Surface Production Operations

1
Surface Production Operations
Hassan Hassanzadeh
EN B204M
hhassanz@ucalgary.ca
Learning Objectives
Evaluate the performance of wellhead
chokes for single and multiphase flows
2
Choke Performance
Wellhead chokes are used to limit production rates for
1. Regulations
2. Protect surface equipment
3. Avoid sand problems due to high drawdown
4. Control flow rate to avoid water or gas coning
Types of wellhead chokes:
3
Types of wellhead chokes:
1. Positive (fixed) chokes
2. Adjustable chokes
American Completion Tools, Inc.
Applications
1. Wellheads
2. Well testing
3. Manifolds
4. Process facilities
Sonic and Subsonic Flow
When the fluid flow velocity in a choke reaches the traveling
velocity of sound in the fluid under the in situ condition, the
flow is called sonic flow.
Under sonic flow conditions, the pressure wave
downstream downstream of the choke cannot go upstream upstream through the
4
downstream downstream of the choke cannot go upstream upstream through the
choke because the medium (fluid) is traveling in the
opposite direction at the same velocity. Therefore, the
downstream pressure does not affect the upstream
pressure. This sonic flow provides a unique choke feature
that stabilizes well production rate and separation
operation conditions.
Sonic and Subsonic Flow
If downstream-to-upstream pressure ratio
(p
down
/p
up
) is less than a critical pressure
ratio, sonic (critical) flow exists. If this
pressure ratio is greater than or equal to
the critical pressure ratio, subsonic
(subcritical) flow exists.
P2 P1
q
d2
Critical
Subcritical
d1
0.3
2
| |
| |
k
p
5
P2/P1
0.6
Critical
Subcritical
0
1.2
0
0.2
0.1
1
1
2
+
|

\
|
+
=
|
|

\
| k
k
c
up
outlet
k p
p
k = C
p
/C
v
is the specific heat ratio.
The value of the k is about 1.28 for natural
gas. Thus, the critical pressure ratio is about
0.55 for natural gas.
M
a
s
s

f
l
o
w

r
a
t
e
Single-Phase Liquid Flow

P
d C q
D

=
2
2
8074
When the pressure drop across a choke is due to kinetic energy change,
for single-phase liquid flow we have:
where
q = flow rate, bbl/d
C
D
= choke discharge coefficient
d
2
= choke diameter, in.
p = pressure drop, psi
= density, lb /ft
3
6
( )
[ ] 4 log 025 . 0
/
3167 . 0
Re
6 . 0
1 2
1
2
+ + = N
d d
d
d
C
D
= density, lb
m
/ft
3
z
The choke discharge coefficient C
D
can be determined based on Reynolds
number and choke/pipe diameter ratio. The following correlation has been
found to give reasonable accuracy for Reynolds numbers between 10
4
and
10
6
for nozzle-type chokes (Guo and Ghalambor, 2005):
where
d
1
= upstream pipe diameter, in.
d
2
= choke diameter, in.
N
Re
= Reynolds number based on d
2
q = fluid flow rate, bbl/day
= fluid density lb
m
/ft
3
2
Re
48 . 1
d
q
N

=
Choke discharge coefficient
7
Choke flow coefficient for nozzle-type chokes
Choke discharge coefficient
8
Choke flow coefficient for orifice-type chokes
Single-Phase Gas Flow
1. Pressure equations for gas flow through chokes are
derived based on an isentropic process. This is because
there is no time for heat to transfer (adiabatic)
2. Temperature drop associated with choke flow is also an
important issue for gas wells, because hydrates may
9
important issue for gas wells, because hydrates may
form that may plug flow lines.
Subsonic Flow
( )

|
|

\
|

|
|

\
|

=
+
k
k
up
dn
k
up
dn
up g
up D sc
p
p
p
p
T k
k
p A C q
1 2
2
1
1248

where
q
sc
= gas flow rate, Mscf/d
p
up
= upstream pressure at choke, psia
A
2
= cross-sectional area of choke, in
2
T = upstream temperature,
o
R
Under subsonic flow conditions, gas passage through a choke can be
expressed as
10
Gas velocity under subsonic flow conditions is less than the sound sound
velocity velocity in the gas at the in situ conditions:

|
|

\
|
+ =

k
k
up
down
dn
up
up p c up
p
p
z
z
T C g v v
1
2
1 2
where C
p
= specific heat of gas at constant pressure (187.7 lb
f
-ft/lb
m
-R for air).
T
up
= upstream temperature,
o
R

g
= gas-specific gravity related to air
The Reynolds number for determining C
D
is expressed as
2
Re
20
d
q
N
g
g sc

=
Sonic Flow
1
1
1
2
879

+
|

\
|
+
|
|

\
|
=
k
k
up g
up D sc
k T
k
AP C Q

Under sonic flow conditions, the gas passage rate reaches its
maximum value. The gas passage rate is expressed in the following
equation for ideal gases:
11
C
D
is not sensitive to the Reynolds number for N
Re
>10
6
. Thus, the C
D
value at
N
Re
>10
6
can be assumed for C
D
values at higher Reynolds numbers.
Gas velocity under sonic flow conditions is equal to sound velocity in the gas
under the in situ conditions:
up
outlet
up
up p c up
T
k z
z
T C g v v 76 . 44
1
2
1 2
2

\
|
+
+ =
where T is in
o
R
Temperature at Choke
The JouleThomson cooling effect, that is, a sudden gas
expansion below the nozzle causes a significant
temperature drop and may results in ice-plugging if water
exists. Hydrates can cause plugging.
Assuming an isentropic process for an ideal gas, the
12
Assuming an isentropic process for an ideal gas, the
temperature at the choke downstream can be
predicted using:
k
k
up
outlet
outlet
up
up dn
p
p
z
z
T T
1
|
|

\
|
=
The outlet pressure is equal to the downstream pressure
in subsonic flow conditions.
To estimate the gas passage rate at given upstream
and downstream pressures, the following procedure
can be taken:
1
1
2

|

\
|
+
=
|
|

\
|
k
k
c
up
outlet
k P
P
P P /
Step 2: Calculate the downstream-to-upstream pressure ratio;
Step 1: Calculate the critical pressure ratio with
13
up dn
P P /
( )

|
|

\
|

|
|

\
|

=
+
k
k
up
dn
k
up
dn
up g
up D sc
p
p
p
p
T k
k
p A C q
1 2
2
1
1248

1
1
1
2
879

+
|

\
|
+
|
|

\
|
=
k
k
up g
up D sc
k T
k
AP C q

Step 2: Calculate the downstream-to-upstream pressure ratio;

Step 3: If the downstream-to-upstream pressure ratio is greater
than the critical pressure ratio, calculate gas passage using:
Otherwise, calculate gas passage by:
1
1
2

|

\
|
+
=
|
|

\
| k
k
c
up
outlet
k P
P
Min
up
c
up
outlet
dn
P
P
P
P
=
|
|

\
|
1
1
1
2
879

+
|

\
|
+
|
|

\
|
=
k
k
up g
up D sc
k T
k
AP C q

To estimate upstream pressure at a given downstream pressure

and gas passage, the following procedure can be taken:
Step 2: Calculate the minimum upstream pressure
required for sonic flow by dividing the downstream
pressure by the critical pressure ratio.
Step 3: Calculate gas flow rate at the
minimum sonic flow condition with
Step 1: Calculate the critical pressure ratio using
14
( )

|
|

\
|

|
|

\
|

=
+
k
k
up
dn
k
up
dn
up g
up D sc
p
p
p
p
T k
k
p A C q
1 2
2
1
1248

1
1
2
1
2
879

+
|

\
|
+
|
|

\
|
=
k
k
up g
up D sc
k T
k
P A C q

Step 4: If the given gas passage is less than the calculated gas flow rate at
the minimum sonic flow condition, use (subsonic flow) equation
to find upstream pressure numerically.
Otherwise use (sonic flow)
to calculate upstream pressure.
1
1
2

|

\
|
+
=
|
|

\
| k
k
c
up
outlet
k P
P
Max outlet
c
up
outlet
up
P
P
P
P =
|
|

\
|
1
1
2
879

+
|
|

|
|
|

|
=
k
k
k
P A C q
Downstream pressure cannot be calculated on the basis of given upstream
pressure and gas passage under sonic flow conditions, but it can be calculated
under subsonic flow conditions. The following procedure can be followed:
Step 2: Calculate the maximum downstream pressure for minimum sonic flow by
multiplying the upstream pressure by the critical pressure ratio.
Step 3: Calculate gas flow rate at the
minimum sonic flow condition with
Step 1: Calculate the critical pressure ratio with
15
1
2
1
2
879

\
|
+
|
|

\
|
=
k
up g
up D sc
k T
k
P A C q

( )

|
|

\
|

|
|

\
|

=
+
k
k
up
dn
k
up
dn
up g
up D sc
p
p
p
p
T k
k
p A C q
1 2
2
1
1248

minimum sonic flow condition with

Step 4: If the given gas passage is less than the calculated
gas flow rate at the minimum sonic flow condition, use
to solve downstream pressure numerically.
Otherwise, the downstream pressure cannot be calculated. The maximum possible
downstream pressure for sonic flow can be estimated by multiplying the upstream
pressure by the critical pressure ratio.
Multiphase Flow
m
q CR
p =
When the produced oil reaches the wellhead choke, the wellhead pressure
is usually below the bubble-point pressure of the oil. This means that free
gas exists in the fluid stream flowing through choke. Choke behaves
differently depending on gas content and flow regime (sonic or subsonic
flow).
Critical (Sonic) Flow
16
n
wh
S
q CR
p =
where
p
wh
= upstream (wellhead) pressure, psia
q = gross liquid rate, bbl/day
R = producing gas-liquid ratio, scf/bbl
S = choke size, 164 in.
Correlation C m n
Gilbert 10 0.546 1.89
Ros 17.4 0.5 2
Baxendell 9.56 0.546 1.93
Achog 3.82 0.65 1.88
Pilehvari 46.67 0.313 2.11
Subcritical (Subsonic) Flow
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
1
2
2 1
1
2 1
1
1 1
1 1
1
2
1
2 1
1 1
1

+ +

=
k
k
G
L
G
L
G
L
c
V x
V x n
V x
V x n n
k
k
V x
y V x
k
k
y
( )
( )
k
c G G
p v
v p
y V V
C x C x
C C x
n
1
1 2
1 1
1
1
1

=
+

+ =
where
y
c
= critical pressure ratio
k = C
p
/C
v
, specific heat ratio
n = polytropic exponent for gas
17
n = polytropic exponent for gas
x
1
= free gas quality at upstream, mass fraction
V
L
= liquid specific volume at upstream, ft
3
/lbm
V
G1
= gas specific volume at upstream, ft
3
/lbm
V
G2
= gas specific volume at downstream, ft
3
/lbm.
The actual pressure ratio can be calculated by
1
2
p
p
y
a
=
y
a
= actual pressure ratio
p
1
= upstream pressure, psia
p
2
= downstream pressure, psia
If y
a
< y
c
, critical flow exists, and the y
c
should be used (y = y
c
). Otherwise,
subcritical flow exists, and y
a
should be used (y = y
a
).
Subcritical (Subsonic) Flow (cont.)
( )( )
( )
5 . 0
2 1
1 1
2
2 1 2 2
1
1 1
288
)
`

+

=
G G
L
m c D
yV V
k
k x y x
p g A C M

The total mass flow rate can be calculated using the following equation:
where
M
2
= mass flow rate, lb
m
/s
A
2
= choke cross-sectional area, ft
2
C
D
= discharge coefficient, 0.620.90

m2
= mixture density at downstream, lb
m
/ft
3
= liquid density, lb /ft
3
18

L
= liquid density, lb
m
/ft
3
The mixture density at downstream (
m2
) can be calculated using:
( )
L
k
G
m
V x y V x
1
1
1 1
2
1
1
+ =

Liquid and gas mass flow rate are determined by M

L2
= (1 - x
2
)M
2
and M
G2
= x
2
M
2
At typical velocities of mixtures of 50150 ft/s flowing through chokes, there is
virtually no time for mass transfer between phases at the throat. Thus, x
2
= x
1
can be
assumed. Liquid volumetric flow rate can then be determined based on liquid
density.