Confucius, The First Teacher Introduction: According to the author s research, Confucius was born in 551 B.C.

into a poor family in the state of Lu or present day Shantung province in eastern China. His ancestors were of noble position, however due to political troubles the family relocated to the state of Lu and lost its noble position before Confucius was born. From the forty-seventh chapter of the Shih Chi we learn that Confucius entered the government of Ly and reached a high official rank by the age of fifty. Due to political issues, he was forced to resign his post and go into exile. During his exile, Confucius traveled from state to state looking for an opportunity to express his ideals for political and social reform. Submitting, he returned to Lu, where he died in 479 B.C.. Confucius and the Six Classics According to tradition, Confucius had several thousand of students. In reality, this is a gross exaggeration. Fung Yu-lan states that it is more important to think of Confucius as a very influential teacher and China s first private teacher. A compilation of Confucius sayings can be found in the Confucian Analects. Confucius was a Ju and the founder of the Ju School, better known in the West of the Confucian school. This school studied the ideas of the Liu Yi or Six Classics. These are the: Yi or Book of Changes, the Shih or Book of Poetry, the Shu or Book of History, the Li or Rituals or Rites, the Yueh or Music, and the Ch un Ch iu or Spring and Autumn Annals.

Confucius sometimes is accredited for the works; however the Six Classics existed before his time. As a conservative who followed tradition, the Six Classics and the idea of Ju would be permanently associated with Confucius. Confucius as an Educator Confucius wanted his disciples to the renaissance men and be useful to the state and society. Along with his function as teacher, he felt a duty to be an intermediate between the ancient cultural heritage and the students. As recorded in the Analects, he was a transmitter and not an originator. Using a combination of traditional ideas and his own moral concepts, he formed a new dimension to the school of Ju. As a result, the spirit of originating through transmitting was perpetuated by the followers of Confucius. This lead to the creation of the commentaries, known as the Thirteen Classics, of the original texts. The Rectification of Names The Rectification of names means to know one's roles in the web of relationships that create community, and behaving accordingly so as to ensure social harmony. Since [social harmony] is of utmost importance, without the proper rectification of names, society would essentially crumble and "undertakings [would] not [be] completed." Confucius believed that social disorder often stemmed from failure to perceive, understand, and deal with reality. Fundamentally, then, social disorder can stem from the failure to call things by their proper names, and his solution to this was the rectification of names.

The rectification of names also called for a standard language in which ancient rulers could impose laws that everyone could understand to avoid confusion. Without the rectification of names, different words would have different actions. Each person has a social standing and a social name and with their social names comes responsibilities and duties. Ruler, minister, father and son all have social names therefore they need to fulfill their required social duties of respect (The rectification of names). Human-Heartedness and Righteousness Although every social position carries within it, a defined set of responsibilities or righteousness, Confucius insisted that the fulfillment of these duties should be inspired by human-heartedness, which he defined as "loving others". (Analects, XII, 22). Since Confucius believed that humans were social animals, the proper conduct of relationships was vital to him. For it was only in relation to others that one could establish one's virtuous character. "The man of humanheartedness is one who desiring to sustain himself, sustains others, and desiring to develop himself, develops others; that may be called the way to practice human-heartedness." (VI, 28) Chung and Shu Confucius himself identified shu as the principle running through all his teachings, so that it would not be going to far to say that the all-important concept of jen can be reduced primarily to the concept of shu allied with chung . In substance, shu is very similar to our concept of the "golden rule": do unto others as you would have them do unto you. In Confucius, however, shu is more a means for thinking out what your obligations to others should be: you should use yourself as an analogy when

determining what would be beneficial to others. What you perceive as beneficial to yourself you may reasonably conclude would be beneficial to others; what you perceive as harmful to yourself, you may reasonably conclude would harm others. This is how you think through moral questions. Confucius goes further and says "To judge of others by using yourself as an analogy is the way to achieve jen " (Analects VI.28). Knowing Ming "Ming" in Chinese means fate. "Knowing Ming", however, does not mean knowing fate. Indeed, it's almost its opposite. It is the term that Confucius gave to acting without regard to the results of one's actions. Mindful of fate's capriciousness, he preached that virtue carried within it its own reward, namely "the wise are free from doubts; the virtuous from anxiety; the brave from fear" (IX, 28). The Confucian should act without regard for the effect of their actions. Acting for profit or self-interest was anathema to Confucius (and explains China's negative attitude to commerce until recent times). To know Ming, therefore, is to entrust the results of one's actions to fate, and not to let its possibly negative after-effects deter one from acting virtuously. Confucius Spiritual Development It seems Confucianism stresses being spiritual, but not religious. According to Confucians, spiritual development comes after physical, emotional, and mental development. One must first learn to know oneself and to respect and honor oneself as one goes about daily business.

Confucius Position in Chinese History Confucius had been recognized as a great teacher, living god among men, and even a writer of important ethical and political ideas. The Han dynasty properly called Confucianism a religion. Overall, historically speaking, his position in Chinese History is as the teacher. Mo Tzu, The First Opponent of Confucius Introduction: Little is known about Mo Tzu s life. The Shih Chi tells us nothing about his early upbringings. It is thought that he lived sometime between the years 479-381 B.C. Most of ideas are found in the book Mo-Tzu. It is a collection of writings by him and his followers. The Mohist School, founded by Mo Tzu, was as influential of Confucius. It was the contrast between the two that intrigued contemporizes of the time. Confucius tried to rationalize and justify the traditional ways of the Chou dynasty in ethical terms and transmitting them in a refined way. Mo Tzu, on the contrary, was a critic and thought of them as outdated and useless and preached in militant manner. Social Background of the Mohist School The Chou dynasty had military specialist that lost their positions and titles. They offered their skills to anyone who could afford them. This class of people was known as the hsieh or knightserrant. Due to the hsieh s trustworthiness and quick and decisive manner, Mo Tzu thought this a great archetype to develop professional ethics.

It was more a upper class vs. lower class battle of ideas and place in life. Mo Tzu thought Confucius thought was more geared to the upper class and aristocrats and not to the common man. These ideas and practices had no practical utility or benefit for the lower class. Mo Tzu wanted to elaborate on the professional ethics of the hsieh. This became the central idealism of the Mohist philosophy. Mo Tzu s Criticism of Confucianism According to Mo Tzu, the principles of the Confucianists ruin the whole world in four ways : (1) The Confucianists do not believe in the existence of God or of spirits, with the result the God and the spirits are displeased. (2) The Confucianists insist on elaborate funerals and the practice of three years of mourning on the death of a parent, so that the wealth and energy of the people are thereby wasted. (3) The Confucianists lay stress on the practice of music, leading to an identical result. (4) The Confucianists believe in a predetermined fate, causing the people to be lazy and to resign themselves to this fate. (The Mo-tzu, ch.48.) He goes on and says: Even those with long life cannot exhaust the learning required for their studies. Even people with the vigor of youth have amassed wealth cannot afford music. They enhance the beauty of wicked arts and lead their sovereign astray. Their doctrine cannot meet the needs of the age, nor can their learning educate the people. (Ch.39.) All of the points, except the last, that Mo Tzu were made in the defense of the lower classes. The point about fate was not the fate that Confucianists embrace. The Confucius did not follow the idea of predetermined fate, but how one accepts the inevitable, which Confucianists meant with they spoke of knowing Ming.

All-embracing Love Mo Tzu tried to replace what he considered to be the long-entrenched Chinese overattachment to family and clan structures with the concept of "impartial caring" or "Allembracing love" .In this, he argued directly against Confucians who had argued that it was natural and correct for people to care about different people in different degrees. Mo Tzu, in contrast, argued that people in principle should care for all people equally, a notion that philosophers in other schools found absurd, as they interpreted this notion as implying no special amount of care or duty towards one's parents and family. Overlooked by those critics, however, is a passage in the chapter on "Self-Cultivation" which states, "When people near-by are not befriended, there is no use endeavoring to attract those at a distance." This point is also precisely articulated by a Mohist in a debate with Mencius (in the Mencius), where the Mohist argues in relation to carrying out universal love, that "We begin with what is near." Also, in the first chapter of the writings of Mo Tzu on universal love, Mo Tzu argues that the best way of being filial to one s parents is to be filial to the parents of others. The foundational principle is that benevolence, as well as malevolence is requited, and that one will be treated by others as one treats others. The Will of God and Existence of Spirits Mo Tzu also held a belief in the power of ghosts and spirits, although he is often thought to have only worshiped them pragmatically. In fact, in his discussion on ghosts and spirits, he remarks that even if they did not exist, communal gatherings for the sake of making sacrificial offering would play a role in strengthening social bonds. Furthermore, for Mo Tzu the will of Heaven was that people should love one another, and that mutual love by all would bring

benefit to all. Therefore, it was in everyone's interest that they love others "as they love themselves." Heaven should be respected because failing to do so would subject one to punishment. For Mo Tzu, Heaven was not of mystical nature but rather, it was a benevolent, moral force that rewarded good and punished evil. A Seeming Inconsistency Inconsistency about the existence of spirits and the rituals connected with spirits seem to be inconsistent with the doctrine of both the Mohists and the Confucianists. The Mohists believed in spirits but not the rituals and the Confucianists believed in the rituals but not in the spirits. We can read in the Mo-Tzu: To hold that there are no spirits, and yet to learn sacrificial ceremonies, is like learning the ceremonies of hospitality when there are no guests, or throwing fish nets when there are no fish. (Ch. 48.) This is explained as poetic and not religious. The sentiment of respect held by the giver is the design of tradition and should be taken seriously. Origin of State Mo Tzu posited that the existence of society as an organized organism reduces the wastes and inefficiencies found in the natural state. Conflicts are born from the absence of moral uniformity found in man in his natural state, i.e. the absence of the definition of what is right and what is wrong. We must therefore choose leaders who will surround themselves with righteous followers, who will then create the hierarchy that harmonizes right and wrong. In that sense, the government becomes an authoritative and automated tool. Assuming that the leaders in the social hierarchy are perfectly conformed to the ruler, who is perfectly submissive to Heaven, conformity in speech and behavior is expected of all people. There is no freedom of speech in this model. However, the potentially repressive element is countered by compulsory

communication between the subjects and their leaders. Subjects are required to report all things good or bad to their rulers. Mohism is opposed to any form of aggression, especially war between states. The Idealistic Wing of Confucianism: Mencius Introduction: Mencius was a scholar that lived between the 3rd and 2nd century B.C. in the state of Tsou. He represented the idealistic wind of Confucianism and later, the Hsun Tzu realistic wing. He is credited for the book Mencius, later to made one of the famous Four Books . The Goodness of Human Nature Confucius stated that man should, unconditionally do what he ought to do, but never explained why a man should act this way. Mencius attempted to give an answer. In doing so developed the original goodness of human nature theory. Mencius ideas are best explained: Whether human nature is good or bad has been one of the most controversial problems in Chinese philosophy. Mencius holds that human nature is good, but he doesn't mean that every man is born a sage. He admits, to be sure, that there are also other elements, which are neither good nor bad in themselves, but which, if not duly controlled, can lead to evil. According to Mencius, however, these are elements which man shares in common with other living creatures. They represent the "animal" aspect of man's life, and therefore, strictly speaking, should not be considered as part of the "human" nature. Mencius says:"The feeling of commiseration is the beginning of human-heartedness. The feeling of shame and dislike is the beginning of righteousness. The feeling of modesty and yielding is the beginning of propriety. The sense of right and wrong is the beginning of wisdom."

All men in their original nature possess these "four beginnings", which, if fully developed, become the four "constant virtues", so greatly emphasized in Confucianism. These four beginnings differentiate man from the beasts. They should be developed, therefore, because it is only through their development that man is truly a "man". Political Philosophy Mencius emphasized the significance of the common citizens in the state. While Confucianism generally regards rulers highly, he argued that it is acceptable for the subjects to overthrow or even kill a ruler who ignores the people's needs and rules harshly. This saying should not be taken as an instigation to violence against authorities but as an application of Confucian philosophy to society. Confucianism requires a clarification of what may be reasonably expected in any given relationship. All relationships should be beneficial, but each has its own principle or inner logic. A Ruler must justify his position by acting benevolently before he can expect reciprocation from the people. In this view, a King is like a steward. Although Confucius admired Kings of great accomplishment, Mencius is clarifying the proper hierarchy of human society. Although a King has presumably higher status than a commoner, he is actually subordinate to the masses of people and the resources of society. Otherwise, there would be an implied disregard of the potential of human society heading into the future. One is significant only for what one gives, not for what one takes. Mysticism Mencius argues that the human will commands the Ch I of the human body. The material force or vital energy of the human body may expand or contract, depending on whether right or wrong actions are performed. Right actions may cause the vital energy of the human body to

expand, but wrong actions may cause the vital energy of the human body to contract. Each person's vital energy may expand or contract, depending on whether he or she performs right or wrong actions. If a person allows his or her vital energy to expand through righteous action, then his or her vital energy may eventually become limitless and "flood-like." This Great Morale" (Hao Jan Chih Ch i) is a vast source of moral goodness which may enable each person to follow the path of righteousness and to find the Tao.

The School of Names Introduction: The Ming Chia has caused some confusion in the past. The author translates to the literally meaning as School of Names to avoid any confusion. This brings up one of the important problems discussed by Chinese philosophy, the relationship between ming and shi. The School of Names and the Debaters Members of the School of Names were called pien che (debaters, disputers, arguers). The school is also known for members making paradoxical statements such as, I have proved the impossible as possible and affirmed what other deny. (Chuang tzu, ch.17.) It seems that it was all for the sake of argument and conducted with complicated and elaborate statements so that to refute would be almost impossible. Within the school, Hui Shih represented the relativity of actual things and Kung-sun Lung represented the absoluteness of names. Hui Shih s Theory of Relativity Hui Shih was form the state Sung and lived from 350-260 B.C. He is known for the ten points from the Chuang-tzu. One example, love all things equally; Heaven and Earth are one body.

This embodies Hui Shih s idea that there is no absolute difference or absolute separation among them. Everything is in a state of flux. It seems Hui Shih is will always been known for his paradoxes about the relativity of time and space. Kung-sun Lung s Theory of Universals Kung-sun Lung lived from 284-259 B.C. and is known for his sophistic arguments. He is best known for Discourse on the White Horse. It defends the truth of the statement "White horses are not horses," while the other "objector" disputes the truth of this statement. The argument plays upon an ambiguity in Chinese and this work has been viewed by some as a serious logical discourse, by others as a facetious work of sophistry. Significance of the Theories of Hui Shih and Kung-sun Lung Hui Shih spoke of loving all things equally, and Kung-sun Lung also wished to extend his argument in order to correct the relations between names and actualities, so as thus to transform the whole world. They left to the Taoist to apply their ideas. Even as opponents to the school, they were its true inheritors.

The Second Phase of Taoism: Lao Tzu Introduction: A native of the state of Ch u in Honan province, Lao Tzu was an older contemporary of Confucius. He is reputed to have instructed in ceremonies. However, the book that bears his name seems to have been written considerably later than his time.

Tao, the Unnamable and The Invariable Law of Nature The Lao-Tzu after its reputed author, describes the Tao as the mystical source and ideal of all existence: it is unseen, but not transcendent, immensely powerful yet supremely humble, being the root of all things. According to the the Lao-Tzu, humans have no special place within the Tao, being just one of its many ("ten thousand") manifestations. People have desires and free will (and thus are able to alter their own nature). Many act "unnaturally", upsetting the natural balance of the Tao. The Lao-Tzu intends to lead students to a "return" to their natural state, in harmony with Tao. Language and conventional wisdom are critically assessed. Taoism views them as inherently biased and artificial, widely using paradoxes to sharpen the point. Human Conduct From the notion that the movements of the Tao are a continuous interplay between opposites, the Taoists deduced two basic rules for human conduct. Whenever you want to achieve anything, they said, you should start with its opposite. On the other hand, whenever you want to retain anything, you should admit in it something of its opposite. This is the way of life of the sage who has reached a higher point of view, a perspective from which the relativity and polar relationship of all opposites are clearly perceived. These opposites include, first and foremost, the concepts of good and bad which are interrelated in the same way as yin and yang. Recognizing the relativity of good and bad, and thus of all moral standards, the Taoist sage does not strive for the good but rather tries to maintain a dynamic balance between good and bad. Chuang Tzu is very clear on this point.

Political Theory Politicians influenced by Lao Tzu have advocated humility in leadership and a restrained approach to statecraft, either for ethical and pacifist reasons, or for tactical ends. In a different context, various anti-authoritarian movements have embraced the Lao Tzu teachings on the power of the weak.