Industrial Use of Coal

ISQA 439 Commodity Study

Nemah Dalai Yuliya Gula Brad Thomson

TABLE OF CONTENTS Executive Summary.. 3 Section I - Current Status..................................................................................................4

Coal Description.......................................................................................................................4 Current Uses.............................................................................................................................5 Primary use............................................................................................................................5 Secondary use........................................................................................................................6 Ecological Issues Relating to Uses...........................................................................................6 Major Global Producers............................................................................................................ Major Global Users..................................................................................................................6 Active Resources.......................................................................................................................6 Reserves.....................................................................................................................................6 Mode of Transportation...........................................................................................................8 Rail.........................................................................................................................................6 Barges and ships....................................................................................................................6 Aerial tramways, conveyors, and pipeline..............................................................................6

Section II - Production Process.........................................................................................4

How the item is made...............................................................................................................5 Production Technology............................................................................................................5 Improvements...........................................................................................................................5 Labor Issues..............................................................................................................................5 Ecological Issues Relating to Uses...........................................................................................5 Waste piles.............................................................................................................................6 Water quality..........................................................................................................................6 Air quality..............................................................................................................................6

Section III Substitute Materials.....................................................................................4

Availability................................................................................................................................5 Breakdown................................................................................................................................5 Availability Issues.....................................................................................................................5

Section IV Supply and Demand......................................................................................4

Production.................................................................................................................................5 Consumption.............................................................................................................................5 Future Projections....................................................................................................................5 Logistical Issues........................................................................................................................5 Availability of Logistics............................................................................................................5

Section V Pricing..............................................................................................................4
Pricing History..........................................................................................................................5 Current Price............................................................................................................................5 Projections of Future Pricing...................................................................................................5

Appendix I..........................................................................................................................4 Appendix II.........................................................................................................................4 Appendix III.......................................................................................................................4 Appendix IV.......................................................................................................................4 Appendix V.........................................................................................................................4 Appendix VI.......................................................................................................................4 Works Cited........................................................................................................................4 Executive Summary: The international market for coal has developed over the last 25 years to its present form. It remains relatively small compared with oil markets, and accounts for only about 13% of world coal production because, as with gas, coal is expensive to move, especially inland: and, to store. The world industry is still dominated by local production for local use, but local industry, performance is increasingly assessed against the performance standards required in the international market for coal and other energy commodities, notably gas.

(World Coal Report.)

These challenges include widening access to affordable energy supplies. Over 1.6 billion people (25% of the world's population) do not have access to electricity. Affordable, secure and reliable electricity supply enables economic development which is a prerequisite for poverty alleviation. Coal plays a central role in supporting global economic development, alleviating poverty and is an essential resource to meeting the world's energy needs. Coal currently supplies 26% of primary energy and 40% of electricity generation. Coal use is forecast to rise over 60% to 2030, with developing countries responsible for 97% of this increase, primarily to meet electrification rates. It is important that we maximise the value to society from the production and use of coal 3

while at the same time minimising any negative impacts. The coal industry is committed to delivering value across the whole coal chain - from production, transportation, right through to utilisation and legacy issues.

http://www.worldcoal.org/coal-society/ Put this somewhere in here.

SECTION I - CURRENT STATUS

Coal Description: Coal is a solid carbon-rich material, typically black or brown, which occurs in stratified sedimentary deposits. According to the Encyclopedia Britannica, different varieties of coal form as a result of different chemical composition (coal type), degree of coalification (coal rank), and range of impurities (coal grade). These classifications are determined on fixed carbon, volatile matter, heating value, and agglomerating (or caking) properties. Coal has been the worlds major source of commercial energy since the start of major industrialization in Europe during the late 18th century, continuing until the middle of the 20th century. The Mineral Information Institute (M.I.I) states, there are four basic varieties of coal: Lignite: This type of coal forms due to increased pressures and heat from overlying strata. This causes buried peat to dry and harden into lignite. Lignite is a brownish-black coal with generally high moisture and ash content with a lower heating value. Lignite coal is mined exclusively as fuel for steam electric power generation. Significant lignite-mining operations are located in Texas, North Dakota, Louisiana, and Montana.

Sub-bituminous: Some lignite changes into the next rank of coal, sub-bituminous. This dull, dark black and brownish coal has soft and crumbly physical characteristics, with a higher heating value than lignite. Sub-bituminous coal is used primarily for generating steam-electric power generation. Most sub-bituminous reserves in the US are located in Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, New Mexico, Washington and Alaska.

Bituminous: Even greater pressure results in the creation of bituminous, or soft coal. Most commonly, this type of coal is for steam-electric power generation in the United States. Extensive amounts of bituminous coal are used for heat and power applications in manufacturing, and to make coke coal. It has the third highest heating value above lignite or sub bituminous. Bituminous coal is mined predominantly in Appalachia region and the Midwest United States. Anthracite: Known as hard coal, contains a high percentage of fixed carbon with low percentages of volatile matter. Anthracite coal forms from bituminous coal when immense pressures expand in folded rock strata during the creation of mountain ranges. This occurs only in limited geographic areas - primarily the Appalachian region of Pennsylvania. Anthracite has the highest energy content of all coals, and generally used for space heating and generating electricity. Primary Uses: According to The American Coal Foundation, coal usage has four primary markets: energy utilities, industrial/retail use, the steel industry and shipping exports/imports. The energy that coal supplies makes energy availability to consumers and allows for basic needs to be met easier. Needs such as, energy for domestic heating and cooking, aids in

the transportation of people, products, raw materials, and energy for industrial applications. In order to provide these needs coal must go through a basic process. (See Figure 2) The Energy Information Administration states that Americas economic progress is linked to the usage of coal. Coal is an abundant, low-cost energy source used in twentythree out of the twenty-five electricity-generating power plants in the US. These power plants also have the lowest operating costs in the US. Lower operating costs from coal help boost the economy, moderates inflation, and increases coals competitiveness in the marketplace. Secondary Uses: Manufacturing plants and industries use coal to create chemicals, cement, paper, ceramics, and metal products. Coals byproducts, methanol and ethylene, can be used to produce consumer products such as plastic, pharmaceuticals, ammoniumnitrate fertilizers, and tar. Ecological Issues Relating to Uses According to the Environmental Protection Agency, there are four forms of ecologically harmful effects associated with the use of coal-fired generation; air, water, solid waste, and radioactive. Air emissions: Carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and mercury compounds are all byproducts that release into the air when coal is burned to generate electricity. To reduce the harmful effects caused by these gases, coal-fired boilers are now required to have control devices, which help to reduce the amount of emissions that are unconfined. Water Resource Usage: Water used to aid in the coal production process, will often get discharged into nearby waterways. Often this water was not properly cooled, filtered, nor

treated thus, causing adverse effects on aquatic ecosystems. Though regulations have been put into place (i.e. Clean Waterways Act of 1977) in the United States to stop these practices, other developing countries do not have such stringent policies and water pollution from coal production happen regularly.

Solid waste generation: Created onsite at coalmines, is the leftover residue formed when coal is cleaned. Solid waste coal is also found in power plants, when buildups of air pollutants are removed from the gas stack. Land resource use: The Soil on, and nearby coal-fired power plants become contaminated with various pollutants from coal and may take a long time to recover, even after the power plant closes down. Though in some areas, domestic and abroad there are ecological restoration projects that revitalize old industrial sites know as brown-fields, and turn them into places that promote social engagement and learning such as parks and greenways (Beatley 77). Reserves: BP Global states that proven world reserves of coal are described as those quantities in which geological and engineering information indicates can be recovered in the future from known deposits under existing economic and operating conditions. (Appendix C) shows the proven reserves in thousand million tones for all of the world regions. Europe and Eurasia with 272.2 thousand million tons, Asia Pacific with 259.3, North America 246.1, Africa 32.0, South and Central America 15, and Middle East with 1.4 thousand million tons.

Modes of Transportation: Railroad cars, barges, ships, trucks, conveyors, and pipelines carry and transport industrial mined coal. Rail: Unit trains account for more than half of railroad coal shipments. Unlike a conventional train or a mixed freight train carrying individual carloads of coal, a unit coal train carries coal from a specified loading facility straight through to the specified customer without stopping. It uses dedicated equipment; whereas other trains carrying coal generally draw the equipment needed from the railroads operating pool of locomotives and cars. There are two types of railroad cars used for transporting coal, the gondola and the hopper. Gondola cars have flat bottoms, straight sides, and open tops and are unloaded by being tipped over by rotary dumpers. Hopper cars have slipping bottoms with gates that open to discharge the coal (EIA). Railway is the foundation of coal supply and logistics (Figure 1) shows the percentage of mode transport by form of transport from 1979 through 1997. Railroads are the foundation of coal logistics (EIA).

Figure 1 (Source:EIA)

Shipping Vessels: Ocean going vessels are the primary carriers of imported/exported

coal. Transporting coal through rivers, lakes, and tidewater areas, accounts for nearly two out of every ten tons of coal shipped annually to domestic markets (World Coal Report). In relation to total coal cost, shipping coal from the exporters port to the importers port figures to about 30% of the transported cost of coal, the domestic transportation from the port to the fire-coal factory can account for an additional 20% of the total imported cost. Shipping costs are subjective to a plethora of different aspects, distance traveled, as well as competition for ships to move different types of massive cargo like iron ore and grains. Port capabilities i.e. infrastructure and water depth also are determining factors in the costs of shipping in consideration of the size of ship that will be able moor at that port. Commonly larger ships have lower freight costs (World Coal Report). (This is where it would be beneficial for electricity-generating factories to become directly involved in the shipping side of exporting). Truck: This method is typically used for short haul runs if the fire-coal plant is near the port of entry. Conveyors: Are many miles long, commonly linking the coal mine and mining machines with power plants. Pipeline: The only coal slurry pipeline where the coal is ground to a powder mixed with water and pumped through a pipeline called the Black Mesa line. It is 273 miles, 18 inches in diameter and connects coalmines in northern Arizona to power a plant in southern Nevada (EIA)

SECTION II - PRODUCTION PROCESSES

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Figure 2 (Source: Energy Information Administration Energy Kids)

Production Technology: The Energy Information Administration Energy Kids website explains the most basic and clear concept of mining coal. Coal miners use giant machines to remove coal from the ground. They use two methods: surface or underground mining. Many U.S. coal beds are in close proximity to the ground's surface, about two-thirds of coal production comes from surface mines. Modern mining methods allow for easy access to major coal reserves. Due to growth in surface mining and improved mining technology, the amount of coal produced by one miner in one hour has more than tripled since 1978. It is crushed and pulverized into powder, which is then burned to produce heat, the heat is then used to change water into steam, this steam then forces multiple sets of turbines to spin, which in turn allow the generators to produce electricity. Surface mining, is used to extract most of the coal in the United States because it is less expensive than underground mining. Surface mining can be used when the coal is buried less than 200 feet underground. The process of surface mining, giant machines remove the topsoil and layers of rock known as "overburden" to expose the coal seam. Once the mining is finished, the dirt and rock are returned to the pit, the topsoil is replaced, and the area is replanted.

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Figure 3 Underground mining, sometimes called deep mining, is used when the coal is buried several hundred feet below the surface. Underground mines can reach depths up to, 1,000 ft. To remove coal in these underground mines, miners ride elevators down deep mine shafts where they run machines that dig out the coal.

Figure 4 Long Wall Mining: Long wall mining is a highly productive underground mining technique, where a panel or block of coal up to 1,000 feet wide and up to three miles long is entirely extracted. Underground coal mines are held up by hydraulic pillars known as shields. These devices protect miners from cave-ins and falling debris. Mining is done by one or several massive machines. These mining machines called continuous miners produce a constant flow of material (coal) by the use of large rotating tungsten cutting heads that bore directly into the face of the mine. These machines can produce up to five

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tons of coal per-minute which is more than a single man can produce in a full shift (Coal International).

Figure 5 (Source: Coal International)

Improvements in Production Technology & Policy: Since 1978, coal power plants have seen an array of new environmental regulations and policies, implemented to help reduce the amount of sulfur dioxide and other pollutants that are released into the air. In result, these new policies require power plants to install flue-gas desulfurization equipment (also called "scrubbers" see Figure 8) or choose to burn coal that has lower amounts of sulfur. Additional sulfur emission policies, set by the Clean Air Act Amendment of 1990, are taking effect in two stages. For the power plants built before 1978, emissions are generally limited to 2.5 pounds of sulfur dioxide per million (BTU) of energy consumed. The second stage, referred to as Phase II, took effect in 2001, this confines emissions for all power plants, old or new, to 1.2 pounds of sulfur dioxide per million BTU of energy consumed. Coal plant owners can choose how to achieve these lower emissions limits. They can retrofit scrubbers, switch to low-sulfur coal, blend low-sulfur coal with high-sulfur coal, co-fire with natural gas, repower with

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boilers that are more efficient or close the plant. Figure 6:Coal Scrubber

New Clean Coal Technologies: Direct coal liquefaction converts coal to a liquid by dissolving coal in a solvent at high temperature and pressure. This process is highly efficient, but the liquid products require further refining by adding hydrogen over a catalyst, to achieve high grade fuel characteristics. Indirect coal liquefaction first gasifies the coal with steam to form a syngas which is a mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide. The sulfur is removed from this gas and the mixture adjusted according to the desired product. The syn-gas is then condensed over a catalyst with the Fischer-Tropsch process (method for the synthesis of hydrocarbons and other aliphatic compounds) to produce high quality, ultra-clean products (World Coal Report). Multiple products can be made through these processes including ultra-clean petroleum and diesel, synthetic waxes, lubricants and chemical feedstocks. A similar process, using different catalysts, will produce alternative liquid fuels such as methanol and dim-ethylether (DME).

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Labor: The United States Department of Labor for the Mine Safety and Health Administration enforces the Mine Act and is responsible for the coal mine safety and health of workers. This federal regulatory agency conducts inspections of underground coalmines, investigating fatal and serious accidents, issues citations, and conducts safety and health conferences with mine operators on citations and orders that are issued out. Additionally, Coal Mine Safety and Health approves roof control, ventilation, and training plans required to be submitted by mine operators, directs various mine safety and health assistance programs, and trains and certifies instructors. If coal mine inspectors find violations or other conditions that may pose an immediate threat to the miners safety or health, they have the authority to issue a withdrawal order for the affected area, remove the related equipment from service, and have the miners withdrawn until the conditions are corrected.

Ecological issues Relating to Production Coal mining and production has a multitudes of negative implications on the environment. The Energy Information Administration briefly describes some of the ecologically detrimental effects: Waste piles: From mining and coal preparation and from coal-fired power plants. Water quality: Acid mine drainage, which contains sulfuric acid produced when pyrite and other iron sulfides react with air and water. The acid water increases the solubility of toxic heavy metals, such as arsenic, lead and mercury, and renders the water toxic to

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aquatic life and unfit for domestic and municipal use. Air quality: Sulfur dioxide emissions, carbon dioxide from coal combustion, and methane from coalmines are all released into the air.

SECTION III- SUBSTITUTE MATERIAL Availability: According to the 2009 Global Coal and Consumable Fuels Industry Profile, conducted by DataMonitor, the energy sector is broke up and predominately controlled by large international companies such as China Shenhua Energy, Xstrata, BHP Billiton or Peabody. There are several energy substitutes for coal: oil, gas, and nuclear fuels. These similar non-renewable energy sources are considered the most competitive. Although, a complete overhaul to these substitutes would require a high capital investment in switching over to facilitate and generate power from sources other than coal, creating extremely high switching costs. Nonetheless, willing companies with high venture capital are attracted by better market growth from last years. However, assets required for coal mining are considerable including a large amount of specialized machinery, which constitutes a considerable barrier to entrance. The threat of substitutes overall is viewed as weak.

Renewable Substitutes:

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Renewable energy technologies that act as substitutes for coal and generate clean electricity are: biomass, geothermal, solar photovoltaics, and wind. According to the U.S. Department of Energy, new innovating wind technology programs are working with wind industry partners to develop clean, domestic, and innovative wind energy technologies that can compete with conventional fuel sources. The department of energy is looking to generate 20% of the nation's electricity demand by 2030 with wind power. Solar Photovoltaic (PV) systems are more costly than electricity from the utility grid, demand though from (PV) technology systems has the potential to expand rapidly and become a significant part of the national energy supply. The downfall to (PV) systems is that they must be located in areas that receive frequent solar radiation year round in order to produce a sufficient amount of energy. The department of energy says that bio-energy, (bio-mass) ranks second (to hydropower) in renewable U.S. primary energy production and accounts for three percent of the primary energy production in the United States. Energy derived from biomass means that it comes from renewable resources, agricultural food and feed crops such as, corn and grain. Benefits of energy derived from renewable biomass resources are that ecological impacts are kept to a minimum. The detrimental ecological results of burning coal for electricity production, has been a considerable factor to implement new policies and regulation for further renewable and clean energy research and sources. Kyoto Protocol:

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The Kyoto Protocol is an international agreement joined with the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. The Kyoto Protocol sets targets for the largest industrial nations across the globe to curtail the amount of greenhouse gas (GGE) emissions they emit into the atmosphere. These countries are expected to implement new regulations, that will limit the amount of emissions released to the amount that were released in 1990, which is about a five per cent decrease from present day (KyotoProtocol). SECTION IV CONSUMPTION & RESERVES Demand: (Refer to Appendix 1 & Diagram 7 & 8) Consumption by Country: China accounted for 42.6% of world consumption of coal. The United States is the second largest consumer of coal, with 17.1% of total world share. India is currently the third largest consumer of industrial coal, with 7.0% of total world share. Japan is the next largest consumer of industrial coal with 3.9% of world share. Over the past four decades, coal demand showed overall growth from 1965 to 1980, with some annual fluctuations during the last 20 years. World consumption by world region in 2008, North America accounted for 18.4%, South & Central America accounted for 0.7% , Europe & Eurasia accounted for 15.8%, Middle East region accounted for 0.3%, Africa accounted for 3.3%, and the Asia Pacific regions accounted for 61.5% of total world consumption.

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Figure 7 Source: (BP Statistical Review) World Demand by Country

Major Global Producers: The BP statistical review of world energy (Diagram ) shows world coal production data. The units are shown in million tones oil, equivalent to the amount of tons of oil required to release the same amount of energy. Asia Pacific accounted for the biggest producer of coal, totaling 2030 million tons in 2008. In comparison to North America, who only produced 638.8 million. Europe and Eurasia followed with 456.4 million, the Middle East and Africa with 144.1 million and South and Central America with 55.5 million. (See Appendix A) The BP Statistical Review of World Energy in (Figure 9) demonstrates world coal consumption data. Asia Pacific accounted for the largest consumer of coal, totaling 2000 million tons in 2008. In comparison with North America, who consumed 606.9 million tones. Europe and Eurasia following with 500 million tons, the Middle East 9.4 million, Africa with 119.4 million and South and Central America with 23.3 million.

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Figure 8 BP Statistical Rev.

Figure 9 (Source: BP Statistical Review)

Future Projections: Datamonitors global coal and consumable fuels industry analysis, forecasts the coal markets to slow down in 2009 in spite of a recovering recession. However, an upturn can be expected around 2013, with the growth rate largely remaining at around 6%. The global coal and consumable fuels market generated total revenues of 408.4 billion in 2008, representing a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 16.5% in the time of 2004-2008. European and Asia-Pacific markets also saw growth, to reach market values of $88.1 billion and $249.8 billion in 2008 (DataMonitor). Market consumption volumes experienced a (CAGR) of 5.2% between 2004 -2008, to reaching a total of 7.5 billion short tonnes in 2008. Market volume has been projected to grow to 8.9 billion short tonnes by the end of 2013, representing a (CAGR) of 3.4% for the 2008-2013 periods. The primary coal segment saw the most profits in 2008; with total revenues of $405.8 billion, equivalent to 99.4% of the market's overall value. The

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secondary coal segment contributed revenues of $ 2.6 billion in 2008, equating to 0.6% of the market's aggregate revenues. The performance of the markets is forecasted to lose pace, with an anticipated CAGR of 3% for the five-year period 2008-2013, which is expected to drive the market value to $473.8 billion by the end of 2013 (Data monitor).

Figure 10 (Source: DataMonitor)

Figure 11 (Source: DataMonitor)

Logistical Issues: According to the Energy Information Association, the production of coal from U.S. mines has shown an average of around 19 million tons per week. Although, weekly supplies of coal from mines can vary significantly. A steep rise in the coal supply occurs in response to a heightened increase in demand, normally to help offset a decline in other

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electricity generating sources i.e. nuclear power plants closed for maintenance, or when hydroelectric power generation slows down during periods of low water, or when coal stockpiles are built up in anticipation of a coalminers strike. Low supply during weekly coal production can sometimes be caused by employee vacations and holidays. Strikes by coalminers and worker unions involved with coal shipments, can sharply decrease the supply of coal from the mines also. Delays in delivering railroad cars to the mines due to maintenance or inclement weather can result in a decrease of coal shipments (EIA).

SECTION V PRICING: Price: (Refer to Appendix C): Coal prices have historically been lower, readily stable, and cheaper than oil and gas prices. Coal is likely to remain the most affordable fuel for power generation in many developing and industrialized countries for decades. The price of coal varies by coal rank, mining method, geographic region, and coal quality. Between the years of 1990-2007, the price of coal stayed at $28-$86 dollars per metric ton (appendix C). A dramatic increase in coal price during 2008 was accepted in respect to the inflated cost of fuel for shipping, and other modes of transportation. The price of coal grew by 50% per metric ton. In the early 1970s a spike in coal costs was a result of the oil embargo where inflated prices were a result also (EIA).

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Works Cited: Beatley, Timothy. Native to Nowhere Sustaining Home And Community In A Global Age. New York: Island P, 2005. BP Global, "Coal Statistical Review 2009.". N.p., n.d. Web. 15 Nov. 2009. <http://www.bp.com/subsection.do?categoryId=9023763&contentId=7044548>. Carter, Devereux. "Coal Availability." USGS Energy Resources Program. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Nov. 2009. <http://energy.usgs.gov/factsheets/coalavailability/coal.html>. "Coal (fossil fuel)." Encyclopedia - Britannica Online Encyclopedia. N.p., n.d. Web. 15 Nov. 2009. <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/122863/coal>. "Kyoto Protocol." United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Web. 15 Nov. 2009. <http://unfccc.int/kyoto_protocol/items/2830.php>. "Coal Mining." Coal Mining Industry Yearbook (2001): N.PAG. Business Source Premier. EBSCO. Web. 17 Nov. 2009 Coal price - World Coal Institute. Home - World Coal Institute. 20 Nov. 2009 <http://www.worldcoal.org/coal/market-amp-transportation/coal-price/>. DATAMONITOR."Global Coal & Consumable Fuels." N.p., n.d. Web. 22 Nov. 2009. 23

<https://mintglobal.bvdep.com/version2009115/MintGlobal/scripts/report/MarketResearch/datamonitorencoded.htm? bhhbmlkfckbhmnmhhejkplnfecmffchhpm.PDF>. Department of Energy. "Coal." N.p., n.d. Web. 21 Nov. 2009. <http://energy.gov/energysources/coal.htm>. EIA Energy Kids. "Coal." N.p., n.d. Web. 22 Nov. 2009. <http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/kids/energy.cfm?page=coal_home-basics>. Energy Information Administration."Coal Production in the United States." N.p., n.d. Web. 21 Nov. 2009. <www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/coal/page/coal_production_review.pdf>. Environmental Protection Agency "Coal Clean Energy . N.p., 28 Dec. 2007. Web. 18 Nov. 2009. <http://www.epa.gov/RDEE/energy-and-you/affect/coal.html>. "Kyoto Protocol." United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Web. 15 Nov. 2009. <http://unfccc.int/kyoto_protocol/items/2830.php>. "Mineral Information Institute - Coal ." www.mii.org. N.p., n.d. Web. 19 Nov. 2009. <http://www.mii.org/Minerals/photocoal.html>.

"MSHA - Coal Mine Safety and Health." United States Department of Labor - Mine Safety and Health Administration. N.p., n.d. Web. 22 Nov. 2009. <http://www.msha.gov/programs/coal.htm>. "World Coal Report." World Coal Report 2.(2007): 1-162. Business Source Premier. EBSCO. Web.23Nov.2009.http://stats.lib.pdx.edu/proxy.php? url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx? direct=true&db=buh&AN=24488555&site=ehost-live

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Appendix A: World Coal Production

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(Source: BP World Energy Statistical Review 2009)

Appendix B: World Coal Consumption:

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(Source: BP World Energy Statistical Review 2009)

Appendix C: Coal Proven Reserves & Prices

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(Source: BP World Energy Statistical Review 2009)

Appendix D:

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(Source: BP World Energy Statistical Review 2009)

(Source: BP World Energy Statistical Review 2009)

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