Fundamentals

Fundamentals of Automation
8th semester, 3+1 c. (Introduction to Automation)
Lecturer: dr. Tibor Cski dr. Ildik Mak Machine Tool Department University of Miskolc
Topics Fundamental ideas in automation. Signals, signal theory. Digital and analogue signals, systems. Theoretical fundamentals of digital automation. Boole functions and their realization. Functional elements of digital systems in automation of machinery. Linear control theory. Operational blocks, group of blocks, block diagram. Methods for analysis of control loops. (Laplace transformation, differential equations, frequency response methods, root-locus method.) Compensation of control loops. Basic control loops in machinery. Joined positioning systems in robotics. Principle of numerical control. Structure of CNC-s. Planning and simulation of positioning systems. Software structure of CNC controllers. Real-time operating systems. Solving of control and monitoring tasks. Cell controller and FMS controller, their functions. CIM structure. Communication tasks in CIM.
T.Cski-I. Mak: Fundamentals of Automation 2
1. Preface
What is the automation ? In the ancient times people worked by hand. They made every tasks, every works without any help. Later they began to do some simple (and later more complicated ) machines, eg. water wheels for lifting water from channels, mills (water and wind mills ) for milling corns, etc. They began to use animals to give their force, their power to get work machines, vehicles, etc. In the XIXth century the machines were able to do many tasks. Steam engines gave the mechanical energy to machines, but the man had to control every machine. What does it mean control ? Control consists of some activities: observe the phenomena (speed of machine, pressure of steam, temperature of water, etc.), compute (decide) the needed activity (growing or reducing the amount of fuel ), set the appropriate device (modify the setting of fuel valves ).
Generally, control has 3 parts: measuring, computing, setting. During evolution machines became more powerful, more quick, more precise, thus human control doesn't fit their tasks. It became necessary to control machines by other machines. This control is the automation. This is the short story of automation. We can study and we can plan automated systems. The first task is the analysis, and the second is the synthesis. In the life, in the industry, in the machinery there are a lot of automated systems. We are dealing with such a systems, in which automation works by machines, automatic devices. Topics of this semester is the following: 1. Signals. What is a signal ? Properties of signals. Digital and analogue signals. Information of signals. Quantification and sampling of signals. 2. Digital automation. Boole algebra. Boole functions. Logic elements. Logic networks. 3. Combinatorial and sequential networks. Methods for planning networks. 4. Digital controllers. 5. Linear continuous control theory. Components of analogue control systems. Openloop and closed-loop characteristics. Operational blocks, groups of blocks, block diagram.
6. Method for analyzing control loops. Transient and sinusoidal response. Solving of differential equations. Laplace transformation, frequency response methods. Bode diagram. Root-locus method. 7. Compensation of control loops. Stability . Quality. 8. Basic control loops in machinery. Positioning systems, planning and simulation. Joined positioning systems in robotics. 9. Numerical control. Tasks of NC. Geometric systems. Machine tasks. Programming of NC. 10. Structure of CNC. Hardware and software structure of CNC controller. Real-time operating systems. 11. Monitoring. 12. Systems. CIM, FMS, cell. CIM structure. Tasks in FMS. Cell controller. 13. Communication in CIM. LAN , RS 232, protocol, block, message. DNC.
1.1. Signals. A signal is a physical quantity or a change in a physical quantity, which can be measured. There are a lot of signals.(In a certain respect every phenomena are signals.) E.g.: - sounds of drums in Africa - intensity of light - electrical voltage, current - state of a switch - etc. Information: it stops an uncertainty. (You've learned about informatics in 6th semester, thus you know many things.) Signal has a physical property (state variable), and an intellectual property ( it contains information ). Let's see a figure:
Product Operational program Command signals Energy Controller Reports Measuring signals Material Machine
The machine's task, function: to do some operations (machine functions)
The controller's task, function: to control the process, to course the machine's tasks. The controller gives command signals, and it receives measuring signals to supervise of carrying out of commands. The machine needs materials and energy, and it produces a product. The controller is in connection with man. It receives operational program from worker, and sends information about it's operating conditions. There is a transformation between operational program and product. If the program is good, we can get a good product (in case of good machine and good control equipment.) The sort of signals have large importance in respect of security of information transfer.
1.1.1. Classifying of signals. Signal
Analogue The natural signals are analogous. continuous

f(t)
Digital These signals are made by men. quantified

f(t)
continual continual
f(t)
f(t)
sampled
sampled
Measuring always has an uncertainty because noise, and this causes inexact results. Information can be handled in noisy circumstances, too Description needs 2 steps: 1. Quantification: we select a unit ( increment, delta). This is the smallest quantity which we want to distinguish. 2. Sampling: we select a unit in time. Ts. How can we select these units ? Delta is in conjunction with accuracy and noise. If delta is too small, we'll measure the noise. If delta is too coarse, we can't measure the signal with appropriate accuracy. Ts depends from claim (demand) and from properties of process. What is the speed of change of signals ? It is obvious, that we must sample the signal more frequently than it's period time. Every signal has a Fourier-spectrum. The signal has a limit frequency. This is such a frequency, that the frequencies being greater then limit frequency have no significant amplitude in spectrum. Shannon's law:
2 f h < f s = 1/ Ts
It must be fulfilled. There is a special digital signal: the binary signal. The binary signal has a quantification, in which the quantified signal has 2 values.
x
1 0 t
The physical appearance of signals may be very different. Binary signals have a very great importance. Digital signals are generally a combination of some binary signals. The binary signal is available not only for description of numerical values 0 and 1, but it can explain information about a state of a device ( eg. a relay can or can't conduct current, etc.). A system can have more states, these can be described by more binary signals. A machine also can have more states, which we want to control, and these state changes can be caused by binary signals.
1.1.2. Application of signals.
1. Computing system.
Input peripheral
Digital
Computer
Digital
Output peripheral
Input peripheral: inputs the data, command. Computer: processes the input and the stored data. Output peripheral: displays the result.
2. Measuring system.
Sensor
Analogue
A/D
Digital
Measuring signal processor
Digital
Display
Sensor : measures the states of process (e.g. force, stress, pressure, voltage, torque, acceleration, vibration, temperature, etc.). A/D converter: converts analogue signals to digital signals. Measuring signal processor: processes measured signals, computes characteristic values, makes transformations, stores data, etc. Display: displays measured and computed, processed values.
3. Digital control system.

Digital Control equipment Man Digital Analogue, digital Machine Analogue, digital
Program carrier
Program carrier: stores the program for control equipment (eg. floppy, CD, pen drive, etc.). Control equipment: controls the operation of machine. It gives and receives A and D signals to/from machine, commands and programs from man. Machine: executes commands of controller.
4. Binary logical controller.
Input signals
Control equipment
Output signals
The control equipment makes output signals from input signals. The transformation between input and output signals can be described by means of functions. We'll use binary signals, thus signals have 2 states, 2 values: 0 or 1. We'll use binary algebra ( Boole algebra), and our functions will be binary ( Boole ) functions. Let it be:
X = [x1 , x 2 , ..., x n ] ,
T
each x i =
0 1
input signals, input vector.
Y = [y1 , y 2 , ..., y m ] ,
T
each y i =
0 1
output signals, output vector.
Y = F(X )
We can describe:
in every t time.
y1 = f1 (x 1 , x 2 ,..., x n ), . . . y m = f m (x 1 , x 2 ,..., x n ).
where fi is Boole function of ( Boole or binary ) variables x1,...,xn. T.Cski-I. Mak: Fundamentals of Automation 8
This simple binary controller is named as combinatorial network. Any combination of output corresponds to a combination of input signals, variables. Typical examples are the coder and decoder circuits. There are another kind of control equipments, in which the dependency of output isn't so simple as earlier. The states of output variables depend not only from input variables but the earlier life of the control equipment. We can say that the equipment remembers own previous states, it knows the order of preceding input variables. These are so called sequential networks. It stores the previous state, thus it has a memory function.
x1 x2 F xn
Memory
m1 G mp
y1 y2 ym
M = [m1 , m 2 , ... , m p ] M ( t +1) = F(X, M ) Y ( t ) = G (X, M )

(t ) (t )
2. Discrete controllers 2.1. Information Discrete controllers serve as information transformers, they make output information from input information. The form of information under processing may be: - number - character - code - etc. Let's see the numbers often used in control equipments.
2.1.1. Numbers Any number can be expressed in different form. The usual description of a number is the following:
N = ai Ri
i =0
where N is the number being treated, ai are the figures, the range of figures is 0 ai < R R is the radix of applied number system. The most "popular" systems are: - decimal numbers. R = 10, ai = 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9 - binary numbers. R = 2, ai= 0,1 - octal numbers. R = 8, ai= 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7 - hexadecimal numbers. R = 16, ai= 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F Conversions between different forms of numbers: We can convert any number to decimal number using the equation given above. Man can compute with decimal numbers, this form is the most common for people. If we want to convert a number to another, we have to divide the number with the radix of new number, and the residues will be the figures of the number. The figures are read in backward direction, that is the first residue is the least significant figure, and the last residue is the most significant figure. To convert a decimal number into a binary number is an easy task.
38 = 100110 19 9 4 2 1
After this conversion we can get the octal and the hexadecimal numbers simply grouping of binary figures. To compute the octal form of a binary number we have to make groups with 3 binary figures from right to left ( from least significant to most significant ) and each group corresponds to an octal figure, where the value of an octal figure is computed by making the weighted sum of binary figures. The least significant binary figure in the triplet has a
weighting factor 1 = 20, the figure in the middle of the triplet has a factor 2 = 21, and the most significant figure ( which is in the left-hand side ) has a factor 4 = 22.
101.011.110 = 536
To get the hexadecimal numbers we have to make groups with 4 binary figures, and the figures have weighting factors 1, 2, 4, 8 respectively. 1101.1011.0011=DB3 These numbers were integer ones, because this is the most simple and most often used type of numbers in control, especially in the discrete, binary control. There are a lot of standards to give the real numbers ( for example in computer technics ), but these numbers are out of our mind.
2.2.2. Codes In machinery the form of information is generally code, we use coded information in information gathering, transferring, processing, etc. There are a lot of different code systems. Some often used code systems are: - pure binary code. The binary number can be treated as a pure binary code of the decimal numbers. This code contains weighting factors, these factors are power of 2, and the value of code is the sum of the weighted components. - ASCII code. This code is an international standard code of ISO, and it can describe characters ( numbers, letters, control characters). This code contains 8 bits ( binary figures) to give the information. We can describe one word of this code as 2 hexadecimal numbers. In the standard the most significant bit is a parity bit, it doesn't contain information. In the extended code the most significant bit is a normal bit, and the codes above 127 are graphic codes in the IBM code set, e.g. - Grey code. This code has the property, that only one bit changes its value, if the number representing by the code word is incremented or decremented. This code serves to code numbers. Because of above mentioned properties this code is very useful to code measuring signals, as digital encoders in machine tools, etc. - Johnson code. This is a redundant code, because it works as a Moebius strip. The content of a 4-bit Johnson counter changes in the following way: 000000010011011111111110110010000000 As you can see, this code contains only 8 different words of 24 = 16 4-bit words. There are different codes, which can find if some error occurred during information transfer or processing. The most simple type of these codes is the parity checking code. The standard T.Cski-I. Mak: Fundamentals of Automation 11
ASCII code contains a parity bit, the 8th bit. It's value depends on the number of 1's in the code word. In an even parity code the number of 1's must be an even number in every code word. Eg.: The code of the character 0 is 30H, it contains 2 1's, so the value of parity bit is 0. The code of the character 1 is 31H, it contains 3 1's, which is an odd number, so the parity bit must be 1, the final code word is B1H. - There are codes, which can correct some errors occurred during information transfer or processing. Such codes are used in mainframe computer memories for example.
2.2. Logical algebra. Logical algebra is based on work of an English philosopher Boole. There are a lot of systems in the nature and in the technics which can have 2 stable states. A logical statement can be true or false, and it is always or true, or false, exclusively. Similarly a circuit is opened or closed, but it isn't closed and opened at the same time. It is obvious to intend values 0 and 1 for false and true. 0 means false, 1 means true (e.g.). By means of logical algebra we can describe equations, logical functions, these may be simplified, and we can reduce networks.
2.2.1. Basic operations in logical algebra: There are 3 basic operations: OR AND NOT operations. OR operation (logical addition, disjunction, union). Its symbol is: + x=a+b+c+...+n It means: x equals to 0 if and only if a=0, b=0, ... , n=0. If any of a,b,c,...,n equals to 1, then x=1. In other words: T.Cski-I. Mak: Fundamentals of Automation 12
x=1, if a=1, or b=1 ( or a=1 and b=1 ), or c=1,...e.t.c. AND operation (logical multiplication, conjunction, intersection). Its symbol is .
x = a b c ... n
It means x equals to 1 if and only if a=1 and b=1 and ...and n=1. If any one of a,b,c,...,n equals to 0, then x=0. NOT operation (negation, inversion). Its symbol is a .
x=a
It means: x=1 if and only if a=0, and x=0 if and only if a=1. Some basic relations:
1. Addition
2. Multiplication
a+0=a a +1 =1 a+a =a a 0 = 0 a 1 = a a a = a
3. Negation
a + a =1 a a = 0
a=a a+b=b+a a b = ba (a + b ) + c = a + (b + c) (a b ) c = a (b c )
4. Commutative rules 5. Associative rules 6. Distributive rules 7. De-Morgan rules
a (b + c ) = a b + a c a + b c = (a + b ) (a + c ) a + b + ... + n = a b ... n a b ... n = a + b + ... + n
Truth table:
a+b
a+b
ab
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0
1 1 0 0
1 0 1 0
1 0 0 0
thus we verified 1st De Morgan thesis. 2nd De Morgan thesis:
a 0 0 1 1
b 0 1 0 1
a b
ab
a+b
0 0 0 1
1 1 1 0
1 1 0 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 1 0
Thus we verified 2nd De Morgan thesis, too.
2.2.2. Boole functions.
Function: if we give a rule to order elements of a set, we define a function. If the rule contains Boole operations, then the function is a Boole function. Let's see some Boole functions and their's mode of definitions, descriptions. The most simple Boole functions are those, in which only one independent variable can be found. Let the independent variable be x. x may be 0 or 1, y=f(x). There are 4 functions,
1 y = 0 = f 0 (x) ,
y = x = f11 ( x ) ,
1 y = x = f 2 (x) ,
1 y = 1 = f 3 (x) .
Generally: there are N=2n Nabors (different variations of independent variables) where n= number of independent variables, and there are
p = 2 N = 22
If n=1, then N=2, p = 2 2 = 4 , the above described 4 functions. If n=2, then N=22 =4, p = 2 4 = 16 , that is there are 16 functions having 2 independent variables. Let the 2 variables be a and b . 4 nabors are:
N =
2 0
a 0
b 0
2 N1 =
0 1 1
1 0 1
N2 = 2
2 N3 =
Functions:
2 N3
N2 2
0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1
2 N1
2 N0
f0 f1 f2 f3 f4 f5 f6 f7 f8 f9 f10 f11 f12 f13
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
f0=0 f 1= a b f2 = a b
f2 = a f4 = a b
f5 = b f6 = a b + a b
f7 = a + b
f8 = a b
f9 = a b + a b
f10 = b
f2 = a + b f12 = a
f13 = a + b
f14 = a + b f15=1
f14 1 1 f15 1 1 These are 16 2-variable Boole functions.
2.2.3. Boole function systems.
We can select some functions such a way, that all the other functions can be derived from these. Some such systems:
1. NOT-AND-OR system.
This system is most closed to human thinking. We can give functions as and-ed statements being or-ed together. For example : f = a b + ab + ab
2. NOT-OR system (NOR)
This system contains only NOT and OR statements, and the AND statement is described by means of De Morgan rules:
f = a b = a + b
3. NOT-AND system (NAND) This system contains only NOT and AND statements, and the OR statement is described by means of De Morgan rules:
f = a + b = a b
In the following sections we'll use NOT-AND-OR system in theoretical treatments. In the practice Boole functions are generally realized by means of integrated circuits (ICs), and the most common ICs are based on NAND system. We can convert NOA system to NAND system easily, such we'll treat the NOA system. We can describe a function in many equivalent forms. Among these forms are regular and irregular ones. If in a regular form all groups of variables contain all of the variables being negated or not, then this form is called as complete form. We'll treat the next 2 complete regular forms: minterm and maxterm forms. Definition: Minterm is such an n-variable Boole function, that the value of function equals to 1 only at 1 nabor of variables. Consequently, there are 2n different minterms, that is the number of minterms = the number of nabors.
Maxterm is such an n-variable Boole function, that the value of function equals to 0 only at 1 nabor of variables. Consequently, the number of maxterms = the number of minterms.
In the NOT-OR-AND (NOA) system the minterms are described as logical multiplication of variables, and the maxterms are realized as logical addition of all the variables (or negated values of variables, of coarse). We introduce 2 symbols:
m indicates a minterm. It's superscript tell us the number of variables, and it's subscript contains the number of that nabor, at which the value of minterm equals to 1.
Similarly, M indicate a maxterm. The meaning of superscript is the same as above, and the subscript contains the number of that nabor, at which the value of maxterm equals to 0. Let's see an example: Number of minterms (and maxterms, of coarse) in a 2-variable case is:
N m = N M = 22 = 4
These are:
N0 N1 N2 N3 a 0 b 0 m
m = ab
2 0
2 m1 = a b
M M =a+b
2 0 2 M1 = a + b
0 1 1
1 0 1
m2 = a b 2
2 m3 = a b
2 M0 = a + b 2 M0 = a + b
In the literature there are other numberings of subscripts, too. The connection between minterm and maxterm is: m in = M (n2n 1)i ,
and
M in = m (n2 1)i
n
A logical function can be described as logical addition of minterms having significance in the function. Similarly, a function is logical multiplication of such maxterms, at which the function has 0 value.
Let's give some 2-variable Boole functions in minterm and maxterm forms:
f0 = 0
f0 = 0
f 0 = M 0 M1 M 2 M 3 = (a + b ) a + b a + b a + b
)(
)
)(
after using the axioms of Boole algebra we get:

= a + b b a + b b = (a + 0 ) a + 0 = a a = 0
)(
f1 = a b
f1 = m 0 = a b
f1 = M 1 M 2 M 3 = a + b a + b a + b
( )( )( ) = (a + b ) (a + b b ) = (a + b ) a = a a + a b = a b
f14 = M 0 = a + b = a b + b + b a + a =a+b
f14 = a + b f1 = m1 + m 2 + m 3 = = ab + ab + ab
f15 = 1
f15 = m 0 + m1 + m 2 + m 3
f0 = 1 = a b + a b + a b + a b
2.2.4. Simplification of logical functions.
A logical function generally contains too much terms, thus it is unsuitable for realization. If we want to realize a function, then we must simplify it. We can simplify a function in a heuristic or a systematic way.
Intuitive (heuristic ) simplification method:
we apply the rules of logic algebra for simplifying a function. If we have good luck, we'll find the most simple form of a given function. In a complicated function having much variables there is a hard work to find the most simple form. It is better to simplify a function systematically. There are a lot of systematic simplification methods. One of these based on Veitch- diagram and called as Veitch-Karnaugh method. Veitch-diagram is a table consisting of cells. Each cell corresponds to a minterm (maxterm). Simplification based on the fact, that the neighbouring cells can be grouped together, and the group can be described fewer variables. We can find most simple solution because graphic features of Veitch-diagram.
Minterm table:
b m0 m1 m3 a
b 0 1 1
ab ab
ab
ab
m2
We write 1s to those cells, which contain existing minterms, and 0s to those cells, which contain nonexistent minterms. In practice some conditions are not defined. Cells containing minterms describing not-defined conditions are filled with x, which means that we can treat these minterms or existing or nonexistent ones. In the example we can create 2 groups:
b 0 a 1 1 1
First group contains 2 minterms, m2and m3 The common part of these minterms is variable a. Second group contains 2 minterms, too. These are m1 and m2, and their's common part is variable b. Thus the function can be simplified as:
f = m1 + m 2 + m 3 = a b + a b + a b = a + b
There are some rules to create groups 1. Each cell has n neighbouring cells, where n is the number of variables. 2. A group can contain as many cells, that the number of cells be power of 2 ( 1,2,4,8,...) 3. The cells of groups must be logical neighbouring cells. In a large table (which has more then 4 variables) the logical neighbours aren't physical neighbours.
Let's see some bigger Veitch-tables. A minterm table for 4 variables:

a c
abcd abcd abcd abcd

abcd abcd abcd abcd
abcd abcd abcd abcd
b d
abcd abcd abcd abcd
We can create a lot of tables, in which the variables are placed in different manner. The numbering of minterms depends on the order of variables. Each variable has a weighting factor. This factor is power of 2, and increases from right to left. E.g.:
e 24 16 d 23 8 c 22 4 b 21 2 a 20 1
These factors determine the number of minterm. True variables have a multiplier 1, negated variables have a multiplier 0. Thus the minterm m = a bcde has an index 0 1 + 1 2 + 1 4 + 0 8 + 1 16 = 22 ,
m 22 = a b c d e A minterm table for 4 variables is:
a 0 2 10
Possibilities of
c 1 3 11 9 5 7 15 13 4 6 14 12
grouping ( according to rules).
b d
A table for 5 variables is:

c 1 3 11 9 5 7 15 13 4 6 14 12 e
a 0 2 10 8
20 22 30 28
21 23 31 29
17 19 27 25
16 18 26 24
b d
Neighbours, grouping.
2.2.5. Realization of logic functions.
Realization of logic functions means, that we must construct a network, in which there are logic gates, circuits, elements, and connections amongst them, and, finally, we must build this network. We'll talk about these elements. You've learned about basic circuits in electronics, microelectronics. In this subject we apply some of the elements.
Basic gates. NOT gate, inverter. Symbol:

x
Function:
y=x
AND gate. Symbol:

a b
&
Function:
y = ab
OR gate. Symbol:
a b y
1
y=a+b
Function:
The above mentioned elements realize the basic logical operations, functions. By means of these we can realize any Boole function. E.g.:
y = ab +ab
(exclusive or function)
&
1
b
&
In practice we use integrated circuits (ICs) to realize logic functions. The standard circuits are the NAND and NOR gates, circuits (and inverters ).
NAND gate: Symbol:

a b
&
Function:
y = ab
An example:
x1 x2
& &
y
x3 x4
&
z = x1 x 2 x 3 x 4 = x1 x 2 + x 3 x 4 = x1 x 2 + x 3 x 4
NAND gate is an inverter, an or gate and an and gate alone.
&
y=x
x1
& &
y
y = x1 x 2 = x1 + x 2
x2
&
x1 x2
&
&
y = x1 x 2 = x1 x 2
NOR gate Symbol:

a b
Function:
y=a+b
It is the dual pair of the NAND gate. Realization of basic elements:

y
y=x
x1
1 1
y
y = x1 + x 2 = x1 x 2
x2
x1 x2
y = x1 + x 2 = x1 + x 2
There are those gates ( integrated circuits ), which have more than 2 inputs. In a package generally there are more gates. T.Cski-I. Mak: Fundamentals of Automation 24
E.g.: SN 7400 SN 7402 SN 7404 SN 7410 SN 7420 contains 4x2 NAND gates contains 4x2 NOR gates contains 6 inverters contains 3x3 NAND gates contains 4x2 NAND gates, etc.
2.3. Sequential networks.
Another type of discrete control systems is characterized by the fact, that its output is defined in a time t2 by its input and its previous state ( in time t1). The interval t2-t1 is the system reaction time. The above system is called yet as: - finite inner? state automaton - multiple beat network The sequential network makes a connection among 3 finite state (event) systems: - input state - inner state - output state How can we give these connections ? Let it be:
X = [x1,x2,...,xn] Y = [y1,y2,...,ym] M = [ m1,m2,...,mp] M(t2)= F(X(t1),M(t1)) Y(t2)= G(X(t2),M(t2))
the input vector the output vector the vector of inner state
We can describe these functions as usual Boole functions. Another method is to give a table (so called coded transition and output table). In this table we give the input and inner (memory ) variables in time t1, and the answer of the network, that is the values of inner and output variables in time t2.
x1 x2 m1(t1) m2(t1) m1(t2) m2(t2)
We can arrange the elements of table in form a matrix, as:
Nabors of input variables Nabors of inner variables
Nabors of inner variables in time t2
E.g. Let it be 1 input variable x, and 2 inner variables, m1 and m2. t1

x 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 m1(t1) 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 m2(t1) 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 m1(t2) 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0
t2
m2(t2) 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0
stable state unstable state stable state unstable state stable state unstable state stable state unstable state
m1 m2 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1
0 00 11 00 11
1 01 01 10 10
We can represent this network on a time diagram, too. The above example in a time diagram is :
x m1 m2
Finally we can describe the sequential network by means of transition (and output ) graph.
00 1 01
0 1
10
11
The nodes of graph are the inner states, and the branches are the input states.
2.3.1. Realization of sequential networks.
There are 2 kinds of real sequential networks : - asynchronous - synchronous networks. In the asynchronous networks the state transitions are determined by the elements of networks only. The main functional unit is the R-S flop (memory, trigger ) in these networks. R-S flop has 2 inputs: S is the set input, R is the reset input. It's Boole equation is:
m(t 2 ) = S + R m(t 1 ),
Q t +1 = S + R Q t
that is m=1 if S=1 (and R not = 1 ), or if m was 1 and R=0. With other words: m=1 if set (S=1 ), or ( and until ) if it was set and not reset. We can create an R-S flop from NAND ( or NOR ) gates as:
&
&
&
&
The output of R-S flop is often marked ( named ) as Q.
In the synchronous networks the state transitions are determined by a special signal, named clock signal. The clock signal ( the edge of clock signal ) enables the state transitions. The main functional unit is the J-K flop. It's state transition table is:
J 0 K 0 Q
t
0 1 0 0
1 0 1 1
1 1 1 0
J Qt+1= Qt 0 1 0 0 K 1 0 1 1 =JQt+KQt
0 1
0 1
J C K
Time diagram:
Q
C is the clock input.
C J K Q
t t t t
There is an advanced kind of synchronous elements, the master-slave flop. It has 2 stages, the master and the slave. The master stage takes a sample from the input at the positive edge of the clock signal, and the slave stage makes the output at the negative edge of the clock signal. Such a way the input change is isolated from output change.
Let's see some simple sequential units and ICs. E.g. SN 74LS73
J C K R
Q Q
D latch, D flop. We can create it from a J-K flop as:
J C 1 K T
Q Q
C D Q
t t t
It stores the state of the D input until the next clock signal. It is an important element in the digital technique. E.g. SN 7474
S D C R
Q T Q
It has static (asynchronous ) inputs for setting and resetting the required state, a data input D and a clock input C.
T flop. We can create it from a J-K flop as:
J C K T
Q Q
C T Q
t t t
If the state of the input T is High, the output changes its state at every clock pulse, thus the output frequency
f Q = 0,5 f T
We can use the T flop as a frequency divider.
2.3.2. Higher level functional units.
- combinatorial - coder/decoder - multiplexer - comparator - arithmetic-logical-unit ALU - sequential - register - counter Coder makes a code from events. Event means that among inputs not more then 1 is true. E.g. x1 x0 y1 y0 x2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 y1,y0 contain the coded information about which event was occurred (which x is 1). T.Cski-I. Mak: Fundamentals of Automation 31
Decoder makes event code from code. Only one output of the decoder is active at a time. E.g. SN 74138
& Enable Inputs G1 G2 G3 A Code (address) inputs B C Q0 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Outputs
Multiplexer circuit (organizer circuit ). Principle:

x1 . . . xn u0 . . . un
The information of one of the inputs is connected to the output depending from contents of u control (address ) lines. We can select, we can address an input and connect to the output. E.g. SN 74151
Enable input E D0 D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 D7 A
Data inputs
B C Demultiplexer circuit makes the inverse activity of the multiplexer: one input is connected to
Address inputs
W=Q
selected output. T.Cski-I. Mak: Fundamentals of Automation 32
E.g. SN 74154
A B C D Q0 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 Q9 Q10 Q11 Q12 Q13 Q14 Q15
& G1 G2
Comparator circuit compares two set of signals as binary numbers. E.g. SN 7485
A0 A1 A2 A3 Cascade inputs > = < B0 B1 B2 B3 = > = <
Via cascade inputs it can be used to compare more bit wide binary numbers.
Binary adder adds 2 one-bit wide binary number and the carry of the previous adder.
A B C
Ci+1
C 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
B 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1
A 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
S 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1
C 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1
S = AB+ AB C = AB
ALU can execute some arithmetic and logical instructions on (e.g.) 4-bit binary numbers. (E.g. SN 74181) Registers. Tasks of registers are: 1. Store of data- in this case register works as a little, quick memory. 2. Shifting- in this case register moves the data. Outputs of registers may be: - totem pole. This name derived from Indian totem pole made from wood. In this type of output transistors are built on one another. This is a quick output, but it mustn't be connected outputs together. - open collector. We can construct wired-or connections, bus systems, etc., using this type of output. It has non-symmetrical properties. - tri-state. It has symmetrical output and as we can command the output to a high impedance state, the outputs may be connected to a bus line, e.g. Functions of registers are: - parallel setting, loading via parallel input lines - parallel reading via parallel output lines - shifting via serial input and output lines
TS output
Control lines of registers may be:
Q R K
T.Cski-I. Mak: Fundamentals of AutomationS 34 S R

Serial input
J
1
Shift Clock
&
&
Reset Parallel
- clock signal - Right/Left shift direction - Load - Output enable
We can construct a ring register, if the output of a register is connected to the input ( serial ). E.g. SN 74194 4-bit register
Mode control Serial data Clock S0 S1 AS DS C A Parallel inputs B C D Reset R QA QB QC QD Parallel inputs
S1 0 1 0
S0 0 0 1
C X
Function
Store Left (DS as serial data) Right (AS as serial data) Parallel load
Latch register: it temporarily stores data. It may be used as synchronizer circuit, too. Counters. Functions of counters are: - counting of pulses - storing of data The counter may be unidirectional or reversible. Its content differs from register's content. The content of a register is a binary vector (event code, other code, etc. ), while the content of a counter is always a number whether in coded form or not. Code of counters are: T.Cski-I. Mak: Fundamentals of Automation 35
- pure binary - BCD - binary coded decimal - special (Johnson, Gray, etc.) Mode of operation may be: - synchronous : input pulse operates all the cells parallel. - asynchronous : input pulse operates the input cell, information propagate seriously. (simple, but slow.) Binary counter
1 2 3 4 5
Q0 J C K R Q J C K R Q
Q1 J C K R Q
Q2
C R E Q0 Q1 Q2
1
t t t t t t
Szmlland pulzusok
Reset
5T
BCD counter
1
E Q0 Q1 Q2 Q3
10
C Q0
t t t t t
&
J C
Szmlland pulzusok
&
J C K Q1 J C K Q2
&
J C K Q3 Q3
Q0
Q1 Q2 Q3
E.g. SN 74192 BCD, SN 74193 binary

Count up Count down Reset Parallel inputs CU CD R A B C D Load L CC CW Carry Borrow Q0 Q1 Q2 Q3 Parallel outputs
Contents of a counter in case of counting up are:

7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 -1
Contents of a counter in case of counting down are:

7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6 -7 -8
2.4. Memories.
The next main types of functional units are memories. Memory is such a device, which can store data for further usage. How do memory work ? Let's imagine a table ( or cupboard ) with drawers. Each drawer has a number (identity number). The content of a drawer is the data, and the number of the drawer is the address. If we want to store something, we can put it into a drawer, and if we want to use this thing, we can get it from the drawer signed the number of order (serial number).
1. Book 2 Pen 3 Paper
Organization of a memory.
(RAM) Data input Address
Data output
Organization of memories: Measure of storing places may be: 1 bit 4 bits 8 bits 9 bits 16 bits 32 bits 39 bits . . . Types of memories. bit-organization mem. word-org. mem. byte-org. mem. byte with parity word word word with error code
1. RAM random access memory. Data may be stored and taken out in any kind of order, and the writing and the reading of data is quick. -SRAM static random access memory -DRAM dynamic random access memory (data must be refreshed frequently) -CRAM CMOS random access memory (it has a stand by state, in which it can store data with very low power consumption.) 2. ROM read only memory. Data are stored in an unchanging way, the user can only read them. 3. PROM programmable read only memory. The user can erase and program it many times, but the writing is significantly slower then the reading . T.Cski-I. Mak: Fundamentals of Automation 38
-EPROM erasable read only memory. UV light can erase its content, and a higher voltage can write it. -EAROM electrically erasable read only memory. High voltage (20-25 V can erase it). Examples: 8316 ROM
A0 A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8 A9 A10
Capacity : 2 kbytes.
D0 D1 D2 ROM D3 D4 D5 D6 D7
N = 211 = 2048 = 2k En = CS1 CS2 CS3
CS1 CS2 CS3
8708 EPROM
Capacity : 1 kbytes.
Quartz window for UV-light erasing
A0 A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8 A9
D0 D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 D7
PR 25V 1ms CS
8111 SRAM
A0 A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 R/W
Capacity : 256 bytes
D0 D1 D2
RAM
D3 D4 D5 D6 D7
CS1 CS2
2.5. Digital controllers.
As we mentioned earlier there is a type of control equipments in which binary signals are measured and used as input signals, and binary signals are used as output signals to control the operation of a machine, a device, an equipment , etc. We can represent them as follows:
Input
. . . . .
Logical network
. . . . .
Output
If we make a control device, we must plan and realize a network, which can make output signals from input signals. There are two methods for this: - parallel - serial methods. Principle of the parallel logic:
y i = f i (x 1 , . . . , x n )
Each of such functions is realized separately, these subnetworks ( NAND gates, flops, etc.) compute Boole functions simultaneously, each yi is ready independently from each other. A Boole function may be computed by T.Cski-I. Mak: Fundamentals of Automation 40
- Boole-algebraic operations - taking out from a table In the second method the table is stored in a ROM (PROM). The memory assigns a data for each address. The address is the state of input lines, and the data is the output. We can create a sequential networks in this way, too. E.g. we use a separate memory for flops, R and S inputs are connected to 1-1 address lines, and its output is connected to the appropriate line of main ROM. E.g.
x0
. . .
A0
. . .
D0
.
y0
. . .
xn
Input
ROM .
.
Output
An
Dm
ym
A0
. . .
Q0
.
ROM .
.
At
Qp
Principle of the serial logic: We can determine the value of yi-s in another way, too. We compute first the value of y1, then we compute the value of y2, etc., one after the other. Really, this is a special computer computing Boole equations. Its name is PLC, programmable logical controller.
The block scheme of a simple PLC is:
C
OC
START
OM
PU
SC
PC
MEM
OR
STOP
I/O
C
OC
A
IR
MUX
LU
S
DMUX
MR
MUX
(melyik input)
MUX
C C
(input v. output)
C C C C
What can do this simple PLC ? It can read a variable to A (Accumulator). It can store a variable from A to output register. It can negate the value of A. It can logically add A and selected (input or output or inner) variable. It can logically multiply A and selected (input or output or inner ) variable. By means of this activities this PLC can solve any logical equations, thus it can control binary processes, equipment.
3. Linear Control Theory
3.1. The Control System and Its Components.
The control system consists of a controlled equipment (system) and a controlling system. The controlled system is an independent, existing equipment, machine, which is the object of the control. The controlling system is a set of each equipments by which the control is done. During control there are several changes in the system. To achieve the desired changes we need some time, thus a control system is a dynamic one. More exactly : dynamic system is a system in which the value of output signal depends on the value of input signal as well as the earlier values of input (and output) signals. The block diagram is the flow map linking all the variables (signals) to each other through the operational blocks. The operational block is a symbol. It represents a (mathematical or physical or other ) transformation between input and output signals. For example: we can treat our car as a control system. The setting of the accelerator pedal is the input signal and the velocity ( or the displacement ) of the car is the output signal. There is a ( quite difficult) connection between the accelerator setting and the velocity, and this can be described by a differential equation ( approximately, of course, because the very exact description is a very difficult thing. ) The task of a control (system) is to achieve, that let a selected signal be a constant, desired value, or that let the selected signal follow the input signal ( the reference signal) in different technological processes. The equipment, in which the material- and energy- changes are carried out, is the controlled equipment. We influence the operation of the controlled equipment by means of control. The dynamic properties of the controlled equipment are expressed by the controlled section. The controller is a set of equipments doing the control process (e.g. measuring, sensing the values of variables, decision, intervening in process ). The quantity under control is the controlled variable, signal. The developing of its desired value is disturbed by the unwanted disturbing signal(s). The control want to eliminate the effect of the disturbing signal by influencing the modified signal. This modified signal is the input signal of the controlled section. To solve a control task we must first select the controlled signal, the signal we want to control. After this we select the modified signal, which can influence the controlled signal and which is easily modifyable for us. The other signals acting on the controlled section are the disturbing signals.
3.1.1. Grouping of control systems ( from some points of view.)
Point of view Mode of operation
Version Continuous-continuous (common)
in value
in time
Discrete-continuous (relay) discontinuous a. two state b. three state Continuous-interrupted (sampled) Discontinuous-interrupted (digital) Function between input and output signals of members of control system Linear a. with constant parameters b. with variable (time-dependent) parameters Nonlinear a. with constant parameters b. with variable parameters The reference signal Constant (value-keeper control loop) Variable (follower) (Time function) (program control) The nature (property) of signal Deterministic Stochastic The number of controlled variables etc Control is One More
1. continuous-continuous, if the signals are explained at every time ( each signal is continuous function of time) and each member of control loop has a continuous static characteristic. 2. discrete-continuous, if each signal exists at every time , but at least one signal has only discrete values. (e.g. electric iron with 2-state temperature control.) 3. continuous-sampled, if the transfer of signals from one point to another happens at discrete times ( e.g. at every 10 milliseconds ). 4. digital, if the values of sampled signals are discrete ones. A control loop is linear, if each member of loop is linear. A control loop member is linear, if the static characteristic between its input and output signal is linear, a straight line. It means, that if there are 2 input signals, x1and x2, and x1 gives an output signal y1, and x2 gives an output signal y2, then x1+x2 give an output signal with value y1+y2, and A1 x1 + A 2 x 2 give an output signal with value A1 y1 + A 2 y 2 . The behaviour of a linear control system is described by linear differential equations. If the parameters of the equations are constant, then we can say that it is a constant-parameter system, else it is a variableparameter system. In most cases some members of the control loop have nonlinear properties. There are a lot of nonlinearities, but we'll deal with linear systems first of all. A nonlinear system can be approximated with an equivalent linear system. The error done by approximation depends on nonlinearity, etc.. The goal of a control may be to maintain a constant controlled value ( if the reference signal is constant ) or to follow a variable reference signal. In the first case (value-keeper control loop ) we want to achieve a constant controlled variable in spite of disturbing signals. In this case the most important property of control loop is the ratio of disturbance suppress. In the second case the reference signal, i.e. the input signal of the control loop can change its value in time, this change has generally a maximum speed and a maximum value. The task of the control loop is to follow the reference signal as close as it possible. The most important property of the control loop is the ability of following the reference. In practice the control loop has to follow the reference and has to maintain the desired value at the same time. The distinction is made by the more important goal. There is a special follower control loop named as servo loop, servo system. In a servo system the controlled variable is a position of a mechanical element, e.g. a distance, a rotating shaft turn. In machinery, and in machine tools and robotics, the servo systems have a very great importance because the motion is a very important and significant function in them. We'll deal with positioning systems later in detail. The outer signals ( disturbing signals ) acting to the control loop are generally unknown for us, we don't know their time functions. We can examine the control loops supposing a typical signal ( step, impulse, etc.). In some cases it is a better way to examine the system with
statistical ( or stochastic) methods. Some properties of outer signals can be discussed by means of probability theory. In the single cases the control loop has only one controlled variable, but there are some tasks in which we must impose more signal's value of control loop. The control task is determined if the number of modified signals equal to the number of the controlled signals.
3.1.2. General Requirements to Control Loops
Substantial task of the control loop is a. to maintain the constant value of the controlled signal in a value-keeper control loop. b. to follow the reference signal as close as it possible in a follower control loop. The most essential requirement is to make such a control loop, that let the control loop reach a steady state, i.e. let the control loop be stable. A stable control loop would be ideal, if the controlled signal followed the reference signal exactly. In this case the control loop would have no error or in ready state or in transitional state. But an ideal control loop doesn't exist because of time-storing (energy-storing) members between reference and controlled signals. As we try to approximate the ideal control, the control loop became more and more difficult and precious. We have to achieve a reasonable compromise between the cost and the quality of control. The accuracy of the control is measured by the control difference. The control difference is the difference between the desired and the existing value of the controlled signal. The better is the control the smaller is this difference (generally ). The quality of control is characterized by sensitivity, too. The sensitivity gives the measure, that if a parameter changes in the loop, how the change of a characteristic function will be. The better is a control loop the least is influenced the function. The goodness of a control is determined by transients. The qualitative characteristics of a control loop can be measured by drawn the controlled signal answering to a step input signal.
xc 2
xc max xc
The qualitative characteristics are as follows :
Tc
a. maximum overshoot of the controlled signal
x c max x c ( ) 100 x c ( )
[%]
where x c ( ) is the steady-state value of controlled signal. b. control time (settling time ) is that time, after which the controlled signal doesn't differ from its steady-state value with more than +-d %. It means, that:
x c (t ) x c ( ) < x c ( )
if t Tc
is the dynamic accuracy of the control, its value generally is 5 %. c. Rise time: 10% to 90% d. Damped frequency of oscillations. We can describe the number of swingings during Tc control time, too. The better is a control loop, the smaller is the overshoot, the smaller is the Tc control time, the smaller is the value of d, and the smaller is the number of swingings. There are a lot of cases, in which the input signal is a velocity step or an acceleration step. In these cases not the controlled signal but the error signal is the most important and valuable signal, and thus the qualitative characteristics refer to the error signal. The introduction of the qualitative characteristics make it possible to compare some control loops realizing the same control tasks. Of coarse, the technological demands determine, that what is the better control loop for the given point of view. There are other qualitative characteristics also in the control theory, the integral criteria. The goal is to decrease the value of the given criterion. Some criteria are: a.
I l = [x c ( ) x c (t )]dt
0
this is the linear control area. The better is the control, the smaller is this area. But this criterion is applicable only in aperiodic systems, because in a swinging system it gives a good result, as the positive and negative areas compensate each other, however the control loop is not so good. b.
I a = x c ( ) x c (t ) dt
0
this integral counts all the areas with positive sign. Its analytical determination has a lot of trouble. c.
I n = [x c ( ) x c (t )] 2dt
0
the squared control area. It can be determined analytically easily. Because squaring the big errors are weighted with greater significance. d. Time-weighted integrals.
Ilm = [x c ( ) x c (t )] t m dt
0
Iam = x c ( ) x c (t ) t mdt
0
I n = [x c ( ) x c (t )] 2 t mdt
0
These integrals punish the later differences, and thus the control time have to decrease to fulfil the requirements.
Summary.
The goal of control is to maintain the required value of the controlled variable. The basic, fundamental operations of the control are the sensing, the decision and the intervention. According to this, the components of the control loop are the sensors, reference signal makers and difference makers (sensing and decision ), the signal formers and the amplifiers, and the intervening members. Each control loop has to fulfil the requirements of the technological process. These requirements are done in static and dynamic state.
3.1.3. Blocks, block diagrams.
The block diagram shows the connection between the signals in a control loop. A block has an input signal and an output signal. The connection can be described by a transfer coefficient and a transfer function. The transfer coefficient characterizes the block ( the member of control loop ) in the steady state. After transients the output signal has a constant value, if the input signal has a constant value, too. The rate of output signal / input signal is the transfer coefficient, it has generally a dimension, too. T.Cski-I. Mak: Fundamentals of Automation 48
There are functions, which can describe the transient properties of output signal. These are the different transfer functions. We'll deal with these functions later in this semester, now it is enough to know that they exist. We can describe the resultant functions of a network if we know the rules to transform the block diagrams. In a linear system there are some simple rules for this task. We can determine the resultant of two serially linked block by simply multiplying their transfer coefficients or transfer functions.
xi x12 xo xi xo
A1
A2
R = A1 A 2
The resultant of two parallel linked block is the sum of their coefficients or transfer functions.
xi
A1
xo1
xo = xi R=A1+A2 xo
xi
A2
xo2
Finally the resultant of a block with a feedback block is:
xi
A1
xo
Av
if the feedback is negative. Let us see some examples for these.(...) We'll use the theorem of superposition.
3.2. Methods for treating of linear control loops.
3.2.1 The differential equations method.
The different technical ( physical and chemical ) processes can be described by similar differential equations. Electrical and magnetic phenomena, the flow of gases and fluids, heating and cooling processes, mechanical movements etc. can be described by differential equations. As a control loop can control different technical, technological processes , and they are built up from members with different physical properties, their operation can be described by differential equations, too. The behaviour of control loops can be determined by means of differential equations. The describing and solving of differential equations is often a very hard task, thus they had developed some methods to simplify the treat. First let us see the method of differential equations. Any linear system can be described as follows:
dx o d n 1 x o dnx o + a n 1 + K + a1 + a 0x o = n n n 1 dt dt dt dx i d m 1 x i dmxi = bm + b m 1 + K + b1 + b 0x i m m 1 dt dt dt
where xo is the output signal of the system, xi is the input signal of the system, a0,a1,...,an, b0,b1,...,bm constants are the parameters of the system. We can describe it as:
i =i 0
ai
m d (i )x o d ( k )x i = bk k =k dt i dt k
0
In physically realizable systems m<= n ( according to the law of cause-result ). If i0=0 and j0=0, then the system is proportional, if i0=0 and j0 > 0 then the system is differentiating, and if i0 > 0 and j0=0 then the system is integrating one. In the control theory we introduce time constants instead of coefficients, thus we can describe the differential equation as:
n 1 m dmxi dn xo xo dx o dx n 1 d T + Tn1 n 1 + . . . + T1 + x o = A m m + . . . + T1 i + x i n dt dt dt dt dt n n
or
m k dk xi di x o xo + T = A x i + Tk k k =1 dt i=1 dt i
n i i
In the equation Ti and Tj are time constants ( their dimensions are sec.s ), and
A=
b 0 x o ( ) = a 0 x i ( )
is the transfer coefficient, which gives
the ratio of the output signal and the input signal in steady state. The transfer coefficient can have a physical dimension (if the dimensions of the input and output signal are not the same.) This interpretation of the transfer coefficient is true if a0 and b0 are not zeros, or i0=j0=0. If for example a0=0, (i0=1), then the transfer coefficient is
A=
b0 , a1
and the interpretations of time constants changes.
To solve an nth order differential equation we need n initial conditions. By solving the differential equation of the control system we get the output signal in time as the response to the supposed input signal. The inhomogeneous differential equation can be solved as the sum of the general solution of the homogeneous differential equation and a particular solution of the equation.
x o (t ) = x oh (t ) + x op (t )
If the input signal is unchanging or periodic, the xop is a particular solution in steady state. The solution of coarse depends on the input signal. The xoh homogeneous solution gives the transient output signal of the system. As it is known from mathematics , the transient solution can be got by means of characteristic equation of the differential equation. If we search the transient solution in the from :
x oh (t ) = Ci e p t
n
i
i =1
and we put it into the homogeneous equation, we get the following connection:
p t n n 1 (a n p + a n1 p + . . . + a1 p + a 0 ) Ci e = 0 n
i
i =1
This connection is true if and only if at p=pi there is :
K (p ) = a n p n + a n 1 p n 1 + . . . + a1 p + a 0 = 0
This is the characteristic equation, and p=pi (i=1,2,...,n) are the n roots of this characteristic equation. The unexcited system can be described as:
x oh (t ) = C1 e p t + C 2 e p t + . . . + C n e p t = C i e p t
n
1 2 n i
i =1
if only simple roots exist. If there are multiple roots, too, the solution is :
x oh (t ) = (C1 + C 2 t + . . . + C q t q 1 ) e
here pq is a multiple ( q-times) root, q n.
p q t
+ C i e p t
i
i =q +1
The roots of the characteristic equation are or real or conjugated complex values. In case of conjugated complex roots ( p i = i + j i , p i+1 = i j i ) the suitable part of the solution is:
x oh ( t ) = C i e t e j t + C i+1 e t e j t =
i i i i
= C i' e t cos(i t ) + C" e t sin(i t ) i

i i
where
Ci' = C i + C i+1 C" = j Ci j C i+1 i

The Ci constants can be determined from the initial conditions after writing the inhomogeneous equation. A system is stable, if their transients are damped, i.e. the transient solution approaches to zero if time go to infinite. It does, if each root of the characteristic equation has a negative real part. The pi roots depend only on the parameters of the system, and they are independent from the input signal. A particular solution of the inhomogeneous equation can be determined by means if the method of varying the constants, for example. There are a lot of cases in which simple physical meditations can help us to determine the constants.
An example: There is an electrical quadropole ( it may be a member of a control loop ):

R1 i ui R1
C uo
We connect a voltage ui=Ui to its input at time t=0. What will the uo output voltage be ? The equations describing this network are:
uo = i R 2 +
1 i dt C0
i=
1 (u i u o ) R1
We can arrange them as
uo =
R2 1 (u i u o ) + (u i u o )dt R1 C R1 0
R R 1 1 u o dt + u o 1 + 2 = 2 u i + u i dt R C R1 0 R1 C R1 0 1
Let us differentiate it
du R + R 2 R 2 du i 1 1 uo + o 1 = + ui C R1 dt R1 R 1 dt C R 1
C (R 1 + R 2 ) du o du + uo = ui + C R 2 i dt dt
T1 = (R 1 + R 2 ) C T2 = R 2 C
T1 du o du + u o = T2 i + u i dt dt
The characteristic equation is:
T1 p + 1 = 0
Its root is
p=
1 T1
The general solution of the homogeneous equation is
u oh (t ) = C1 e
t T1
One particular solution of the inhomogeneous equation is uop(t)=Ui because after charging the capacitor the entire input voltage is on the output. The full solution is :
u o (t = )u oh (t ) + u op (t ) = C1 e
The initial condition is :
t T1
+ Ui
u o (0) =
R2 Ui R1 + R 2
because the time t=0 the capacitance can be approximated as a short-circuit. Thus
C1 + U i =
R2 Ui R1 + R 2
C1 = U i
The solution is :
R2 R1 + R 2
t 1 R 1 e T u o (t ) = U i R +R 1 2
We can represent it as:
ui
t uo
T1
Ui
R2 R1 + R 2
t
Summary: The method of differential equations is suitable for treating the dynamic properties of a control loop or a part of a control loop. It has some disadvantages : It is a hard task to solve a differential equation in particular with difficult exciting functions. The constants can be determined only after the full search of the solution of the inhomogeneous equation.
3.2.2. Typical reference signals for examining the control loops.
To solve an inhomogeneous differential equation it is a common way to give a typical examining input signal to the system. The solution can be got easily if the input signal is very simple, and the initial conditions are zeros. Practically we have 4 simple typical input signals:
f(t) (t) t
+
f(t) 1 1 (t)
f(t)
f(t)
(t )dt = 1
f (t ) = 0, if t < 0 1, if t > 0 1 , if t = 0 2
f (t ) = 0, if t 0 , if t = 0
f (t ) = t 1(t )
f (t ) =
t2 1(t ) 2
Unity pulse function (Dirac-delta)
Unity step function
Unity velocity step function (ramp)
Unity acceleration step function
There is a connection between these typical signals:
d 1(t ) dt d 1(t ) = t 1(t ) dt d t2 t 1(t ) = 1(t ) dt 2

(t ) =
If we give an unity impulse signal to the input of a control loop, it will answer a typical system-dependent signal, the impulse response. This signal is highly typical for the system, it characterizes the properties of the system. If the input signal is the unity step signal, the response is the step response. If the input is the unity velocity step, the output is the ramp response.
3.2.3. Faltung-thesis, Duhamel-thesis.
There are two formulas based on impulse response signal. If the input signal is a non-typical, general form signal, we can divide it into narrow rectangles. If the widths of these rectangles approaches to zero, we can handle them as they were impulses. The system answers an impulse to each of these impulses, and we can summarize these responses. As the width go to zero, the sum go to integral, and we can describe:
x o (t ) = y(t )x i () d
0
or
x o (t ) = y()x i (t ) d,
0
if
=t
This formula is the Faltung-formula. The answer of a system can be determined by the step response, too . With similar discussions we can describe:
x o (t ) = v(t ) x i (0 ) + v(t )
0
dx i ( ) d d
This is one form of the Duhamel-formula. Although these formulas exist, in practice we compute them very rarely because we have a lot of more simple methods to determine the answer of a system.
3.2.4. Fourier transformation, Fourier's series, Fourier integral
As it is known, every periodic function can be described in form of Fourier's series, i.e. as an infinite sum of functions with sine and cosine:
f (t , T ) = [A k cos(k0 t ) + Bk sin (k0 t )]
k =0
where k=0,1,2,... T=period time of the function
2 T
the basic frequency
The constants may be computed as:
1 2 A 0 = f (t , T )dt T T
2 T
2 2 A k = f (t , T )cos(kt )dt T T
2 T
2 2 Bk = f (t , T )sin (kt )dt T T

2
We can write the Fourier's series in complex form:
f (t , T ) = Ck e jkt
k =
and Ck is
1 2 C k = f (t , T ) e jkt dt T T
2
We can represent the absolute values of Ck constants as a function of k.w , and thus we get the amplitude spectrum of the f function
Ck
In the practice the control loop has an input signal with no periodicity, the input signals are generally aperiodic ones. These functions can be described not in form of Fourier's series but in form of Fourier integrals. The Fourier's integral can be derived as a limes of a Fourier's series in which the period time T goes to the infinite.
Let it be:
2 T Ck = c(k ) k k = k = k
where c(k) is the complex amplitude density and
2 2 k = k 1 = T T
Thus
f (t , T ) = c(k )e j t k
k
k =
and if T
f (t ) = c() e jt d
c() = lim
The
Ck T 1 + jt = lim Ck = f (t ) e dt T T 2 2 k
2 c() = F( j) = f (t ) e jt dt
function is called as the Fourier's transform of the f(t) time function. F(j) is the amplitude density function. The inverse of the Fourier transformation is
f (t ) =
1 + j t F ( j ) e d 2
The Fourier integral exists if the function is absolute integralable , i.e.

+
f (t )dt K
An important rule is:
df (t ) d 1 + 1 + d jt jt = F( j) e d = F( j) e d dt dt 2 2 dt 1 + jt = F( j) j e d 2
i.e. if a function f(t) has a Fourier transform F(j), then its derivative has a Fourier's transform j F( j) . If we have a differential equation
T1
d x o (t ) + x o (t ) = A x i (t ) dt
we can transform it into the space of jw, and
T1 j x o ( j) + x o ( j) = A x i ( j) x o ( j) = x i ( j)
The ratio
A 1 + j T1
x o ( j) A = = Y( j) x i ( j) 1 + j T1
is independent from the input signal, and is the Fourier's transform of the impulse response signal. We can solve a differential equation by means of Fourier's transformation. If we transform a differential equation into the j space, the differential equation becomes an algebraic equation. We can easily solve an algebraic equation, and then we can transform the solution into the time space. This inverse transformation needs the computing of an integral, it is quite difficult to do, but it can be replaced by computing the integral along a closed curve, and thus residuum-thesis can be applied.(mathematics!)
1 d n 1 f (t ) = lim (s p )n F(s ) est sp (n 1) ds n 1 =1 !

P
and s = j .
3.2.5. The Laplace transformation
The Fourier transformation has a serious disadvantage: the f(t) function must be absolute integralable. Such simple functions, as the step function, don't fulfil this requirement. By means of Laplace transform we can solve this problem. Let us combine such a function to the f(t) function, which is absolute integralable, that is if t goes to infinite, this function goes to zero quite quickly. This condition is generally fulfilled, if we multiply the f(t) by an exponently decreasing function. E.g.:
lim t n e t = 0, if
t
>0 >
lim et e t = 0, if
t
The Fourier's transform of this "damped" function is:
Fd ( j) = f (t ) e t e jt dt = f (t ) e (+ j )t dt
0 0
This form can be seen as the function of the
s = + j complex variable:
F(s ) = f (t ) e st dt
0
This is the Laplace transform of the f(t) time function.
Some rules:
Time function
Laplace transform
f (t ) , (f (t ) = 0 , ha t < 0)
Linearity superposition Differentiat.
F(s ) = f (t )e st dt
0
c1 f 1 ( t ) + c 2 f 2 ( t )
d f (t ) dt d2 f (t ) dt 2
0
c1 F1 (s ) + c 2 F2 (s )
s F(s ) f (0 ) s 2 F(s ) s f (0 ) f (0 )
Integrating Shift in time Shift in complex space Convolution
f (t )dt
f (t a ) 1(t a )
e at f (t )
1 F(s ) s
e as F(s )
F(s + a )
f 1 (t ) f 2 (t )
f (0 + ) = lim f ( t )
t 0+
F1 (s ) F2 (s )
f ( 0 + ) = lim s F ( s)
s
Vgrtkttel
f = lim f ( t )
t
f = lim s F ( s) ,
ha F ( s) - nek csak baloldali plusa van.
s
Limes value's theses
lim f (t ) = lim s F(s )

t 0 s
lim f (t ) = lim s F(s )

t s0
To compute the inverse Laplace transform we can apply the residue thesis:
f (t ) = Re s F(s ) est
P =1 s=p
If there are only single poles, we can write:
f (t ) = lim(s p ) F(s ) est

P =1 sp
in linear control theory the F(s) is frequently a rational fraction function :

F(s ) =
Fz (s ) Fp (s )
In this case f(t) can be computed as:
f (t ) =
P
Fz (p ) p t e =1 F (p ) p
It is the most simple form of the shell-thesis. There is an another way to do the inverse transformation: we have to make simple polynomials from the F(s) function, and then we have to search a table for the solution.
3.2.6. The transfer function.
In a linear system it can be written:
Y (s ) =
X o (s ) X i (s )
This function is independent from the input signal and depends only on the system's parameters, therefore it characterizes the system. The resultant of two serially-linked linear dynamic blocks can be computed in time space or in Laplace space (operator space). In the first case we must use the Duhamel-thesis, the convolutional integral, and it is not a very comfortable. In the second case we simply multiply the transfer functions,( according to the convolutional rule), and it is done.
X o (s ) = Y2 (s ) X o (s ) = Y2 (s ) Y1 (s ) X i (s )
2 1
X o (s ) = Y1 (s ) X i (s )
1
The resultant transfer function is:
X o (s ) X i (s )
2
= Y1 (s ) Y2 (s ) = Y(s )
The transfer function can be derived from the differential equation describing the system.
Generally the differential equation is:
Tnn
dn xo d n 1x dx dx dmx + Tnn11 n 1o + K + T1 o + x o = A x i + 1 i + K + m m i m dt n dt dt dt dt
The Laplace transform of the differential equation ( supposing that every initial conditions are zeros)
Tnn s n X o (s ) + K + T1 s X o (s ) + X o (s ) = A [X i (s ) + 1 s X i (s ) + K + m s m X i (s )] m X o (s ) 1 + s 1 + s 2 2 + . . . + s m m 2 m Y(s ) = = A 2 2 n X i (s ) 1 + s T1 + s T2 + . . . + s Tnn
As the Laplace transform of the unity step function is:
L[1(t )] =
we can describe:
1 s
V(s ) = Y(s )
1 s
where V(s ) = L[v(t )] , Laplace transform of the unity step response function, and:
1 v(0 ) = lim v(t ) = lim s V(s ) = lim s Y(s ) = Y( ) t 0 s s s

and similarly
v( ) = Y(0)
The Laplace transformation can decrease the amount of computing work, but the inverse transformation can require a lot of compute to do.
3.2.7. Studying the System in the Frequency Domain
Studying of different systems becomes significantly simpler if we study them in the frequency domain.
If we know the frequency functions of input and output signals of a system , we can make some conclusions about the behaviour of the system without doing the inverse transformations. Let the input signal be:
x i (t ) = X i () sin ( t ) = Im [X i () e jt ]
After passing the transients off the output signal is:
x o (t ) = X o () sin[ t + ()] = Im [X o ( j) e jt ]
The frequency function of the dynamic block is:
Y ( j) =
X o ( j ) e j t X o ( j ) = = A() e j( ) jt X i ( j) e X i ( j)
Y(j) is a complex value, it's absolute value and phase are frequency - dependent ones.
A() =
() = o () i () = o ()
if the input is the reference.
X o () X i ()
Y( j) = Y(s ) s= j
Y(j) can be given as:
of coarse.
P() = A() cos () Q() = A() sin () () = arc tg Q() P()
Y( j) = P() + j Q()
A() = P 2 () + Q 2 ()
From the differential equation we can describe:
Y ( j ) = A
1 + ( j ) 1 + ( j ) 2 + . . . + ( j ) m m 2
2 m
1 + ( j) T1 + ( j) T 22 + . . . + ( j) T nn
2 n
Y z ( j) Y p ( j)
3.3. Representing the frequency functions.
3.3.1. Nyquist - diagram ( amplitude-phase diagram)
If we represent the frequency function on the complex plane, we get the so-called amplitudephase diagram. The value of frequency is changed from 0 to . At every frequency the values of P and Q ( or A and ) determine a point on the complex plain. The curve binding the points is the amplitude-phase diagram. The direction of increasing -s is marked an arrow. The point of the curve gives a quasy- stationer state of the system.
3.3.2. Bode - diagram ( logarithmic frequency diagram)
To compute the points of a Nyquist diagram is quite a hard task. We can simplify it by means of Bode diagram :
ln Y( j) = ln Y( j) + j ()
The first member of the phrase contains the amplitude ratio and the second part contains the phase. If we represent them independently from each other, we get simply constructable curves. In practice the amplitude ratio is measured in unit dB.
A()[dB] = Y( j) [dB] = 20 log Y( j)

The logarithmic amplitude diagram can be constructed easily, the effect of parameter change is visible. The result of two multiplied function can be got as the sum of these functions. The Nyquist and the Bode diagrams can be constructed from each other.
3.4. Typical Functions of Dynamic Blocks.
We'll deal with typical functions of different dynamic blocks in the time, operator and frequency domain.
3.4.1. Proportional block (P block)
The proportional block is characterized by the fact, that its output signal is proportional with its input signal.
x o (t ) = A p x i (t )
Its step response function is:
v(t ) = A p 1(t )
The impulse response function is:
y ( t ) = A p (t )
The transfer function in the operator domain is:
Y(s ) = L[y(t )] =
X o (s ) = Ap X i (s )
The frequency transfer function is:
Y ( j ) = A p
The Nyquist diagram is:
ImY(j)
j 1 Ap ReY(j)
The Bode diagram is:

a
a=20 log(Ap)
0 dB 0o
1 10 100 1000
Examples: potentiometer, electronic amplifier, lever, ... 3.4.2. Energy storage elements, blocks
The energy storage element has a differential equation with higher order. The storage element may be first, second or higher order. We can treat an element with 3 or higher order as a result of 2 or more first and/or second order elements, so we'll deal with first and second-order elements only. First-order storage block ( T1 block )
T1
dx o (t ) + x o (t ) = x i (t ) dt
(A = 1)
The step response function is:
v (t ) = 1 e
t T1
The impulse response function is:
1 d y (t ) = v (t ) = e T T1 dt
The transfer function ( transference ) is:
Y(s ) =
1 1 + s T1
With inverse Laplace transform we get: if xi(t) = 1(t)
X i (s ) =
1 s
1 1 X o (s ) = X i (s ) Y(s ) = s 1 + s T1 1 1 v(t ) = L1 s 1+ s T 1
Fz (s ) = 1
Fp (s ) = s (1 + s T1 ) = s + s 2 T1 Fp (s ) = 1 + 2 s T1 p1 = 0, p 2 = 1 T1
t t
1 1
1 1 T x o (t ) = e 0t + e =1 e T 1 1
Y ( j) =
1 1 + jT1
The Nyquist diagram: As it is known in mathematics, a linear fraction function makes a circle from a straight line. Thus the frequency response function draws a circle, if the complex variable j goes from -j to j. When we represent the Nyquist diagram, goes from 0 to , thus we get a half of a circle. At =0 there is a point on the real axis, and its distance from the origin is 1.At = the curve goes to the origin, with a slope of -90o. Let's compute the point of Y(j) at =
1 T1
Y( j) =
if =
1 jT1 T1 1 1 = = j 2 2 2 2 2 1 + jT1 1 + T1 1 + T1 1 + 2 T1
1 T1
1 1 1 Y j = j T 2 2 1
ImY(j) = =0 ReY(j) 8
1 T1
The Bode diagram is: The amplitude function is:
a () = 20 log Y( j) = 20 log = 10 log(1 + 2 T12 )

The phase function is:
1 1+ T
2 2 1
= 20 log 1 + 2 T12 =
() = arc tg
Im Y( j) = arc tg T1 Re Y( j)
The form of the amplitude diagram is: If <<
1 , then a () = 1, () = 0. T1 1 , then a () = 20 log( T1 ), () = 90o. T1

a
If >>
0 dB
1
0o
1 T1
100 1000
10
-45 o -90 o
The second order storage block. It has two energy storage. The differential equation is:
d 2 x o (t ) dx o (t ) T2 + T1 + x o (t ) = x i (t ) 2 dt dt
The transfer function is :
Y(s ) =
1 1 + s T1 + s 2 T22
We can rewrite it as:
Y (s ) =
1 1 + 2 T s + T 2s 2
where d is the damping factor. Comparing the co-efficients we get:
T = T2 1 T = 1 2 T2
The Laplace transform of the step response function is:
1 1 V(s ) = Y(s ) = s (1 + 2 T s + T 2 s 2 ) s
It has 3 poles: p1 = 0, p2 and p3 depends on value of . There are 3 cases: 1. If > 1, then p2 and p3 are negative real values:
p 2,3 =
1 2 1 T T
thus the step response function is aperiodic one,
v(t ) = 1 + C1 e p t + C 2 e p t
2 3 2
y(t ) = C1 p 2 e p t + C 2 p 3 e p t
3
2. If < 1, then p2 and p3 are conjugated complex values,
p 2,3 =
where =
1 1 2 = j l T T
l =
1 1 2 is the frequency of the swing T
sin l t v (t ) = 1 e t cos l t + l 1 y (t ) = e t sin l t 2 l T

If < 1, the above response functions have some swingings. The measure of their's damping is influenced by the damping factor d or by the damping exponent . 3. If =1, p2=p3. We can get this case if the l goes to zero in the second case.
v(t ) = lim 1 e t cos l t + sin l t 0 l t t = 1 e T 1 + T

l
= 1 e t (1 + t )
y (t ) =
t 1 t eT T2
Y(s ) =
1 2 1 + j 2 T + ( j) T 2
If > 1 it can be considered as it were as a result of two T1 blocks linked serially: The Nyquist diagram is:
ImY(j)
Y1(j)
1
1
2
=0 ReY(j)
Y2(j)
=1+2
The Bode diagram is (sum of the Ya and Yb)
Y(j)
a() a1()
()
1/1
1/2
a2()
lg
0 90
1()
2()
a()=a1()+a2() lg ()=1()+2()
180
If < 1 ,the diagrams can be constructed point by point.

ImY(j) = =0 8
a()
()
lg
0 lg 90
180
3.4.3. Integrating block: (ideal)
TI
dx o (t ) = x i (t ) dt
TI is the integrating time constant or repetition time. The transfer function is :
Y(s ) = v (t ) = y (t ) =
1 s TI 1 t TI 1 TI
The frequency transfer function is :
Y( j) =
1 j TI
The Nyquist and the Bode diagram:

ImY(j) = 8
ReY(j)
a()
1 T1
()
lg
0 lg 90
Examples: an electric motor, if the output signal is the angle of the shaft, ... Integrating block with energy storage. I + T1 I + T2 Diagrams.
3.4.4. Differentiating block ( Ideal ,not realizable)
x o (t ) = TD
Y(s ) = s TD
dx i (t ) dt
Y( j) = j TD
Nyquist and Bode diagrams:
ImY(j)
=0 ReY(j)
a()
= 1 T1
() 90 0
lg
lg
Examples: tachogenerator, if the input signal is the angle of the shaft, ...
3.4.5. Compensating blocks
PD ( ideal, not realizable)
xi
1 AP sTD
xo
Y(s ) = A P (1 + s TD )
Diagrams:
ImY(j)
=0 P
a()
=
() 90 45 0
1 TD
+20dB/decade lg
lg
PI ( ideal realizable approximately)
xi
1 1 sTI Ap
xo
1 1 + s TI = AP Y(s ) = A P 1 + sT s TI I
Diagrams:
ImY(j)
P = 8 ReY(j)
a()
1 TI
20lgAP
lg
() 0 45 90
lg
PID ( ideal, not realizable)
1 xi sTD 1 sTI Ap xo
1 + s TI + s 2 TI TD Y(s ) = A P s TI
Diagrams:
ImY(j)
P ReY(j)
a()
() 90 45 0 45 90
lg
lg
3.4.6. A block with negative feedback:
xi
Yf(s)
xo
Yb(s)
Y(s ) =
Examples: a.
Yf (s ) 1 + Yf (s ) Yb (s )
1 s TI Yb (s ) = A b Yf (s ) =
1 Ab Y(s ) = = s TI 1 1+ Ab 1+ s TI Ab 1 s TI
Diagrams:
a()
1 Ab
() 0 45 90
lg
lg
b.
A1 1 + s T1 Yb (s ) = A 2 Yf (s ) =
A1 A1 1 + A1 A 2 A1 1 + s T1 Y(s ) = = = T1 A A 1 + 1 2 1 + s T1 + A1 A 2 1 + s 1 + A1 A 2 1 + s T1
Diagrams:
a()
1
A1 1 + A1 A 2
lg
() 0
45 90
lg
3.5. Transfer properties of closed loop control systems
Any control system can be represented in the form of next figure:

xd(t) Xd(s) yd(t) Yd(s) xn(t) Xn(s) xr(t) Xr(s) xb(t) Xb(s) yc(t) Yc(s) xi(t) Xi(s) xm(t) Xm(s) ys(t) Ys(s) xc(t) Xc(s) xo
yb(t) Yb(s)
Where
xr (t) Xr (s) is the reference (input) signal xe (t) Xe (s) is the error signal xi (t) Xi (s) is the intervening signal xd (t) Xd (s) is the disturbing signal xn(t) Xn is the noise signal xm(t) Xm (s) is the modified signal xc(t) Xc (s) is the controlled signal xb(t) Xb (s) is the feedback signal.
The controlled signal ( xc ) and the error signal ( xe ) depend on the reference signal and the disturbing signal. As we are dealing with linear control systems, we can use the theorem of superposition , i.e. we can add the effects of different signals intervening the system, thus it can be written as:
X c (s ) = W(s ) X r (s ) + Wd (s ) X d (s )
and
X e (s ) = We (s ) X r (s ) + Wed (s ) X d (s )
where W(s) We (s) Wd (s) Wed (s) is the transfer function of the closed system, is the error transfer function of the closed system, is the transfer function to the disturbing signal, is the error transfer function to the disturbing signal.
The interpretation of the transfer functions are as follows:
W (s ) =
X c (s ) X r (s ) X
(s )=0
We (s ) =
X e (s ) X r (s ) X
(s )=0
Wd (s ) =
X c (s ) X d (s ) X (s )=0
r
Wed (s ) =
X e (s ) X d (s ) X (s )=0
r
The transfer functions from the block diagram:
X c = X e Yc Ys
X b = X c Yb
Xe = Xr Xb X c = Yc Ys X r Yc Ys Yb X c
W=
Xc Yc Ys = X r 1 + Yc Ys Yb
The Y = Yc Ys Yb is the open-loop transfer function. Thus the transfer function of the closed loop system is:
W=
Yc Ys 1+ Y
Similarly the error transfer function is:
We =
1 1+ Y
The disturbing transfer functions are:
Wd = Wed =
( Examples )
Yd Ys Yb 1+ Y
Yd Ys 1+ Y
3.6. The type of the control systems
The open-loop transfer function can be described as:
Y(s ) =
where
K Y0 (s ) si
K is the open-loop gain factor i is an exponent, which is typical for the type of the system Y0 (0)= 1 , i.e. in steady-state its transfer ratio=1
Example:
Y(s ) =
K K 1 = 1 s (1 + s T1 ) (1 + s T2 ) s (1 + s T1 ) (1 + s T2 ) 1 (1 + s T1 ) (1 + s T2 )
Y0 (s ) =
if i=0, then the type of the loop is 0, if i=1, then the type is 1, if i=2, then the type is 2 ( it is very rare )
3.7. The properties of the control loops 3.7.1. 0 type control loop
Y(s ) = K Y0 (s )
Let's assume that Yb=1 , then
W (s ) =
K Y0 (s ) 1 + K Y0 (s ) 1 1 + K Y0 (s ) Yd (s ) A Y (s ) = d d0 1 + K Y0 (s ) 1 + K Y0 (s )
We (s ) =
Wed (s ) =
X c (s ) = W (s ) X r (s ) 1 K Y0 (s ) K x c (t ) = lim s = s 0 s 1 + K Y0 (s ) 1 + K x e (t ) = 1 1+ K
If X n (s ) =
1 s Ad 1+ K
x ed (t ) =
the effect of the disturbing signal is decreased by 1+K times. If X r (s ) =
1 s2
1 K x c (t ) = lim = s 0 s 1 + K 1 1 x e (t ) = lim = s 0 s 1 + K
the control loop with type 0 can't follow the reference signal, if it has higher order then the step signal. If X n (s ) =
1 s2
x e (t ) = , the control loop with type 0 can't suppress the effect of ramp type
disturbing signal.
3.7.2. 1 type control loop
Y(s ) =
K Y0 (s ) s
Yb (s ) = 1
K Y0 (s ) K Y0 (s ) s W (s ) = = K 1 + Y0 (s ) s + K Y0 (s ) s We (s ) = 1 1+ K Y0 (s ) s = s s + K Y0 (s )
Wed (s ) =
A d Yd 0 (s ) A d Yd 0 (s ) s = K 1 + Y0 (s ) s + K Y0 (s ) s
If X r (s ) =
1 s
X c (s ) = W (s ) X r (s ) =
K Y0 (s ) 1 s + K Y0 (s ) s K Y0 (0 ) =1 0 + K Y0 (0 )
x c (t ) = lim s X c (s ) =
s 0
1 0 x e (t ) = lim s We (s ) = = 0! s 0 s 0 + K Y0 (0 )
ie. this type of control loops can follow a step reference signal without steady-state error. If X r (s ) =
1 s2
( ramp signal )
x e (t ) = lim s
s 0
1 s 1 = 2 s s + K Y0 (0 ) K
or generally if x r (t ) = v i (t ) t 1(t ) (a ramp signal with slope vi, ie. such a position reference, in which the desired point moves with velocity vi)
X r (s ) = v i
and
1 s2 vi K
x e (t ) =
ie. during positioning the distance between the desired and the actual position is proportional with the velocity and reversely depends on value of K. If X r (s ) =
1 s3
( accelerating reference signal )
x e (t ) = lim s
s 0
1 s 1 = s 3 s + K Y0 (0) s K
ie. this type of control loops can't follow the reference signal with order higher than 2. T.Cski-I. Mak: Fundamentals of Automation 85
If X n (s ) =
1 A Y (s ) s =0 x e (t ) = lim s d d 0 s 0 s s + K Y0 (s )
ie. the effect of the disturbing signal is suppressed totally. If X n (s ) =
1 s
( step type disturbance )
1 s2
( ramp disturbance )
x e (t ) =
Ad K
the effect of the disturbance is decreased by K times. If X n (s ) =
1 s3 Ad = K s
x e (t ) =
ie. it can't compensate such disturbances, which have higher order than 2. Generally : a control loop with type i can follow a reference signal ( or suppress a disturbing signal ) ,if this signal has an order not greater than i+1 .
3.8. Stability of Control Loops
There is a fundamental requirement in the control theory: a control loop has to be able to decrease any (limited) disturbance, the control loop has to reach a steady state. The definition of the stability ( according to Ljapunov) : a system is stable , if it returns to its equilibrium state after moving it from this point. ( E.g. a pendulum is always stable , because its movement are decreasing ones .) In linear systems we can say: a system ( a control loop ) is stable, if its impulse response function goes to zero if the time goes to infinite.
lim y(t ) = 0
t
or
y(t ) < M ????

0
The behaviour of a linear system is described by its differential equation. If the homogeneous solution of the differential equation is decreasing, then the system is stable. As we can write:
y ( t ) = C k e ( p t )
n
k
k =1
where pk-s are the roots of the
K (s ) = (s p1 ) (s p 2 ) ... (s p n )
characteristic equation, a system is stable if and only if the real parts of all the pk roots are negative. Thus the stability can be find out, if we determine the roots of the characteristic equation. But it is a very hard task. In a first- or second-order system we can find the solution, of coarse. Although in a 3. or 4. order equation is solvable, but it is very uncomfortable to do it. The higher order equations are unsolvable with closed formulae. There are a lot of different methods to determine the stability without the solution of characteristic equations. We'll treat the followings: - Routh- Hurwitz method - Nyquist criterion - Bode criterion - root-locus method
3.8.1. Routh - Hurwitz method
We can write the characteristic equation as:
a 0 s n + a 1 s n 1 + ... + a n 1 s + a n = 0
Let's make an nth order determinant
a1 a0 Hn = 0 0
a3 a2 a1 a0
a5 a4 a3 a2
... ... ... ...
0 0 0 0
M
0
M
...
... ... a n
A system is stable if and only if all of ai-s are positive, the Hn is positive, and all of the H subdeterminants are positive. Example :
Y(s ) =
K s (1 + 0,1 s ) (1 + 0,4 s )
The characteristic equation is:
K + s (1 + 0,1 s ) (1 + 0,4 s ) = 0 0,04 s 3 + 0,5 s 2 + s + K = 0 a0 a1

0,5 H = 0,04 0 0,5 > 0 0,5 0,04 K 1
a2 a3
K 1 0 0
0,5 K
= 0,5 0,04 K > 0
K < 12,5 H = K (0,5 0,04 K ) > 0

The value of K is the Kcritical ,if any one of the subdeterminants becomes zero. In the example the Kcritical is equal to 12,5.
3.8.2. Nyquist method
According to Nyquist criterion we can make a decision wether a system is stable or not by means of the opened loop's Nyquist diagram.
W (s ) =
Y1 (s ) 1 + Y(s )
The poles of the closed system is determined by:
1 + Y (s ) = 0
or
1 + Y( j) = 0
It means, that we examine , that has the closed loop a solution with a given w or not. If the Nyquist diagram goes through the 1 + j 0 point, the system is in the limit of the stability. If the 1 + j 0 point is on the left-hand side of the diagram, the system is stable. If the 1 + j 0 point is on the right-hand side of the diagram, the system is unstable.
ImY(j) -1 = =0 8
We can introduce two useful terms: phase reserve and gain reserve. The definition of the phase reserve: The phase reserve is the angle measured from negative real axis, where the Nyquist diagram goes into the unity circle.
Im
-t
-at
+at
Re +t
Gain reserve:
g=
K crit K
It shows us , that how many times can we increase the K to reach the limit of the stability.
3.8.3. Bode method
As the Bode diagrams and the Nyquist diagram are equivalent, we can determine wether a system is stable or not by means of Bode diagrams, too.
a()
-at
()
at
lg()
lg() -90o -180o -270o t -t
In practice the control loops have generally well-formed Bode diagrams. (It means , that the Bode diagram has straight line parts with large length, the phase goes normally, etc.) In these cases the stability or lability ( instability ) can be determined by a single method. If the T.Cski-I. Mak: Fundamentals of Automation 90
amplitude diagram crosses the 0 dB axis with slope -20 dB/decade, the system is stable. If the amplitude diagram crosses the 0 dB axis with slope -60 dB/decade, the system is unstable. If the crossing has -40 dB/decade slope, you must examine the phase diagram, too, because the stability is undecided by amplitude diagram alone.
3.8.4. Root-locus method
We can represent the roots of a closed system in the s-plane. The transfer function of the closed loop is:
W (s ) =
Y1 (s ) 1 + Y(s )
The poles of the closed system is determined by:
1 + Y(s ) = 0
We could determine the poles by solving this equation. Let's write the equation in the following form:
Y(s ) = 1
As 1 = e + / jN
N = 1, 3, 5, ...
we can get 2 conditions to construct a root-locus curve: - phase condition = N 180 - amplitude ( absolute value ) condition Y(s) = 1 To create a root-locus curve we have to find such points on the s-plane, which fulfil the phase condition and the amplitude condition. The transfer function of the open loop is given in form:
Y(s ) = K '
(s z1 ) (s z 2 ) ... (s z Z ) (s p1 ) (s p 2 ) ... (s p P )
where pi (i=1,2,...,P) are the poles of the open loop and zk (k=1,2,...,Z) are the zeros of the open loop.
Im s
s z k = C k e ( j
i
Ck
k
Di pi
s
i
s p i = D i e ( j )
zk
So :
Re s
k =1
P
k i = N 180
i =1
Di Ck
k =1 i =1 Z
= K'
If we select a point on the s-plane, we can decide whether it is on the root-locus curve or not. There are some rules to construct a root-locus curve. 1. The curve is symmetrical to the real axis. 2. The curve has as many branches as the number of poles. 3. The branches derive from the poles. Z branches go to zero locations and P-Z branches go to infinite. 4. On the real axis there are sections of the curve if there are odd poles and zeros right from the examined point. 5. The angle of departure from a pole is
i = m180 + k i
k =1 i =1 im
and the angle of the arrival to a zero place is
i = m180 + k i
k =1 km i =1
6. The angle of an asymptote of the curve is
N 180 PZ
7. The asymptote crosses the real axis in the point:
x=
pi z k PZ
8. The arrival ( or departure) to (or from) the real axis is:
Z 1 1 =0 i =1 x p k =1 x z i k P
9. The crossing points on the imaginary axis can be determined by Routh- Hurwitz criterion. 10.
pi =
i =1
a1 , a0
p k = ( 1)
n n k =1
an a0
The system is stable ( at a given K or K') if the points of the root-locus curve are in the left half plane of s. Some typical root-locus curves:
Im s
K s
Re s
Im s
K 1+ s T
Re s
Im s
1 + s T1 1 + s T2
Re s
Im s
K (1 + s T1 ) (1 + s T2 )
Re s
Im s
K 1 + 2 d T s + T2 s2
Re s
Im s
1 + s T1 (1 + s T2 ) (1 + s T3 )
Re s
Im s
K (1 + s T1 ) (1 + s T2 ) (1 + s T3 )
Re s
The structural and the conditional stability There are such systems, control loops, which are stable independently from the value of K. These systems have structural stability. The systems in which the stability depends on the value of K have conditional stability. They are stable at a given value of K and are unstable at an another value. Examples:
Y=
K (1 + s T1 ) (1 + s T2 )
N,B,RL stability criteria.
Y=K
(1 + s T4 ) (1 + s T5 ) (1 + s T1 ) (1 + s T2 ) (1 + s T6 ) (1 + s T7 )
N. stability criterion. In the last case if the K is too large or too small, the system is unstable.
4. Summary
This paper dealt with the basic theory of automation. We have mentioned the digital and analogue control, the most important rules and some methods for treating control systems, control loops.
Fundamentals of Automation. Topics 1. Preface 3 1.1. Signals. 1.1.1. Classifying of signals. 1.1.2. Application of signals. 1. Computing system. 2. Measuring system. 3. Digital control system. 4. Binary logical controller. 2. Discrete controllers 2.1. Information 2.1.1. Numbers 2.2.2. Codes 2.2. Logical algebra. 2.2.1. Basic operations in logical algebra: 2.2.2. Boole functions. 2.2.3. Boole function systems. 2.2.4. Simplification of logical functions. 2.2.5. Realization of logic functions. 2.3. Sequential networks. 2.3.1. Realization of sequential networks. 2.3.2. Higher level functional units. 2.4. Memories. 2.5. Digital controllers. 3. Linear Control Theory 3.1. The Control System and Its Components. 3.1.1. Grouping of control systems ( from some points of view.) 3.1.2. General Requirements to Control Loops 3.1.3. Blocks, block diagrams. 3.2. Methods for treating of linear control loops. 3.2.1 The differential equations method. 3.2.2. Typical reference signals for examining the control loops. 3.2.3. Faltung-thesis, Duhamel-thesis. 3.2.4. Fourier transformation, Fourier's series, Fourier integral 3.2.5. The Laplace transformation 3.2.6. The transfer function. 3.2.7. Studying the System in the Frequency Domain 3.3. Representing the frequency functions. 3.3.1. Nyquist - diagram ( amplitude-phase diagram) T.Cski-I. Mak: Fundamentals of Automation 96
1 1 2 4 6 8 8 8 9 9 11 11 12 13 15 15 15 17 19 22 25 30 32 36 43 46 58 58 59 62 65 65 66 66 66 73 73 73 74 77 77 80 82 83 83
3.3.2. Bode - diagram ( logarithmic frequency diagram) 3.4. Typical Functions of Dynamic Blocks. 3.4.1. Proportional block (P block) 3.4.2. Energy storage elements, blocks 3.4.3. Integrating block: (ideal) 3.4.4. Differentiating block ( Ideal ,not realizable) 3.4.5. Compensating blocks 3.4.6. A block with negative feedback: 3.5. Transfer properties of closed loop control systems 3.6. The type of the control systems 3.7. The properties of the control loops 3.7.1. 0 type control loop 3.7.2. 1 type control loop 3.8. Stability of Control Loops 3.8.1. Routh - Hurwitz method 3.8.2. Nyquist method 3.8.3. Bode method 3.8.4. Root-locus method 4. Summary
83 84 84 85 92 92 92 94 95 98 99 102 102 102 104 107 108 109 111 112 117

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Fundamentals of Automation

8th semester, 3+1 c. (Introduction to Automation)

T.Cski-I. Mak: Fundamentals of Automation 2

T.Cski-I. Mak: Fundamentals of Automation 3

The machine's task, function: to do some operations (machine functions)

T.Cski-I. Mak: Fundamentals of Automation 4

1.1.1. Classifying of signals. Signal

Analogue The natural signals are analogous. continuous

Digital These signals are made by men. quantified

T.Cski-I. Mak: Fundamentals of Automation 5

T.Cski-I. Mak: Fundamentals of Automation 6

1.1.2. Application of signals.

Measuring signal processor

3. Digital control system.

T.Cski-I. Mak: Fundamentals of Automation 7

4. Binary logical controller.

input signals, input vector.

output signals, output vector.

M = [m1 , m 2 , ... , m p ] M ( t +1) = F(X, M ) Y ( t ) = G (X, M )

T.Cski-I. Mak: Fundamentals of Automation 9

T.Cski-I. Mak: Fundamentals of Automation 10

4. Commutative rules 5. Associative rules 6. Distributive rules 7. De-Morgan rules

a (b + c ) = a b + a c a + b c = (a + b ) (a + c ) a + b + ... + n = a b ... n a b ... n = a + b + ... + n

T.Cski-I. Mak: Fundamentals of Automation 13

thus we verified 1st De Morgan thesis. 2nd De Morgan thesis:

Thus we verified 2nd De Morgan thesis, too.

2.2.2. Boole functions.

T.Cski-I. Mak: Fundamentals of Automation 14

f0 f1 f2 f3 f4 f5 f6 f7 f8 f9 f10 f11 f12 f13

f14 1 1 f15 1 1 These are 16 2-variable Boole functions.

T.Cski-I. Mak: Fundamentals of Automation 15

2.2.3. Boole function systems.

T.Cski-I. Mak: Fundamentals of Automation 16

T.Cski-I. Mak: Fundamentals of Automation 17

after using the axioms of Boole algebra we get:

2.2.4. Simplification of logical functions.

T.Cski-I. Mak: Fundamentals of Automation 18

T.Cski-I. Mak: Fundamentals of Automation 19

Let's see some bigger Veitch-tables. A minterm table for 4 variables:

abcd abcd abcd abcd

abcd abcd abcd abcd

T.Cski-I. Mak: Fundamentals of Automation 20

A table for 5 variables is:

2.2.5. Realization of logic functions.

Basic gates. NOT gate, inverter. Symbol:

T.Cski-I. Mak: Fundamentals of Automation 21

AND gate. Symbol:

T.Cski-I. Mak: Fundamentals of Automation 22

NAND gate: Symbol:

T.Cski-I. Mak: Fundamentals of Automation 23

NOR gate Symbol:

It is the dual pair of the NAND gate. Realization of basic elements:

T.Cski-I. Mak: Fundamentals of Automation 25

2.3. Sequential networks.

We can arrange the elements of table in form a matrix, as:

Nabors of input variables Nabors of inner variables

Nabors of inner variables in time t2

T.Cski-I. Mak: Fundamentals of Automation 26

E.g. Let it be 1 input variable x, and 2 inner variables, m1 and m2. t1

T.Cski-I. Mak: Fundamentals of Automation 27

The output of R-S flop is often marked ( named ) as Q.

T.Cski-I. Mak: Fundamentals of Automation 28

T.Cski-I. Mak: Fundamentals of Automation 29