Soaps and detergents

Soaps
Cleansing agents are chemical substances used to remove grease and dirt. There are two types of cleansing agents which are soaps and detergents.

The history of soap manufacturing

Babylonians made soap around 2800 B.C.

Purifying oils is recorded on Hebrew Tablesaround 4000 B.C. a) Ash + Lime Caustic potash b) Caustic Potash + animal fats soap

Process of making soap ashes or sodium carbonate from common salt is patented by Nicholas Leblane.

Michel Chevreul discovered animal fats are composed of fatty acids and glycerol (causes rapid development of soap & candle).

Sodium carbonate Na CO is produced cheaply & used for glass making, soaps and detergent.

After 20 years, Ernest Solvay developed Solvay process.

Later on, vegetables oil is used to replace animal fats.

Preparation of soap by saponification

Soap is a cleansing agents produced by the reaction between sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide with animal fats or vegetable oils. This reaction is known as saponification.Fats and vegetable oils are large, naturally occurring ester molecules. When fats or oils are boiled with concentrated alkalis, such as sodium hydroxide, saponification

occurs and the ester molecules are broken down into soap and glycerol.It is also the alkaline hydrolysis of esters using alkaline solutions. Fats and oils (natural esters) + NaOH(aq) or KOH(aq) (alkali) three OH groups) + Soap (RCOONa or RCOOK) Some examples of soaps are: a) Sodium palmitate, C15H31COONa b) Sodium oleate, C17H33COONa c) Sodium stearate, C17H35COONa Additives such as perfume, colouring matter and sometimes antiseptics are added to soaps to enhance their marketability.Production of soap can be precipitated by adding common saltto the reaction mixture in order to reduce the solubility of soap in water.Glyceryl tristearates are naturally occurring esters commonly found in animal fats and vegetable oils. When the ester is boiled with concentrated sodium hydroxide solution, saponification (alkaline hydrolysis) occurs and mixture of sodium stearate (soap) and glycerol is obtained. Properties of soap depend on: a) Type of alkali used for saponification. b) Type of animal fats or vegetable oils used. Soaps produced from sodium hydroxide are hard whereas soaps produced from potassium hydroxide are soft. Animal fats (tallow) from cows and vegetable oils (such as palm oil or olive oil) are used for making soap. Glycerol (an alcohol with

The structure of soap molecule

When soap is dissolved in water, it will dissociate and produce sodium ions and carboxylate ions. For example, sodium stearate (soap) dissolves in water to form sodium ions and stearate ions. C17H35COONa(s) + water C17H35COO(aq) + Na(aq)

The stearate ion consists of two parts: the head and the tail. The head is negatively charged and the tail is a long hydrocarbon chain.The head contains the -C-O- ions which dissolves readily in water (hydrophilic) but does not dissolve in oil. Conversely, the tail
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contains a long hydrocarbon chain which is insoluble in water (hydrophobic) but dissolves readily in oil.Soaps made from palmitic acid are known as sodium palmitate.

Molecular model of the palmitate ion

Detergents
Detergents are synthetic cleansing agents made from hydrocarbons obtained from petroleum fractions. Thus, detergents are petrochemicals.Detergents can be classified into three main types, depending on the charge on the detergent ion. a) Anionic detergents where the head of the detergent particle contains a negatively charged ion. xample: R O SO3- Na+ (Sodium alkyl sulphate) b) Cationic detergents where the head of the detergent particle contains a positively charged ion. xample: R N (CH3)3 +Brc) Non-ionic detergents. xample: R O CH2CH2 OH

Preparation of detergents
The detergent, sodium alkyl sulphate can be prepared from alcohols with chain lengths of 12 to 18 carbon atoms in two steps.

Step 1: Reaction with concentrated sulphuric acid

Step 2: Neutralisation with sodium hydroxide solution

An example of a long chain alcohol is dodecan 1 ol, CH3 (CH2)10CH2 OH. The detergent prepared from dodecan -1 ol is called sodium dodecyl sulphate (IUPAC name) or sodium lauryl sulphate (common name).CH3(CH2)10CH2 O-SO3-Na+.

The structure of detergent molecule

When a detergent is dissolved in water, it dissociates to form sodium ions (Na+) and detergent ions. The detergent ions have the same basic structure as the soap ions, that is,it consists of two parts: a) The head is the sulphate group (-OSO3-), which is negatively charged and hydrophilic (dissolves readily in water but not in oils and grease). b) The tail is the long hydrocarbon chain, which is neutral and hydrophobic (dissolves readily in oils and grease, but not in water).

Alkyl sulphate ions

The cleansing of soap and detergent

The cleansing action of soap or detergent depends on their chemical bonding and structures.
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a) The ionic head (negatively charged) is soluble in water (hydrophilic) but insoluble in oil. b) The long hydrocarbon tail (neutral) is insoluble in water (hydrophobic) but soluble in oil. Oil cannot be washed away from clothing with water because oil (a covalent molecule) is insoluble in water.When lifting greasy dirt from the surface cloth, soap or detergent is added to the dirty surface of a piece of cloth covered with a layer of oil or grease. a) The negatively charged head (hydrophilic) of soap ions or detergent ions dissolves in water. b) The hydrocarbon tail (hydrophobic) of soap or detergent ions dissolves in the layer of grease. If the water is agitated slightly, the grease begins to be lifted off the surface. This is caused by the forces of attraction between the water molecules and the negatively charged heads.

Additives in detergent
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Modern detergents used for washing clothes usually contain a few types of additives to: a) Increase their cleaning power. b) Make them attractive and saleable. Only about 20% of the substances in a detergent are cle4ansing agents (sodium alkyl sulphate or sodium alkylbenzene sulphonate). The other substances are additives.

The effectiveness of soaps and detergents as cleansing agents

Advantages of soap
Soaps are effective cleansing agents in soft water, that is, water does not contain Mg2+ and Ca2+ ions.Soaps do not cause pollution problems to the environment. This is because soaps are made from chemical found in animals and plants. This means that soaps are biodegradable.

Disadvantages of soap
Soaps are ineffective in hard water, that is, water that contains magnesium and calcium salts. In hard water, soaps will react with Mg2+ and thus, soaps do not lather in hard water.Scum is grey solid that is insoluble in water. It consists of magnesium stearate and calcium stearate.Soaps are not also effective in acidic water, for example rainwater containing dissolves acids. H+ ions from acids will react with soap ions to produce carboxylic acids molecular size that are insoluble in water.Stearic acids and other carboxylic acids do not act as cleansing agents because they exist mainly as molecules and do not have anionic hydrophilic ends (heads) that dissolve in water.

Advantages of detergents
Detergents are cleansing agents that are effective in soft water as well as hard water. This is because detergents do not form scum with Mg+ and Ca2+ ions found in hard water.The detergents ions (R O SO3- and R SO3-)react with Mg+ and Ca2+ ions in hard water. However, the magnesium salts and calcium salts which are formed are soluble in water. Hence, the scum is not formed and the detergents are still active in hard water and lathers
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easily.Detergents are synthetic cleansing agents. This means that the structure of the hydrocarbon chain can be modified to produce detergents with specific properties. Nowadays, different types of detergents have been synthesised for specific uses such as shampoos and dish cleaner.Furthermore, detergents are also effective in acidic water because H+ ion in acidic water do not combine with detergents ions.

Disadvantages of detergents
Most detergents have branched hydrocarbon chains and are non-biodegradable, that is, they cannot decomposed by bacteria. As a result, non-biodegradable detergents cause water pollution.Phosphates in detergents act as fertilizers and promote the growth of water plants and algae. When the plants die and decay, they use up the oxygen dissolved in water. This will decrease the oxygen content in water and kill fishes and other aquatic lives.Detergents produce a lot of foam in water. The layer of foam that covers the water surface will prevent oxygen from dissolving in water. This condition will cause fish and other aquatic life to die from oxygen starvation.Additives such as sodium hydrochlorite (bleaching agents) releases chlorine gas in water that is acidic. Chlorine gas is highly toxic and kills aquatic life.

Uses of food additives

Types of additives and examples
Food preservatives have been used since ancient times. Ancient civilization used salt to preserve meat and fish, herbs and spices to improve the flavour of food.Food additives are chemicals that are added to food in small quantities for specific purposes such as: a) Making food last longer by preventing the growth of microorganisms. b) Making food last longer by preventing the oxidation of fats and oils by oxygen in air. c) Making food taste or smell better. d) Improving the texture of food and to prevent food from becoming liquid. e) Restoring the colour of food destroyed during food processing. f) Adding colouring to food so as to make the food look fresher, more interesting or more appetising. There are two main groups of food additives: a) Preservatives and antioxidants to protect food from being spoiled bybacterial attack or atmospheric oxidation. In this way, the food can be kept longer. b) Flavouring agents, stabilizers, thickening agents (thickeners), and dyes (colouring agents) to enhance the taste, smell and appearance of the food. There are six types of food additives as shown below.

Preservative Stabilisers
Antioxidants

Types of food additives

Flavouring Agents Dyes Thickeners

Functions of food additives

Preservatives
Preservatives are chemicals that are added to food to retard or to prevent the growth of microorganism such as bacteria, mould or fungus, so that the food can be stored for a long time.In ancient times, food additives from natural sources such as salt, sugar and vinegar were used to preserve food and to make the food taste better. Nowadays, synthetic preservatives are used; table below shows the types of preservatives commonly used. Many of the preservatives are organic acids and salts of organic acids. Preservatives Sodium nitrite Sodium nitrate Molecular formula NaNO2 NaNO3 Uses 1. To preserve meat, cheese and dried fish. 2. To prevent food poisoning in canned foods. 3. To maintain the natural colour of meat and to make them look fresh. Benzoic acid Sodium benzoate C6H5COOH C6H5COONa 1. To preserve sauce (oyster, tomato or chilli), fruit juice, jam and margarine. Sulphur dioxide Sodium sulphite SO2 Na2SO3 1. Used as bleaches and antioxidants to prevent browning in fruit juices. 2. Maintain the colour and freshness of vegetables. 3. To prevent the growth of microorganisms.

Antioxidants
Antioxidants are chemicals that are added to foods to prevent the oxidation of fats and oils by oxygen in the air.Foods containing fats or oils are oxidized and become rancid when exposed to air.When the fats and oils are oxidized, rancid product are formed. This makes the food unpalatable. The rancid products are volatile organic compound with foul odours (for example, butanoicacid, C3 H7COOH). Antioxidants are added to fats, oils, cakes, sausages, biscuits and fried foods to slow down the oxidation process so that these foods do not become rancid.

Flavouring agents
There are two types of flavouring agents which are artificial flavour and flavour enhancers. They are added to foods to make them taste better.Flavour enhancers have little or no taste of their own. They are chemicals that are added to food to bring out the flavours or to enhance the taste of food.An example of a flavour enhancer is monosodium glutamate (MSG). MSG is used to enhance the flavours of other foods.Artificial flavour includes sweeteners and other flavours such as peppermint or vanilla. Aspartame and saccharin are examples of artificial sweeteners.Both aspartame and saccharin can be used as a substitute for sugar to enhance the sweetnessin food and drink. However, the use of saccharin is banned in many countries because it is carcinogenic. Aspartame has largely replaced saccharin as the artificial sweetener of choice.Many esters have fruity odours and tastes and are used as artificial flavours.

Stabilisers and thickening agents

Stabilisers and thickening agents improve the texture and the blending of foods.Stabilisers are chemicals that are used to enable oil and water in the food to mix together properly in order to form an emulsion of oil and water. xamples of stabilizers are gelatine and acacia gum.Stabilisers are added to improve the texture of foods. For examples, stabilisers are added to ice-cream and peanut butter to keep them smooth and creamy.In the presence of stabilisers, the emulsion of oil does not separate from water. This means that the stabilisers improve the stability of some foods such as ice-cream and salad dressings (mayonnaise).Without stabilisers, ice crystals would form in ice-cream, particles of chocolate would settle out of chocolate milk, oil and vinegar in salad dressing will separate as soon as mixing is
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stopped.Thickening agents are chemicals that are added to foods to thicken the liquid and to prevent the foods from becoming liquid. Thickening agents (also called thickeners) absorb water and thicken the liquid in foods to produce a jelly-like structure.Most thickening agents are natural carbohydrates. Gelatine and pectin are added to help jams and jellies to set.

Dyes
Dyes (colouring agents) are chemicals that are added to foods to give them colour so as to improve their appearance.Some foods are naturally coloured, but the colour is lost during food processing. The foods industry uses synthetic food colours to: a) Restore the colour of food lost during food processing. b) nhance natural colours, so as to increase the attractiveness of foods.

c) Give colour to foods that do not have colour. Some dyes are naturally plant pigments while others are synthetically prepared. The synthetic colours used in foods are azo and triphenyl compounds. Both these compounds are organic compounds.The synthetic dyes, brilliant blue, are an example of triphenyl compound. The synthetic dye, tartrazine and sunset yellow are examples of azo compounds.Azo compounds are organic compounds containing the diazo group, - N = N -, and are usually yellow, red, brown, or black in colour. Triphenyl compounds are organic compounds containing three phenyl groups, -C6H5, and are usually green, Blue or purple in colour.

ffect of food additives on health

The types of food additives allowed and the quantity permitted are controlled by the 1983 Food Act and the 1985 Food Regulation.The permissible quantity depends on the type of food and the food additives. For example, benzoic acid added must not exceed 800 mg per kg in cordial drinks, whereas sodium nitrite must not exceed 100 mg per kg in meat product.The excessive intake of food additives for a prolonged period of time will ruin our health. The side effects arising from taking food additives are allergy, cancer, brain damage and hyperactivity.

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Allergy
Food additives such as sodium sulphite (preservative), BHA and BHT (antioxidants), MSG (flavouring) and some food colours (e.g., Yellow No. 5) can cause allergic reactions in some people.The symptoms of MSG allergy are giddiness, chest pain and difficulty in breathing. This condition is called the Chinese restaurant syndrome.The presence of sodium nitrate or sodium nitrate in food can cause blue baby syndrome that is fatal for babies. This syndrome is due to the lack of oxygen in the blood. Hence, the use of nitrate and nitrite is not allowed in baby food.

Cancer
Chemicals that cause cancer are called carcinogens. Sodium nitrite (a preservative) is a potent carcinogen.The nitrite reacts with the amines in food to produce nitrosamine which can cause cancer.

Brain damage
xcessive intake of nitrites for a prolonged period of time can cause brain damage. In this condition, the supply of oxygen to the brain is disrupted and this cause brain damage.

Hyperactivity
Food additives such as tartrazine can cause hyperactivity.Children who are hyperactive become very active, find it difficult to relax or sleep and are very restless.

The rationale for using food additives

Advantages
1. To prevent food spoilage: a) Oxidation and microorganism (bacteria, fungi) are the main causes in the decomposition of food. In hot climate, meat and fish rot easily. The use of preservatives is an effective way to prevent food spoilage and to ensure thatfoods can be supplied throughout the year.

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b) If preservative are not used, food spoilage might drastically reduce the food supply, making foods to cost more. c) Few deaths are associates with the use of food additives. However, many people die due to food poisoning caused by bacterial toxins. 2.To improve nutritional value During food processing, vitamins and minerals may be destroyed. Thus, additives that improve nutrition can be added. These additives include vitamin B, C and D, and minerals such as iron. The addition of these additives increases the nutritional value of foods. 3. For medical reasons: a) Aspartame and sorbitol are used to make foods and drinks sweet without using sugar. These food additives are particularly useful as artificial sweeteners for diabetic patients. b) Artificial sweeteners give the sweet taste but without adding calories to the food. Thus, they can be used to reduce obesity. c) Potassium iodide is added to table salt to reduce the incidence of goitre. d) Vitamin C is added to fruit juices to prevent scurvy. Vitamin D is added to margarine to prevent rickets.

Disadvantages
ating food additives such as preservatives, antioxidants and flavour enhancers is excess quantities over a long period of time is detrimental to health.Some food additives are used to make foods look more appealing. These additives have little nutritional value. ating such foods increases the risk of health hazard.Some foods are fortified with excess amounts of nutrients, such as vitamins A and D, or of trace elements, such as copper and zinc. ating foods with excessive amounts of nutrients can ruin our health.

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Medicine

Sources and uses of traditional medicines

A medicine is a substance used to prevent or cure diseases or to reduce pain and suffering due to illnesses.Traditional medicines are medicines derived from natural sources such as plants and animals without being processed chemically.Since ancient times, mankind had used various types of plants and roots, animals and animal part to cure diseases.Medicines obtained from plants are known as herbal medicines. The sources and uses of some herbal medicines are shown in table below: Plant Garlic Part of the plant used Corm Uses 1. For preventing flu or asthma attack. 2. For reducing high blood pressure. Ginger Rhizome (horizontal underground stem) and leaves 1. For treating stomach pain due to wind in the stomach. 2. For supplying heat energy to keep the body warm. 3. For preventing flu attacks. Aloe vera Leaves 1. For preventing itchy skin. 2. For treating burns (scalding) on the skin.

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Lemon (lime) Quinine

Fruit

1. For treating boils or abscesses on the skin. 2. For treating skin diseases.

Bark of Cinchona tree

1. For treating malaria. 2. For preventing muscle cramps.

Ginseng

Roots

1. As a tonic to improve the overall health of human beings. 2. For increasing energy, endurance and reducing fatigue.

Lemon grass Tongkat Ali

Stem/leaves

1. Have antibacterial and antifungal properties. 2. For treating cough.

Roots

1. As a tonic for after a birth and general health.

Function of each type of modern drug

Analgesics
Analgesics are medicines that relieve pain. xamples of analgesics are aspirin, paracetamol, and codeine. Analgesicsare sometimes called painkillers.Aspirin and paracetamol are mild painkillers whereas codeine is powerful painkillers.Analgesics relieve pain but do not cure the disease.Aspirin reduces fever and inflammable as well as relieves pain.Paracetamol is similar to aspirin in its effects (that is, reduces fever and relieves pain) but it does not reduce inflammation.Paracetamol also reduces or relieves flu symptoms such as fever, bone aches and runny nose.Codeine is an organic compound that contains the elements of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen.Codeine is an analgesic and is used to relieve minor to moderate pain. Codeine is more powerful than morphine. Codeine and morphine are narcotic drugs.Codeine is also used in cough mixtures for suppressing coughs.

Antibiotics: antibacterial medicine

Antibiotics are chemicals that destroy or prevent the growth of infectious microorganism.Two examples of antibiotics are penicillin and streptomycin.Antibiotics are used to treat diseases caused by bacteria.Antibiotics are not effective against diseases caused by viral infections such as influenza, measles, or small pox. Penicillin is derived from the

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mould Penicillium notatum.Penicillin is used to treat diseases caused by bacteria, such as pneumonia, gonorrhea and syphilis.Penicillin is only effective on certain bacteria.

Psychotherapeutic medicines
Psychotherapeutic medicines are a group of drugs for treating mental or emotional illnesses. Stimulants are medicine which activates the level of arousal and alertness of the central nervous system to reduce fatigue and elevate mood in most people.Antidepressants are medicine used primarily in the treatment of depression.Antipsychotic medicine is used to treat mental illness such as schizophrenia (loses touch with reality).

Side effects of traditional medicine

It is generally believed that traditional medicines have little side effects compared to modern medicine. However, taking high doses of quinine for a prolonged period may cause hearing loss. German health officials reported 40 cases of liver damage which were linked to the herbal medicine containing kava-kava. While the use of traditional medicine is rising globally, health experts have insufficient data about how it affects patients.

Side effects of modern medicine

Type of modern drug Aspirin Side effect 1. Can cause bleeding in the stomach. 2. Can cause allergic reactions, skin rashes and asthma attacks. Amphetamine 1. Psychologically addictive and can cause heart attack. 2. Can cause anxiety, sleeplessness, aggressive behaviour and decreased appetite. 3. Can cause enlarged pupils, heavy perspiration and trembling hands. Codeine Penicillin 1. Can cause addiction. 1. Can cause allergic reaction and can also cause death to people who are allergic to it.

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Streptomycin

1. Can cause nausea, vomiting, dizziness, rashes and fever. 2. Can cause loss of hearing following long-term use.

Stimulant Antidepressant

1. Can cause addiction. 1. Can cause addiction. 2. Can cause headaches, grogginess and loss of appetite.

Antipsychotic drug

1. Can cause dry mouth, blurred vision, urinary retention, constipation. 2. Can cause tremor and restlessness. 3. Sedation (make people calmer or make people sleepy).

Correct ways of using medicine: In taking medicine, we should know why the medicine is prescribed, how the medicine should be used, what special precautions should be followed, what special diet should be followed, what the side effects are and what storage conditions are needed.

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