CHAPTERS 1-4 Chapter 1 Cell Theory Life Requires and uses energy Is made up of cells Has the ability

bility to reproduce Has the ability to evolve Possesses genetically heritable information

Cell Theory All organisms are made of cells; all cells come from pre-existing cells. Scientific Method A. Observation The kool-aid is cloudy. B. Question Why is the kool-aid cloudy? C. Hypothesis a. Proposed explanation; Falsifiable, empirically justifiable, testable, and follow with predictions. There is something growing in the kool-aid. D. Experimentation E. Results a. The data either supports or doesnt support the hypothesis. F. Conclusions a. Dont change hypothesis if data doesnt support; remark on what may have gone wrong with experiment. G. More Testing a. Repeat the experiment, change the tested variable, or change the hypothesis. Chapter 2 Chemistry Relations Matter Takes up space, has mass, has energy. Atom Smallest unit of matter that can still retain the properties of an element. a. Protons positive charge, located in nucleus; has substantial mass (1D) b. Neutrons no charge, located in nucleus; has substantial mass (1D) c. Electrons (e-) negative charge, reside in orbitals located in electron cloud surrounding nucleus; no substantial mass Element Substance that cannot be chemically broken down any further. a. Atomic # - # of protons and electrons in the element b. Mass # - # of protons and neutrons in the element c. Isotope form of element with varying neutrons

Electron Shells 1st shell holds 2 e- a.k.a. 1 orbital 2nd shell holds 8e- a.k.a. 4 orbitals Valence e- are the outermost shell e-; the valence of an element refers to the # of unpaired e- in the valence shell. The essential elements of life that make up 96% of living matter: Carbon (6), Hydrogen (1), Oxygen (8), Nitrogen (7). Electronegativity (EN) The ability of an atom to attract electrons to itself, away from other atoms. Chemical Bonds Covalent Bonding electron sharing a. Non-Polar Covalent Bond Electrons are evenly shared between 2 atoms. b. Polar Covalent Bond 1 atom has a stronger EN pull on an electron, resulting in an asymmetrical shape. Ionic Bonding electron transfer The attraction between oppositely charged ions, the negatively charged eattracted to the positively charged nucleus of another atom; occurs most easily between a metal and nonmetal due to the high EN difference. a. Ion atom/molecule that carries a charge. b. Cation Positive ion c. Anion Negative ion Single bonds 2 electrons 1 pair Double bonds 4 electrons 2 pairs Triple bonds 6 electrons 3 pairs Representing Molecules Methane A. molecular formula B. structural formula

C. ball-and-stick models

D. space-filling models

Chemical Reactions 1. One substance is combined with another to form a larger molecule 2. Once substance is broken down into a smaller substance

Mole the mass of one mole of any molecule is the same as the molecular weight (g) 6.022 * 10^23 Mass of proton/neutron = 1 Dalton (D) We can use Daltons to determine molecular weight: Sucrose = C12H22O11 C = 12D x 12 = 144g H = 1D x 22 = 22g O = 16D x 11 = 176g 342g = 1 mole of sucrose Molarity concentration of substance in a solution 1M = mol/L In Class Questions!

Chapter 3 Water! Properties 1. Water is an efficient solvent. solution = solvent + solute 2. Water is polar. Partial charges allow for H-bonds. a. Hydrogen Bonds Weak, electrical attractions between - charge of O on one water molecule and + charge of a H on a different water molecule. b. Hydrophilic Molecules Dissolve and react readily with water; Ions and polar molecules (NaCl) c. Hydrophobic Molecules Dont dissolve/interact well with water; Lipids (oils & fats), uncharged, and nonpolar molecules. 3. Cohesion Binding of like molecules due to H-bonding (water to water); Important for H2O transport in plants. 4. Adhesion Binding of unlike molecules (water to other); Adheres to solid surface that has polar or charged components. 5. Water has high surface tension due to H-bonds. A measure of the force required to stretch or break the surface of a liquid (think bellyflops and bugs walking).

6. Water is less dense as a solid (ice) than a liquid due to H-bonds. As water freezes, the H2O molecules begin moving slowly, allowing all Hs to bond, creating a crystal lattice, rigid structure. 7. Large capacity for absorbing heat. a. High Specific Heat amount of energy required to raise 1g of a substance 1C. b. High Heat of Vaporization amount of energy required to change water from liquid to gas. Acid-Base Chemistry H2O hydrogen ion + hydroxide ion Acid proton donor Base proton acceptor pH Scale Measure of the concentration of protons in solution. Measures logarithmically by 10 (log10; everything increases 10-fold). a. Higher [H+] (hydrogen ion), lower the pH b. Lower hydrogen ion, higher the pH c. pH 3 to 5 is an 100-fold change! Buffers Compound that minimizes the change in pH levels in our body (that keeps us alive). Example: blood buffer carbonic acid Chapter 4 The Importance of Carbon Carbon C Valence of 4 Can make single, triple, double bonds Carbon likes H,N,O,P, & S the most Can form: a. Long chains (hydrocarbons hydrophobic) b. Rings (glucose C6H12O6) Functional Groups Determine types of reactions a molecule can participate in. 1. Hydroxyl Name of Compound Alcohols (usually end in ol) Functional Properties a. Polar molecule; O pulls electrons to it. b. Hydrophobic, helping to dissolve organic compounds like sugars c. Acts as a weak acid (gives up proton) Ex. Ethanol (present in alcoholic beverages) Structure: R-OH

2. Carbonyl Name of Compound: a. Ketones if the carbonyl group is within a carbon skeleton b. Aldehydes if the carbonyl group is at the end of the carbon skeleton Functional Properties can link molecules to larger, more complex molecules Ex. Acetone, the simplest ketone; Propanal, an aldehyde. Structure: Aldehyde Ketone 3. Carboxyl Name of Compound Carboxylic acid, organic acid Example Acetic acid Functional Properties Structure 4. Amino Amines Name of Compound Example Functional Properties Structure 5. Sulfhydryl Name of Compound Example Functional Properties Structure 6. Phosphate Name of Compound Example Functional Properties Structure