UPS TOPOLOGY

This type of UPS covers a range of hybrid devices that attempt to offer a higher level of performance than conventional off-line designs by adding voltage regulation features in the bypass line. The two most popular types of system in this category employ either a buck/boost transformer (Figure 2.3) or a ferroresonant transformer (Figure 2.4). Like off-line models, line-interactive UPS normally supply the critical load through the bypass line and transfer it to the inverter in the event of a bypass supply failure. The battery, charger and inverter power blocks are utilized in the same manner as in an off-line system but due to the added regulation circuits in the bypass line the load is transferred to the battery -fed inverter supply less often, making this type of system slightly more efficient in terms of running costs and battery wear compared with an off-line system

y Buck/Boost Transformer Design.

One of the drawbacks of the straightforward off -line design is that the load must be transferred to the inverter immediately the bypass supply voltage reaches the voltage limits acceptable to the load. This means that the UPS might transfer between bypass and inverter quite frequently if it is set up to operate with a critical load having a tight voltage tolerance. Apart from the power break each time this occurs, this method of operation incurs frequent battery usage w hich reduces battery life and might perhaps result in a battery that is inadequately charged when it is called upon to support a prolonged mains blackout.

Figure 2.3 Line-Interactive UPS with Buck/Boost Transformer A buck/boost transformer connected in t he bypass line helps overcome this problem (see Figure2.3). The transformer has tapped secondary windings which are selected by relays to either step-up or step-down the bypass voltage as appropriate to maintain the UPS output voltage within the required output voltage limits. This means of controlling the output voltage permits a

wider variation of bypass voltage to exist before the output voltage reaches its limits and initiates a load transfer to inverter. A typical UPS in this category will sustain the load voltage over a bypass voltage range of +20% to -30% (A.b.c manual). Note that although the output voltage is maintained within its preferred window using this method, buck/boost switching unavoidably leads to a degree of step voltage changes as tap changes take place. [abc manual].

y Ferroresonant Transformer Design

As shown in Figure 2.4 this type of system is similar to the buck/boost system previously described, but in this case the buck/boost transformer is replaced by a ferroresonant transformer.

Figure 2.4 Line-Interactive UPS with Ferroresonant Transformer

The transformer provides voltage regulation and power conditioning for disturbances such as electrical line noise and will typically maintain the output voltage to within 3% of nominal over a bypass voltage range spanning +20% to -40% [abc manual]. It also stores a reserve of energy that is usually sufficient to power most computers, i.e. PCs, briefly when a total outage occurs. This keeps

the load supplied with power within most input requirements until the inverter is switched on and effectively turns the system into a true on-line system in that the load is effectively transferred without a power break. A Bi-directional Power Converter is in used to replace the rectifier/charger and inverter power block shown in figure 2.3. As its name suggests, this is a dual purpose power circuit which acts as a controlled battery charger under normal circumstances when the load is connected to the bypass, and very quickly changes over to operate as a power inverter when the bypass supply fails and the load is transferred to the inverter supply. This type of design can also be used with the buck/boost circuit shown previously or indeed any other line-interactive hybrid.

2.2.3 DOUBLE CONVERSION/ ONLINE TOPOLOGY

An immediate difference between this design and the previously described off line system is that the battery charger is replaced by a rectifier/charger block. The rectifier/charger may be two separate units or a combined power block. When the mains supply is present this block float charges the battery and supplies the inverter with a stable dc voltage. In the absence of the mains supply the charger shuts down and the inverter dc supply is provided by the battery, which begins to discharge. The online UPS is ideal for environments where electrical isolation is necessary or for equipment that is very sensitive to power fluctuations. Although once

previously reserved for very large installations of 10 kW or more, advances in technology have permitted it to now be available as a common consumer device, supplying 500 watts or less.

Fig 2.5Double conversion/online UPS

As part of its control function the rectifier/charger generally includes an input current limit feature to provide overload protection and a dc overvoltage shutdown mechanism to protect the battery/inverter and dc filter components. This UPS design, which is sometimes also referred to as a double conversion UPS, offers the greatest degree of critical supply integrity in that the load is supplied with processed power at all times. That is, when the UPS input mains supply is present the rectifier, charger and inverter power blocks are all active and the load is connected to the inverter output v ia the static switch. As the load is powered from the inverter under normal circumstances it is well protected from input supply aberrations because the rectifier and inverter act as a barrier to mains borne noise and transient voltage excursions, in addition to providing a well regulated output voltage. If the input supply goes outside a preset voltage range (typically +10% to 20%), or suffers a total failure, the inverter continues operating from battery power and the event is totally transparent t o the load as there is no transfer operation involved. When operating from battery power the inverter supplies the same degree of supply regulation as when the mains supply is present. If the mains is not restored before the battery reaches its end -of-discharge voltage the inverter shuts down and, in some designs, the static switch may attempt to transfer the load to the bypass line.

The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) Standard 1159 1995 defines seven categories of power quality d isturbances, such as transients, sags, swells and frequency variations ( Prasad P, et al.,). Depending on the quality of the power being delivered to the facility by the utility, one or more of these disturbances may occur frequently. At a minimum, the pow er conditioning function of the UPS ensures output power transmitted to the critical load is well within the tolerance of its power supplies [Mohan, et al.,]. It does this by correcting utility power quality disturbances and delivering conditioned power to the critical load. With a double conversion UPS, all power is rectified from AC to DC and inverted from DC to AC, ensuring a perfect sine wave and frequency protection on the output and protecting against all seven types of disturbances. The main advantage to the on-line UPS is its ability to provide an electrical firewall between the incoming utility power and sensitive electronic equipment. While the standby and Line-Interactive UPS merely filter the input utility power, the Double-Conversion UPS provides a layer of insulation from power quality problems. It allows control of output voltage and frequency regardless of input voltage and frequency. This topology is inherently very efficient which leads to high reliability while at the same time providing superior power protection. This often makes double conversion UPSs the topology of choice for highly sensitive loads i n mission critical applications.

Evidently, it could be seen from the above that this topology presents the most attractive features and hence its choice for this project.

2.3 INVERTER TOPOLOGY

The inverter provides ac load voltage from a dc voltage source. The semiconductor switches can be Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs), field effect transistors (FETs), etc. The choice of power switch will depend on rating requirements and ease with which the device can be turned on and off. A single-phase inverter will contain two or four power switches arranged in half-bridge or full-bridge topologies. Half-bridges have the maximum a.c. voltage limited to half the valu e of the full d.c. source voltage and may need a centre tapped source. Full -bridges have the full d.c. source voltage as the maximum a.c. Voltage. Where the d.c. source voltage is low, e.g. 12V or 24V, the voltage drop across the conducting power switches is significant and should be taken into account both in calculation and in selection of the switch. The a.c. load voltage of the inverter is essentially a square wave, but pulse- width-modulation methods can be used to reduce the harmonics and produce a quasi-sine wave. If higher a.c. voltages than the d.c. source voltage are required, then the inverter will require a step-up transformer.

The output frequency of the inverter is controlled by the rate at which the switches are turned on and off, in other words by the pulse repetition frequency of the base, or gate , driver circuit. Some typical single-phase inverters are considered in the following sections . As we have earlier stated, Single-phase voltage source inverters (VSIs) can be found as half-bridge and full-bridge topologies in terms of switch arrangement. The main features of both approaches are reviewed and presented in this section and one topology will be chosen as inverter circuit design for this project.
2.3.1 HALF-BRIDGE INVERTER

Figure 2.6 shows the power topology of a half-bridge VSI, where two large capacitors are required to provide a neutral point N, such that each capacitor maintains a constant voltage vi/2.

Fig 2.6 Single-phase half-bridge VSI.

It is clear that both switches S+ and S- cannot be on simultaneously because a short circuit across the dc link voltage source vi would be produced. There are two dened (states 1 and 2) and one undened (state 3) switch state as shown in Table 2.1. In order to avoid the short circuit across the dc bus and the undened ac output voltage condition, the modulating technique should always en sure that at any instant either the top or the bottom switch of the inverter is on.

TABLE 2.1 Switch states for a half-bridge single-phase VSI

Fig 2.7 Half-bridge inverter waveforms Figure 2.7 shows the ideal waveforms associated with the half-bridge inverter shown in Fig2.6. The states for the switches S+ and S- are dened by the modulating technique, which in this case is a carrier-based PWM.

2.32 Full-bridge inverter

Figure 2.8 shows the power topology of a full-bridge VSI.This inverter is similar to the half-bridge inverter; however, a second leg provides the neutral point to the load. As expected, both switches S1+ and S1- (or S2+ and S2-) cannot be on simultaneously because a short circuit across the dc link voltage source vi would be produced. There are four dened (states 1, 2, 3, and 4) and one undened (state 5) switch states as shown in Table 2.2. The undened condition should be avoided so as to be always capable of dening the ac output voltage. In order to avoid the short circuit across the dc bus and the undened ac output voltage condition, the modulating technique should ensure that either the top or the bottom switch of each leg is on at any instant. It can be observed that the ac output voltage can take values up to the dc link value vi , which is twice that obtained with half-bridge VSI topologies. Several modulating techniques have been developed that are applicable to fullbridge VSIs. Among them are the PWM (bipolar and unipolar) techniques.

Fig 2.8 Single-phase full-bridge VSI TABLE2.2 Switch states for a full-bridge single-phase VSI

Fig 2.10 The full-bridge VSI. Ideal waveforms for the unipolar SPWM

2.33 PUSH-PULL TOPOLOGY

The push-pull topology for producing a square wave output is shown in fig 2.10.

Fig 2.10 push-pull topology- square wave output. The basic theory of operation behind a push -pull design is as follows: The top transistor switch closes and causes current to flow from the battery negative through the transformer primary to the battery positive. This induces a voltage in the secondary side of the transformer that is equal to the battery voltage times the turns ratio of the transformer. (fig 2.11A) After a period of approximately 8ms (one-half of a 60hz AC cycle), the switches flip-flop. The top switch opens and then the bottom switch closes allowing current to flow in the opposite direction (See state Figure 2.11B below). This cycle continues and higher voltage AC power is the result. The output wave form is a square wave.

Fig 2.11(A and B). Transistor switch states

However, a sine wave can be obtained from a push pull topology by using a high inductive transformer. An inductor is a coil of wire that has the ability to store energy and to oppose changes in current within a circuit. An inductor acts like a magnetic flywheel. In other words, if voltage is suddenly applied to an inductor, the inductor will react by attempting to slow down the resulting current rise. Conversely, if current is already flowing through the inductor and is suddenly removed, the inductor will react by releasing its stored current and attempt to stop the current from going to zero. As a result the fall time of the current is prolonged. This reaction acts to impede the changes in current. The push pull approach with a high inductive transformer was used in implementing this project.

2.4 Shoot-through fault and dead-time

Shoot through fault occurs when S1 and S2 in half-bridge or S1 and S2 or S3 and S4 in full-bridge inverter are ON at the same time. In practical, a dead time as shown in figure 2.11 is required to avoid shoot-through faults like short-circuit across DC rail. Dead time creates low frequency envelope. Low frequency harmonics are the main source of distortion for high-quality sine wave inverters.

Figure 2.10: A shoot-through fault. Ishort is very large.

Figure 2.11: td is dead time required

2.5 Pulse Width Modulation

Pulse width modulation (PWM) describes, very generally, a method of varying the width of an input pulse to an inverter in an effort to control the output voltage or current of that inverter . Pulse-width modulation (PWM) provides a way to decrease the total harmonic

distortion (THD) of load current. A PWM inverter output, with some filtering, can generally meet the THD requirements more easily than the square -wave switching scheme. The unfiltered PWM output will have unrelatively high THD, but the harmonics will be at much higher frequencies than for a square wave, making filter easier. There are some definition and consideration when using PWM that should be stated:

i. Frequency modulation ratio, mf : The Fourier series of the PWM output voltage has a fundamental frequency that of the reference signals . Harmonic frequencies exist at and around multiples of the switching frequency. The magnitudes of some harmonics are quite large, sometimes larger than the fundamental. However, because these harmonics ar e located at high frequencies, a simple low-pass filter can be effective in removing them. Frequency modulation ratio, m f is defined as the ratio of the frequencies of the carrier and references signal:
mf = fcarrier freference

Increasing the carrier frequency (increasing

) increase the frequencies at which the harmonics occur. A disadvantage of high frequencies is higher losses in the switches used to implement the inverter. ii. Amplitude modulation ratio, ma : defined as the ratio of the amplitude of the reference and carrier signals:

ma =

vm, reference

vm, carrier

If ma 1 , the amplitude of the fundamental frequency of the output voltage, v1 is linearly proportional to ma. That is V1 = ma Vdc. The amplitude of the fundamental frequency of the PWM is controlled by ma. The value of ma can be varied to change amplitude output. If ma is greater than one, the amplitude of the output increases with ma, but not linearly. iii. Switches: the switches in the full-bridge circuit must be capable of carrying current in either direction for pulse -width modulation. Another consequence of real switches is that they do not turn on and off instantly. Therefore, it is necessary to allow for switching times or dead time in the control of the switches. iv. Reference voltage: the reference voltage must be generated within the control circuit of the inverter or taken from an outside reference. A sinusoidal voltage must be present before the bridge can ope rate to produce a sinusoidal output. The reference signal is not restricted to a sinusoidal.

2.6 Bipolar switching

Figure 2.12 illustrates the principle of sinusoidal bipolar pulse -width modulation. When the instantaneous value of the sine reference is la rger than the triangular carrier, the output is at +vdc and when the reference is less than the carrier, the output is at -vdc. v0 = +vdc for vsine > vtri v0 = -vdc for vsine < vtri It is called bipolar because the output alternates between plus and minus the dc supply voltage. The switching scheme that will implement bipolar switching using the full-bridge inverter of figure 2.8 is determined by comparing the instantaneous reference and carrier signals: s1and s2 are on when vsine > vtri s3and s4 are on when vsine > vtri v0 = +vdc v0 = -vdc

Figure 2.12: The output waveform that generates from bipolar switching.

2.7 Unipolar switching

In a unipolar switching scheme for pulse-width modulation, the output is switched from either high to zero or low to zero, rather than between high and low as bipolar switching. The switching scheme that will implement unipolar switching using the full-bridge inverter of figure 2.8 is as follows: S1 is on when vsine > vtri

S2 is on when vsine < vtri S3 is on when vsine > vtri

S4 is on when vsine < vtri

Note that switch pair (S1,S4) and (S2,S3) are complementary. When one switch

in pair is closed, the other is open. The voltages switch, vs1 and vs3 in figure 2.13 alternate between +vdc and zero. The output voltage is v0 = vs1 vs3.

Figure 2.13: The output waveform that generates from unipolar switching.

2.8 Total harmonic distortion (THD)

The switch in the full-bridge inverter described earlier, when not coupled to an output transformer, produces a square voltage waveform due to its simple off and on nature as opposed to the sinusoidal waveform that is the usual waveform of an AC power supply. Using Fourier analysis, periodic waveforms are represented as the sum of an infinite series of sine waves. The sine wave that

has the same frequency as the original waveform is called the fundamental component. The other sine waves, called harmonics, that are included in the series have frequencies that are integral multiples of the fundamental frequency. Harmonics cause distortion on the output voltage. The standard measure used to characterize distortion is the total harmonic distortion (THD).Total harmonics distortion (THD) is a measure to determine the quality of the ac output voltage or current. The quality of the inverter output waveform can be expressed by using the Fourier analysis data to calculate the total harmonic distortion (THD). The total harmonic distortion is the square root of the sum of the squares of the harmonic voltages divided by the fundamenta l voltage:

The quality of output waveform that is needed from an inverter depends on the characteristics of the connected load. Some loads need a nearly perfect sine wave voltage supply in order to work properly. Other loads may work quite well with a square wave voltage. The most important sources of distortion in power inverters are: the kind of modulation used, nonlinearities in the output filter, dead times, the direct Voltage Drop across the Switches (VDS) and modifications of the voltage

of the dc-link.

Distortion due to DTs: The DTs are normally introduced at the beginning of

each pulse, delaying the turning on of the respective switch, to allow the other switch to effectively turn off (Mohan et al., 1989). Distortion caused by the DTs has already been studied. In Mohan etal. (1989) and Mosely et al. (1999) a basic description of the problem and its influence over the THD of the output waveform can be found. Since during the DT both switches of the same leg are off, the sign of the output current dictates which of the freewheeling diodes conducts. In consequence, when the current is negative (positive current flows from point A to point B in Fig. 1 by convention) the average output voltage is higher than desired. On the contrary, when the current is positive the average output voltage is lower than desired. Then the output waveform is distorted, with low-order harmonic components that are difficult (or relatively expensive) to filter out. According to Mosely et al. (1999), the ratio (Period/ DT) must be > 15 or the DT < 6.7% of the period to keep the THD below 1%.

CHAPTER THREE SYSTEM IMPLEMENTATION 3.1 INTRODUCTION

The developed UPS is divided into five major blocks as shown in figure 3.1
A THE POWER SUPPLY/BATTERY CHARGING MODULE B THE D.C VOLTAGE INPUT AND INVERSION MODULE C THE CURRENT BUFFER [AMPLIFIER] MODULE

D THE AUTOMATIC CONTROL MODULE

E THE A.C OUTPUT VOLTAGE TRANSFORMATION MODULE

Fig 3.1 Block diagram of the developed UPS

3.2

THE POWER SUPPLY/BATTERY CHARGING MODULE

The power supply/ battery charging module comprises the A.C step down power transformer and diode bridge rectifiers that converts A.C to D.C suitable for charging the batteries which supplies the inverter circuit its re quired D.C power.

3.21 BATERY CHARGING TRANSFORMER (TFX-1)

240v/18v/15v/9v, 2000VA transformer steps down 220VAC-240VAC from mains power supply to 18V/15V/9V A.C which are further rectified to D.C voltage for the battery charging and control operations o f the entire system. When the 240VAc from mains power is supplied to the primary coil of TFX -1, It produces an alternating current through the primary coil. This alternating current in the primary coil produces an alternating magnetic flux in the core which flows mutually between the two coils. This flux linking both the primary and secondary coils induces an e.m.f in the secondary coil of the transformer in accordance to faradays law which states that a changing magnetic flux induces an electric field whose value is dependent on the number of turns of wire. Thus the higher the number of turns of wire, the higher the voltage vice versa. The transformer (TFX-1) was constructed for output by taking the appropriate ratio of the secondary coils to that of the primary coil. Ep Es = Np Ns = Is Ip . (3.1)

Ep = primary e.m.f Es = secondary induced voltages

Np = primary turns (coil) Ns = secondary turns Ip = primary current Is = secondary current\ Mineral insulated copper wire of gauge 24 was used for the primary coil (Np) while gauge 18 was used for the secondary coil (Ns).

Fig 3.2
Calculations:

constructional diagram of TFX-1

The turns of the primary coil (Np) was tested and its inductive reactance was confirmed to withstand 240VAC. From the test, the turns of the primary coil was calculated to be 2000 turns. The available parameters were used to calculate for he unknown parameters as follows: Ep = 240v, Es1 = 18v, Es2= 15v, Es3 = 9v Ns2=? Ns3 =?

Np= 200T, Ns1=?

From equation (3.1), I can be deduced that Ns = Es x Ep Ns1 = 18 x 240 2000 = 150 turns Np .(3.2)

Ns2

15

x 240

2000

125 turns

Ns3 =

x 240

2000

75 turns

3.22 FULL WAVE BRIDGE RECTIFIER DIODES (D1, D2, D3 & D4)

The rectification circuit employs four (4) numbers of P.N junction power diodes that converts 15VAC supplied by the step-down transformer (TFX-1) into pulsating D.C. this pulsating D.C is then filtered with an inductor for the battery charging operation.

Fig 3.3

Circuit diagram of a full wave bridge rectifier

At one input half cycle, diodes D 1 and D3 become forward biased (ON) while D2 and D4 are reverse biased (OFF) hence current flows through the load (accumulator). At the second input half-cycle, diodes D 2 and D4 become forward biased while D1 and D3 become reversed biased, thus current flows in the same direction.

Fig 3.4

input wave form before rectification

Fig 3.5 output waveform after rectification

3.23 THE SERIAL INDUCTOR FILTER (SL1)

The series inductor filter removes pulsation (ripples) present in the output voltage supplied by the rectifier. Its operation depends on the property of an inductor to charge up (store energy) during conducting half -cycle and to discharge (deliver energy) during the non -conducting half-cycle. The serial inductor (SL1) was constructed with mineral insulated copper wire of guage 20 wound on a ring shaped laminated iron core and a secondary coil (Ns) was attached on the core to provide e.m.f from the flux produced in the magnetic core for the battery charging LED indicator.

Fig 3.6

Diagram of the serial inductor filter

Fig 3.7

output wave form after filtration

3.3

THE D.C INPUT VOLTAGE AND INVERSION MODULE

This module converts 12volts D.C from the battery source to A.C for amplification at the buffer module.

Fig 3.8

Circuit diagram of D.C input voltage and inversion module

3.31 12V D.C INPUT VOLTAGE SOURCE

The source of the supply is a 12V D.C lead acid accumulator which is used to activate the oscillatory circuit. The lead acid accumulator was chosen because

of its higher current capacity and also its ability to be recharged after discharging.
3.32 THE INVERTER CIRCUIT (A.C SIGNAL GENERATOR)

This circuit changes the D.C power from the 12v lead acid accumulator into A.C. The inversion process is achieved with the help of transistors (ST) switching actions. This circuit is a multi-vibrator. A multi-vibrator is a two state amplifier with positive feedback, in other words multi-vibrators are oscillatory circuits consisting of active devices. The positive feedback in multi-vibrators is obtained by using RC or RL inter-stage coupling for two state multi vibrators. There are three types of multi -vibrators; mono-stable, Astable and bi-stable, but in this system we are dealing with RL astable multivibrator. The output of an astable mult ivibrator circuit is obviously a repeating periodic A.C waveform. With reference to fig 3.8, the inductors L1 and L2 are coupled in the input transformer (TFX-2) of a push pull power amplifier coil Np1 and Np2. One input half cycle are connected in series opposing to each other and eac h connected to the base terminal of a triggering transistor through a base resistor. At one input half-cycle, transistor ST1 becomes forward biased (ON) while transistor ST2 is reversed biased (OFF) due to the charging and di scharging action of the inductor coil L1 and L2 . As a result of this, current through the

transistor ST1 across a section of a center tapped primary winding (coil) of the input transformer (TFX-2). At the second input half-cycle, transistor ST2 becomes forward biased while transistor ST1 is reveres biased. This switching action cause a change in current (i1) flow drection from transistor ST and coil L1to transistor ST2 through the half section of the center tapped primary coils (Np1 and Np2). This alternati ng action continues resultant effect is the generation of an A.C signal. The charging and discharging period of inductor coils (L1 and L2) is determined by the base resistor connected in seris with the inductor coils. The frequency of alternation can be varies by varying the resistor value.

Fig 3.9

waveform before inversion

Fig 3.10 A.C output waveform after inversion.

3.33 THE INPUT TRANSFORMER (TFX-2)

The input transformer (TFX-2) was use for push-pull power coupling. The alternating current produced in the primary coils of TFX-2 due to the switching actions of the transistors ST1 and ST2 produces an alternating magnetic flux in the core which flow mutually between secondary coils (NS1 and NS2) and primary coils (NP1 & NP2) of transformer (TFX-2). This flux linking both the primary and secondary coils induces an e.m.f in the secondary coil of the transformer. The primary and secondary coils of the transformer (TFX-2) are in the ratio 1:1.

Fig 3.11 circuit diagram of TFX-2

Mineral insulated copper wire of gauge 22" was used for the inductor (L1 &L2) coils while gauge 24" was used for primary coils (NP1 andNp2) secondary coils (NS1 & Ns2). Laminated iron core was used as the electromagnetic circuit.

Fig 3.12

constructional diagram of the i nput transformer (TFX-2)

3.4

THE CURRENT BUFFER [AMPLIFICATION] MODULE

The current amplification module amplifies current from the inversion module which is then feed to the output module. Current buffering is basically a process of current amplification using amplifiers. Amplifiers are essentially two port systems in which signal is fed into one port or pair of terminals and an amplified signal is received from another port or pair of terminals. In nearly all cases, the input and output voltages have a common reference level, usually the earth line . Electron amplifying devices such as transistors have three terminals namely; collector, base and emitter or drain, gate and source). In basic amplifying arrangement, one of this three is chosen to be the common line input while output voltages are taken between the other two terminals and the common terminal . Since there are three terminals in all, it allows for three choices for the common terminal; common emitter, common

base and common collector or common source, common gate and common drain. With both types of devices, the amplifying properties of the three configuration are very different each having appropriate application. The amplifier configuration employed in this system is a common emitter Darlington paired cascaded amplification coupled with push -pull center tapped input transformer and push pull center taped output transformer (TFX -3). The A.C signal from inversion module is fed through base resistors (1k 20w)

to the base terminal of Darlington paired cascaded buffer transistors (BT1 BT12) (150w, 200v, 60Hz) 2N055. These transistors (BT1-BT12) amplify the current to a higher level which is then fed into the output transformer (TFX-3). The 2N3055 transistors used were coupled on aluminum heat sinks with large surface area provided by fins to ensure a maximum rate of heat dissipation to the atmosphere.

Fig 3.13

circuit diagram of a common emitter Darlington paired cascaded amplifier

3.5

THE AUOMATIC CONTROL MODULE

The automatic control module comprises a voltage sensing relays which sences the input voltage from the public mains or any other exte rnal power source. This module controls the power input to the battery charging module. Also it activates the inversion module in the event of power failure depending on the type of UPS topology employed. The output voltage from transformer (TFX-1) of 9v A.C was rectified to 9vD.C by bridge rectifier diodes (IN4001) and the rectified output was used to actuate D.C electromagnetic relay. The relays with their normal open and close switches automatically switches the voltage inversion section on and off in the event of power failure and power restorati on of the public mains supply. Also the tap changing relay selects the tap with 13VAC - 15VAC in the event of power fluctuation there by stabilizing the battery charging terminal voltage.

Fig 3.14

circuit diagram of the automatic control module

3.6

THE A.C OUTPUT VOLTAGE TRANSFORMATION MODULE

The A.C output voltage transformation module comprises the final stage components of the entire system. The output transformer (TFX-3) steps-up 12V AC from the buffer stage to 240 and 110 V A.C respectively, which are fed to the load terminals. This transformer was constructed for two outputs by linking the appropriate ratio of the secondary coils to that of the primary coil. Thus: Ep Es1 Es2 = = = 12v 110v 240v

From equation (3.2) Ns = Es x Ep Ns1 = Es1 x Ep Np Np

110

x 12

100

917 turns.

Ns2 =

240

x 12

100

2000 turns.

Fig

3.15 circuit diagram of output transformer (TFX-3)

Mineral insulated copper wire of gauge of gauge 22 was used for the secondary coils and 18 for the primary coils wound in a center yoke laminated iron core.

Fig 3.16

constructional diagram of the output transformer (TFX -3)

3.7 i.

CONSTRUCTION AND ASSEMBLANCE Transistor Heat Sinks:

The heat sinks holding the power transistors were fabricated from metal aluminum plates with large surface area provided by fins. The construction process involved the use of tools like scribes, hack saw, drilling machine and filing machine which were all used for making positions, cutting, drilling of holes and smoothening of edges.

ii.

Transformers:

The transformer coils were made with mineral insulated cupper wire of various gauges while the cores were made with center yoke laminated steel plates

iii.

The Resistors:

The resistors used were fixed on a vero board and soldered with soldering lead.
iv. The Casing:

The casing embodying the devices was fabricated from steel metal of measured dimensions (length, width and height) with and upper and lower chamber. The construction process involved the use of tools such as hacksaw for cutting out of the marked positions, welding machine for

electric welding of cut metals, drilling machine for hole drilling, filling machine for filing rough edges and spraying machine for spray ing of the metal casing.

Fig 3.17

Finished construction of the 3000VAC UPS

3.2

THE POWER SUPPLY/BATTERY CHARGING MODULE