8)OSI LAYERS AND EXAMPLE DEVICE FOR EACH LAYER WITH DETAILS AND THE PROTOCOLS USED IN EACH

LAYER Short for Open System Interconnection, an ISO standard for worldwide communications that defines a networking framework for implementing protocols in seven layers. Control is passed from one layer to the next, starting at the application layer in one station, proceeding to the bottom layer, over the channel to the next station and back up the hierarchy. Layer 1 - Physical
Physical layer defines the cable or physical medium itself, e.g., thinnet, thicknet, unshielded twisted pairs (UTP). All media are functionally equivalent. The main difference is in convenience and cost of installation and maintenance. Converters from one media to another operate at this level.

Layer 2 - Data Link

Data Link layer defines the format of data on the network. A network data frame, aka packet, includes checksum, source and destination address, and data. The largest packet that can be sent through a data link layer defines the Maximum Transmission Unit (MTU). The data link layer handles the physical and logical connections to the packet's destination, using a network interface. A host connected to an Ethernet would have an Ethernet interface to handle connections to the outside world, and a loopback interface to send packets to itself. Ethernet addresses a host using a unique, 48-bit address called its Ethernet address or Media Access Control (MAC) address. MAC addresses are usually represented as six colon-separated pairs of hex digits, e.g., 8:0:20:11:ac:85. This number is unique and is associated with a particular Ethernet device. Hosts with multiple network interfaces should use the same MAC address on each. The data link layer's protocol-specific header specifies the MAC address of the packet's source and destination. When a packet is sent to all hosts (broadcast), a special MAC address (ff:ff:ff:ff:ff:ff) is used.

Layer 3 - Network
NFS uses Internetwork Protocol (IP) as its network layer interface. IP is responsible for routing, directing datagrams from one network to another. The network layer may have to break large datagrams, larger than MTU, into smaller packets and host receiving the packet will have to reassemble the fragmented datagram. The Internetwork Protocol identifies each host with a 32-bit IP address. IP addresses are written as four dot-separated decimal numbers between 0 and 255, e.g., 129.79.16.40. The leading 1-3 bytes of the IP identify the network and the remaining bytes identifies the host on that network. The network portion of the IP is assigned by InterNIC Registration Services, under the contract to the National Science Foundation, and the host portion of the IP is assigned by the local network administrators. For large sites, the first two bytes represents the network portion of the IP, and the third and fourth bytes identify the subnet and host respectively. Even though IP packets are addressed using IP addresses, hardware addresses must be used to actually transport data from one host to another. The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is used to map the IP address to it hardware address.

Layer 4 - Transport
Transport layer subdivides user-buffer into network-buffer sized datagrams and enforces desired transmission control. Two transport protocols, Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP), sits at the transport layer. Reliability and speed are the primary difference between these two protocols. TCP establishes connections between two hosts on the network through 'sockets' which are determined by the IP address and port number. TCP keeps track of the packet delivery order and the packets that must be resent. Maintaining this information for each connection makes TCP a stateful protocol. UDP on the other hand provides a low overhead transmission service, but with less error checking. NFS is built on top of UDP because of its speed and statelessness. Statelessness simplifies the crash recovery.

Layer 5 - Session
The session protocol defines the format of the data sent over the connections. The NFS uses the Remote Procedure Call (RPC) for its session protocol. RPC may be built on either TCP or UDP. Login sessions uses TCP whereas NFS and broadcast use UDP.

Layer 6 - Presentation
External Data Representation (XDR) sits at the presentation level. It converts local representation of data to its canonical form and vice versa. The canonical uses a standard byte ordering and structure packing convention, independent of the host.

Layer 7 - Application
Provides network services to the end-users. Mail, ftp, telnet, DNS, NIS, NFS are examples of network applications.

9)WHAT IS SERVICE PACK A service pack is an orderable or downloadable update to a customer's software that fixes existing problems and, in some cases, delivers product enhancements. 10)WHAT IS FIRMWARE Firmware is programming that's written to the read-only memory (ROM) of a computing device. Firmware, which is added at the time of manufacturing, is used to run user programs on the device. 11)WHAT IS MAC ADDRESS AND USE The MAC address is a unique value associated with a network adapter. MAC addresses are also known as hardware addresses or physical addresses. They uniquely identify an adapter on a LAN. They allow computers to uniquely identify themselves on a network at this relatively low level. 12)IEEE WIRELESS STANDARD - FREQUENCIES AND DATA TRANSFER RATES 802 Overview Basics of physical and logical networking concepts. LAN/MAN bridging and management. Covers management and the lower sub-layers of OSI Layer 2, including MAC-based bridging (Media Access Control), virtual LANs and port-based access control. Commonly referred to as the LLC or Logical Link Control specification. The LLC is the top sub-layer in the data-link layer, OSI Layer 2. Interfaces with the network Layer 3. "Grandaddy" of the 802 specifications. Provides asynchronous networking using "carrier sense, multiple access with collision detect" (CSMA/CD) over coax, twisted-pair copper, and fiber media. Current speeds range from 10 Mbps to 10 Gbps. Click for a list of the "hot" 802.3 technologies. Disbanded

802.1

Bridging

802.2

Logical Link

802.3

Ethernet

802.4

Token Bus

802.5

Token Ring

The original token-passing standard for twisted-pair, shielded copper cables. Supports copper and fiber cabling from 4 Mbpsto 100 Mbps. Often called "IBM Token-Ring." "Superseded **Revision of 802.1D-1990 edition (ISO/IEC 10038). 802.1D incorporates P802.1p and P802.12e. It also incorporates and supersedes published standards 802.1j and 802.6k. Superseded by 802.1D-2004." (See IEEE status page.)

802.6

Distributed queue dual bus (DQDB)

802.7 802.8 802.9 802.10

Broadband Withdrawn Standard. Withdrawn Date: Feb 07, 2003. No longer LAN Practices endorsed by the IEEE. (See IEEE status page.) Fiber Optic Practices Withdrawn PAR. Standards project no longer endorsed by the IEEE. (See IEEE status page.)

Integrated Withdrawn PAR. Standards project no longer endorsed by the IEEE. Services LAN (See IEEE status page.) Interoperable Superseded **Contains: IEEE Std 802.10b-1992. (See IEEE status LAN security page.) Wireless LAN Media Access Control and Physical Layer specification. 802.11a,b,g,etc. are amendments to the original 802.11 standard. Products that implement 802.11 standards must pass tests and are referred to as "Wi-Fi certified."

802.11

Wi-Fi

802.11a

Specifies a PHY that operates in the 5 GHz U-NII band in the US - initially 5.15-5.35 AND 5.725-5.85 - since expanded to additional frequencies Uses Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiplexing Enhanced data speed to 54 Mbps Ratified after 802.11b

802.11b

13)WHAT IS ROUTER, SWITCH , HUB , REPEATER AND BRIDGE AND USES A router is a device in computer networking that forwards data packets to their destinations, based on their addresses. The work a router does it called routing, which is somewhat like switching, but a router is different from a switch. The latter is simply a device to connect machines to form a LAN.
A switch is used in a wired network to connect Ethernet cables from a number of devices together. The switch allows each device to talk to the others A hub is used in a wired network to connect Ethernet cables from a number of devices together. The hub allows each device to talk to the others.

A repeater is an electronic device that receives a signal and retransmits it at a higher level and/or higher power, or onto the other side of an obstruction, so that the signal can cover longer distances. Repeaters are often used in transcontinental and submarine communications cables, because the attenuation (signal loss) over such distances would be unacceptable without them. Repeaters are used in bothcopper-wire cables carrying electrical signals, and in fiber optics carrying light.

A bridge is a device that separates two or more network segments within one logical network (e.g. a single IP-subnet). The job of the bridge is to examine the destination of the data packets one at a time and decide whether or not to pass the packets to the other side of the Ethernet segment. The result is a faster, quieter network with less collisions.

14)WHAT IS OPERATING SYSTEM An operating system (OS) is software, consisting of programs and data, that runs on computers, manages computer hardware resources, and provides common services for execution of various application software. 15)WHAT IS DRIVER AND USE
A driver is a program that lets the operating system communicate with the computer hardware.

A driver acts like a translator between the device and programs that use the device WHAT IS RAID AND USE Short for Redundant Array of Independent (or Inexpensive) Disks, a category of disk drives that employ two or more drives in combination for fault tolerance and performance. RAID disk drives are used frequently on serversbut aren't generally necessary for personal computers. RAID allows you to store the same data redundantly (in multiple paces) in a balanced ay to improve overall performance.] TOPOLOGIES OF NETWORK Network topologies are categorized into the following basic types:

bus ring star tree mesh

TYPES OF INTERNET CONNECTIONS

Dial-Up connections ,ISDN,DSL,ADSL,SDSL,Cable,Tier-Carrier,T1,T3,T2,T4,T5,Optical Cable,