OCR Chemistry for GCSE Revision Notes C4-6 C4a Acids and bases Weak Acids: - weak so safe

weak so safe to eat Citric acid oranges, lemons, limes sharp taste Ethanoic acid (aka Acetic acid) (diluted) vinegar Boric acid eye drops Strong Acids corrosive and can attack skin and bones Ph scale for universal indicator A base - substance that neutralises an acid, solid but can dissolve in water to form alkali, e.g. sodium hydroxide, always has a metal and a non-metal part Neutralisation acid + base salt + water E.g. sulphuric acid + sodium hydroxide sodium sulphate + water All acids in water contain H+, all alkalis in water contain OH-, H+ + OH- Water Bases metal oxides/metal hydroxides/ammonia/carbonates

C4b Reacting masses Trees most of mass is carbon compounds, produces CO2 when burnt NO MASS IS LOST (the air gains the mass the tree loses) Smaller number atomic number / Bigger number RAM RFM=RAM of a compound Reactants Products , no atoms lost so same mass Percentage yield = actual yield / predicted yield X 100

C4c Fertilisers and crop yield Fertilisers replace essential elements for crops, e.g. nitrogen Overuse can cause eutrophication (a type of pollution) Fertilisers run into rivers using rain, concentration of n / p increases, algae use these nutrients and grow which block sunlight from other plants algal bloom which die, bacteria feed on dead plants and algae and use up water oxygen, fish and water animals cannot survive without the oxygen Plants need elements to grow, they are contained in minerals, which come from the soil, the soil loses minerals when the crops are harvested so crops will not grow well unless they are put back The minerals must be soluble so the plant can take the solution through the roots Plants use nitrogen to make protein so fertilisers make plants grow bigger and faster which increases the yield Ammonium nitrate is good because it contains a lot of nitrogen and is soluble

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OCR Chemistry for GCSE Revision Notes C4-6 If the soil is too acidic or alkaline the plants wont take up as much mineral so farmers test soil with UI A fertiliser can be made by neutralisation e.g. ammonia + nitric acid ammonium nitrate, a burette/pipette must be used for accurate measurements The salt solution is evaporated to a smaller volume then cooled until solid crystals of salt form, which are separated by filtration

C4d Making ammonia the Haber process and costs Haber Process- ammonia from nitrogen and hydrogen, temp of 450C, high pressure, iron catalyst = 15% of nitrogen/hydrogen converted HP = reversible reaction can go in either direction High pressure higher yield, higher temperature faster reaction, lower yield Compromise reasonable yield, reasonable rate of reaction, reasonable price Catalyst speeds reaction and does not have negative affects iron The higher the pressure, the higher the cost thicker walls needed, the higher the temp, the higher the energy cost but a faster reaction reduces cost as makes more chemical, unused chemicals are recycled Process is automated monitored and controlled by computers so more accurate and cheaper

C4e Detergents Dry cleaning less damaging, cleans better, quicker to evaporate, not washed in water but with an organic solvent (made by distilling crude oil) Water is widely used as a solvent as most substances are soluble (have +ve/-ve charges) but some which arent (have no charge) will dissolve in an organic solvent Oil and grease which have compounds with no charge are attracted to organic solvent molecules with no charge Washing powders saves energy (can be used as low as 30) and avoids damaging certain fabrics The active detergent does the cleaning, can be soap (neutralisation of fatty acids or a synthetic/soapless (neutralisation of synthetic acid) detergent Synthetic detergents are designed to be used at a lower temp to cut costs and to damage fabric less (lower temp = less run of dye and less shrinkage) Molecules have charged hydrophilic heads and uncharged hydrophobic tails. The tails are attracted to dirt while the heads are -2-

OCR Chemistry for GCSE Revision Notes C4-6 attracted to the water, with enough molecules the dirt is pulled off the clothes and suspended in the water as the molecules surround the dirt Tap water can be hard which makes it difficult to get a lather with soap and also forms scum so washing powders also contain chemicals to soften the water Bleach takes out the colour of stains that cannot be removed Optical brighteners are chemicals that white clothes a very bright white appearance by reflecting light Food stains are broken down by enzymes biological catalysts that spped up reactions of breaking down stains, they will only work at low temperatures

C4f Batch or continuous Development of a pharmaceutical drug is long and costly Discovery Phase 1: Testing on animals Phase 2: Testing on human volunteers Phase 3: Clinical trials Marketing Thousands are made and tested to find one new drug has to be legally approved Production costs: skilled workers, not always automated, lots of energy, raw materials Extracting from plant: Crush Mix with solvent Filter Purify Evaporate Solvent DRUG Chromatography to test and purify Decisions: cost of research / development, how long before meeting legal requirements, how much demand there will be, how long till profit made Continuous: (e.g. Haber process) 24 hours a day, bulk, identical Batch: (e.g. speciality or fine chemicals) measured amounts, when new supply is required, small quantities, if contaminated only a small batch is effected

C4g Nanochemistry Diamond / graphite = allotropes of carbon, arranged differently Diamond 44 bonds per atom strong covalent bonds, transparent, lustrous / shine Graphite weak bonds between layers black, soft / slippery, conducts electricity, lustrous, electrons between layers are delocalised conducts electricity Buckminster fullerene, fullerenes joined make nanotubes catalysts (large surface area), reinforcement for graphite in rackets, semiconductors in circuits Nanoparticles different properties from bulk chemicals, only known molecules to act as true metallic conductor, behave as semiconductors -3-

OCR Chemistry for GCSE Revision Notes C4-6 Nanotubes can cage molecules (e.g. caging a drug for injection, release strait to tumour not unaffected part so less drug needed) Molecular manufacturing miniature factories, positional chemistry precisely positioning atoms

C4h How pure is our water? Nitrate residues (fertilisers), lead compounds (lead pipes), pesticide residues - low conc. so safe Un-purified water may contain: dissolved salts/minerals, microbes (e.g. sewage, causes diseases), pollutants, insoluble materials In industry used as: solvent, coolant, cheap raw material Reservoir Sedimentation (solids settle Filtration (grit, coarse and fine sand) Chlorination (small quantity of chlorine gas dissolved) Homes Some impurities remain calcium and magnesium cause hard water does not harm us but does harm implements (e.g. kettles) Distilling seawater pure water, very costly energy so small-scale only Testing precipitation reactions, precipitates AgCl white, AgBr cream AgI yellow E.g. sodium[x] + silver nitrate silver [x] + sodium nitrate (for sulphate barium chloride is used instead)

C5a Moles and empirical formulae A mole = 24dm Moles = mass(g) / RAM Empirical formulae (e.g. C6H1206 = CH2O) Work out moles of 2+ elements in compound and you can compare them to give % or ratio or productivity

C5b Electrolysis Relies on free ions substance is a solution or molten With current: + electrons move to cathode and vice versa towards anode At the electrodes ions are discharged (loss or gain of electrons) Inert/un-reactive electrodes will remain unchanged, if the electrolyte is a simple salt of 2 elements then it will split into the two elements, if it is an aqueous solution different products might be obtained usually H and O2 Binary compound 2 elements metal at cathode, non-metal at anode H+ and OH- are always present in aq. Solutions may be more/less easily displaced than ions in water

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OCR Chemistry for GCSE Revision Notes C4-6 Mass lost = mass gained Amount of metal deposited is proportional to charge transfer Charge [Q] = current [I] x time [t]

C5c Quantative analysis Correct conc. needed babys milk, windscreen wash Rough conc. needed milk / squash, for taste 35g per dm of salt n the sea 1mmol = 0.001 moles

C5d Titrations Titration allows to measure amount of a substance present in a solution An acid is slowly neutralised by an alkaline I it is gradually added Acids + alkali salt + water If the salt is soluble then it needs to be accurate to neutralise the volume A few drops of an acid/base indicator will show the pH change It is best to use an indicator that changes suddenly when neutral Titration curves shows the pH of a solution when being neutralised most curves have a very rapid/steep point where it is neutralised suddenly Alkali to acid shows curve going up, and vice versa UI are a mixture of 2+ different acid/base indicators and are mixed indicators continuous colour spectrum difficult for titrations Single indicators- are more useful because of the sudden change at pH 7 Important to repeat readings until it is consistent and an average taken without anomalies Volume (dm) = moles / conc. (mol/dm)

C5e Gas volumes Can use a burette in water or a gas syringe to measure insoluble gas Can use a pair of linked gas syringes with solid reactant or to use an accurate balance to measure it for where gas is absorbed Marble chips (calcium carbonate) react with HCl, they dissolve and give CO2 the CO2 gives an accurate measure of the reaction rate The reaction stops when one reactant is used up the one left is in excess while the one used up is the limiting reactant You an use moles to determine which is which the limiting reactant has less moles

C5f Equilibria

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OCR Chemistry for GCSE Revision Notes C4-6

Equilibria = reversible reactions forward and backward reactions are equal Equilibria can be disrupted when the conditions are changed and the position moves When reactions are equal they are taking place at same rate and simultaneously Fizzyiness is from CO2 being pumped at high pressure into the space in a bottle CO2 will react with water to produce a weak acid - carbonic acid (H2CO3) The equation is CO2 + H2O H2CO3 At first the carbonic acid conc. is low so the backward reaction is slow but as the gas dissolves the conc. increases with the rate of backward reaction until both are happening at the same rate and equilibrium is established, the CO2 under pressure is released after removing the top which disturbs the equilibrium which rapidly decreases the rate of the forward reaction so the backward reaction is further forward until it goes flat Reactant increase = right, decrease = left Product increase = left, decrease = right

C5g Strong and weak acids All contain replaceable hydrogen atoms (H+) give acids properties Strong acids conduct better than weak acids greater the concentration of free ions, the higher the conductivity more collisions per second when reacted Hydrochloric and ethanoic acid have just one replaceable hydrogen atom, hydrochloric ionises more completely so higher conductivity, hydrogen gas at cathode for both (2H+) Conductivity measurements explain the difference between strong and weak acids Higher the hydrogen ion conc., lower the pH and higher acidity Reactivity rates seen when magnesium is added more quickly with stronger acid Same number if total number of replaceable hydrogen atoms (1) and so they reach the same point at different times HCl is ionised completely but in weak acids only some molecules ionise, it is reversible so equilibrium is set up incomplete ionisation Weak acids are used for descaling agents (kitchen/bath cleaners) because of their gentle reaction and so the appliances wont be damaged

C5h Ionic Equations

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OCR Chemistry for GCSE Revision Notes C4-6 Ions in bionic compounds, when held in an ionic crystal, occupy fixes positions, when dissolved in a solution, ions are free to move so when 2 ionic solutions are mixed the ions mix and extremely fast reactions take place Ionic compounds often soluble in water, if 1 of 2 the products of mixing 2 compounds together is insoluble it will be a solid precipitate Test to see if a solution contains a carbonate HCl produces CO2 if so Differing solubilitys of ionic compounds allow us to use different solutions to test for the presence of other ions (e.g. for sulphate, add barium nitrate white precipitate (barium sulphate)) Ionic equations do not show the spectator ions (unchanged ions) only those which do change as the spectator ions are irrelevant Precipitate colours for a lead/silver nitrate solution chloride = white, bromide = cream, iodide = yellow Pigments for paints can be used by a simple precipitation process

C6a Energy transfers fuel cells Hydrogen burns exothermically in O2 to make H2O, gives off lots of energy dangerous but no pollution Fuel cell, a way to release this energy controllably and safely Energy level diagrams represent energy gain or loss e.g. between O2 and H2 Pushing and pulling of electrons creates a potential difference between 2 electrodes For cars: fossil fuels are still burnt to run electrolysis For spacecraft: lightweight, compact, no major moving parts Adv. More efficient (less heat energy-> 4H+electrical energy), fewer 4H+ + 4e2H2 more + 4e- OX | RED O2 + stages, direct transfer of energy,2H2O -> no pollution

C6b Redox reactions Reduction loss of oxygen (e.g. making pure iron in a blast furnace Oxidation gaining of oxygen (e.g. magnesium burning) OILRIG Oxidation Is Loss Reduction Is Gain (of electrons) A substance that takes electrons from another is an oxidation agent A substance that gives electrons to another is a reducing agent -7-

OCR Chemistry for GCSE Revision Notes C4-6 Relative reactivity helps us explain and predict how metals + salts behave together Iron + oxygen + water -> hydrated iron(iii) oxide (rust) Galvanising Blocks water/oxygen, more reactive, if scratched zinc (electrolysis) reacts instead Tinning Blocks water/oxygen, less reactive, if scratched iron corrodes faster Paint Blocks water/oxygen, can scratch leaving iron open to air Oil/Grease Blocks water Sacrificial Reacts instead of iron, more reactive, e.g. zinc Protection C6c Alcohols Fermentation sugar converted into alcohol, occurs regularly through contact with airborne yeasts, contains many compounds other than ethanol for taste Alcohol (to drink) contains ethanol from fermentation, also used for methylated spirits (poisonous), industrial solvent for paints, adhesives and perfumes but a different method is needed to make pure ethanol Alternative fuel fermentation of sugars from vegetable matter can be distilled more complete combustion = higher efficiency, lower pollution Alcohols hydrocarbon chains with OH (hydroxyl), CnH2n+1OH Glucose (+ airborne yeast) -> CO2 + ethanol Without air (so no oxidation and ethanoic acid), yeast enzymes break glucose down, temp. control necessary for enzymes (cold = inactive, hot = denatured) Very pure ethanol made by: ethene + water -> ethanol (hydration), passed over a phosphoric acid catalyst, reversible (dehydration) with hot aluminium oxide catalyst Fermentation: simple to set up, low temps, impure requires distillation Hydration: complex to set up, high temps + catalyst, very pure

C6d Chemistry of sodium chloride (NaCl) Aka salt chemicals extracted have wide uses (e.g. bleach or margarine) Both elements are very reactive, when combined they form Na+ and Cl- and release lots of energy so the compound is stable and difficult to split Water molecules are polar mix of +ve & -ve charged molecules which attract firmly -8-

OCR Chemistry for GCSE Revision Notes C4-6 Solution mining water pumped down into underground deposits, salts dissolve in water to make brine, bring pumped back as a liquid to tanks for storage Subsidence buildings/roads cracking and holes appearing in gardens and roads Brine can be electrolysed to make hydrogen (cathode) & chlorine (anode), which are used for many products, the electrode materials are inert i.e. they do not react with the products, the diaphragm separates the products Product Uses Hydrogen Ammonia, margarine Chlorine Killing bacteria, PVC, HCFCs, HCl, disinfectants, bleach Sodium Soap, paper, ceramics, bleach Hydroxide

C6e Depletion of the ozone layer O3 absorbs UV, protects life on Earth from damaging and deadly levels of radiation Billions of years ago, primitive organisms evolved, photosynthesised and so the atmosphere was built up with oxygen, solar radiation acted on the oxygen to produce a thin layer of ozone CFC propellant for aerosols, liquid in fridges, gas to make foam easily liquefied, chemically inert, insoluble in water, non-flammable, inexpensive, non toxic, odourless CFCs do not decompose, react or get washed out of the atmosphere in the usual way, they linger in the atmosphere until they reach the stratosphere where reactions can take place to slowly remove them at the expense of the ozone When the CFCs are exposed to UV, the covalent bonds can be split, when they split unevenly, it produces a +ve & -ve ion; when split evenly, highly reactive free radicals are formed, each with an unpaired electron Chlorine free radicals attack ozone molecules producing oxygen and another free radical which can cause further reactions so lots of chain reactions can be set up from a small number of free radicals Cl (free rad.) + O3 -> ClO + O2 then ClO + O -> Cl (F.R.) + O2 overall 2O3 -> 3O2 The chain reaction only stops when 2 free radical meet, CFCs are so stable, so the damage will be repaired very slowly

C6f Hardness of water Dissolved minerals cause hardness, from chalk/limestone/marble when rainwater

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OCR Chemistry for GCSE Revision Notes C4-6 Hardness makes it difficult to produce a lather with soap leading to increased consumption of soap Kettles, hot water pipes and washing machines can become clogged from limescale which forms when the water is heated Chalk, limestone and marble are forms of calcium carbonate insoluble in pure water, other salts e.g. calcium sulphate can dissolve in water Rainwater is impure from amounts of weak carbonic acid (from atmosphere CO2) As a result, calcium carbonate forms a soluble calcium hydrogencarbonate by reacting with the carbonic acid, causes temporary hardness Stalagmites hard water drips and dissolved calcium carbonate remains Temporary hardness boil to remove (reverses reaction to produce insoluble CaCO3, CO2 and H2O, makes water soft this makes the limescale Permanent hardness cannot be boiled, caused by dissolved salts like calcium sulphate Dissolved salts + soap = scum Chemical water softeners (e.g. washing soda) softens temporary and permanent hardness, dissolves and reacts with calcium ions to form calcium carbonate which is insoluble and precipitates out this method can not be used for drinking water! Ion exchange softens both, passing water through an ion exchange resin, swaps sodium ions from resin with calcium from water Removing limescale any weak acid, breaks it into calcium salt + CO2 and H2O

C6g Natural fats and oils Fats/oils with only single C-C bonds are saturated, e.g. most animal fats Fats/oils with 1+ C=C bonds are unsaturated, e.g. most vegetable oils, with only 1 C=C they are called polyunsaturated Test for unsaturation with bromine water, it loses orange/brown colour with C=Cs Saturated fats present health problems from a build up of cholesterol which hardens arteries and veins causing heart problems, unsaturated fats are better, polyunsaturated are better than monounsaturated Saturated fats are usually solid at room temp, margarine is made by adding hydrogen to unsaturated oils with a catalyst, this makes the unsaturated liquid oil become more saturated and more solid hydrogenation Oil & water = immiscible liquids, when shaken a temporary emulsion is formed Milk = oil-in-water emulsion; butter = water-in-oil emulsion - 10 -

OCR Chemistry for GCSE Revision Notes C4-6 Soap made by splitting natural fats/oils with a strong alkali e.g. sodium hydroxide Fat + sodium hydroxide -> soap + glycerol saponification, a hydrolysis reaction

C6f Analgesics Painkillers paracetamol, aspirin, ibuprofen, externally administered chemicals that affect/change bodily chemical reactions Different brands/forms e.g. soluble, tablet The chemicals in them are called fine chemicals, they have to be very pure to avoid toxic/corrosive side effects by impurities from unreacted starting materials Medicines such as analgesics are called pharmaceuticals Aspirin first painkilling drug, made from salicylic acid from willow trees, it is acetylsalicylic acid Disadvantages: aspirin reduces the tendency to blood clot so an overdose can cause stomach ulcers and internal bleeding, it should not be given to under 16s as it could lead to Reyes syndrome which is fatal Advantages: lowers body temp. quickly, thins the blood reducing blood clots and heart attacks, reduces inflammation, protects against bowel cancer, slows down early loss of brain function due to older age In normal aspirin all the bonds are insoluble covalent bonds, to make it work faster, modified it to make it soluble with sodium hydroxide Paracetamol is the most commonly used, reduces fever but does not have anti-inflammatory action, it can be taken by children in small doses, overdose can cause serious damage to the liver Ibuprofen is anti-inflammatory, irritation in gut is a possible side affect

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