Simona BUCA

2008 2009 REPROGRAFIA UNIVERSITII TRANSILVANIA DIN BRAOV

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COMPUTER SCIENCE .................................................................................................................................... 1 WORD STUDY ................................................................................................................................................... 6 2.1 Related words .......................................................................................................................................................6 2.2 Right words/Wrong words.................................................................................................................................. 6 2.2.1 Technical advances affecting daily life.................................................................................................. 6 2.2.2 Future visions............................................................................................................................................7 2.2.3 Want need demand ...........................................................................................................................7 2.2.4 Demand ask (for) charge..................................................................................................................8 3 GRAMMAR STUDY.......................................................................................................................................... 9 3.2 Present tenses..................................................................................................................................................9 3.2.1 The present continuous ...........................................................................................................................9 3.2.2 The simple present tense........................................................................................................................9 3.3 The past and perfect tenses .........................................................................................................................10 3.3.1 The simple past tense ...........................................................................................................................10 3.3.2 The past continuous tense....................................................................................................................11 3.3.3 Present perfect tense.............................................................................................................................12 3.3.4 The present perfect continuous tense ................................................................................................. 14 3.3.5 The past perfect tense ...........................................................................................................................14 3.3.6 The past perfect continuous tense ...................................................................................................... 14 3.4 Expressing Future Time ................................................................................................................................15 3.5 Active Passive .............................................................................................................................................15 4 STRUCTURES: WILL AND WOULD: HABITS; USED TO ..................................................................... 16 5 APPLICATIONS .............................................................................................................................................. 18 5.2 Related to the text .......................................................................................................................................... 18 5.3 Grammar exercises........................................................................................................................................ 18 6 COMPUTERS AND COMMUNICATIONS: A SYMBIOTIC RELATIONSHIP..................................... 23 6.2 A SYMBIOTIC RELATIONSHIP ..................................................................................................................23 6.3 BROADBAND TO THE RESCUE................................................................................................................24 6.4 KILLER APPS .................................................................................................................................................25 6.5 CONVERGING ON A SOLUTION ...............................................................................................................25 6.6 MOBILE COMMUNICATIONS .....................................................................................................................26 6.7 NETWORKING EVERYTHING ....................................................................................................................26 6.8 MARKET DEMAND ....................................................................................................................................... 27 7 WORD STUDY ................................................................................................................................................. 28 7.2 Related words .................................................................................................................................................28 7.3 Right words/Wrong words.............................................................................................................................28 7.3.1 actual real topical up to date....................................................................................................... 28 7.3.2 actually at present/for the present at the moment ...................................................................... 28 7.3.3 actualities the news current events ...............................................................................................28 7.4 Increasing the vocabulary .............................................................................................................................29 8 GRAMMAR STUDY........................................................................................................................................ 32 8.2 SUMMARY CHART OF MODALS AND SIMILAR EXPRESSIONS.......................................................32 8.3 Obligation and requirements ........................................................................................................................34 9 STRUCTURES: PERMISSION, OFFERS, ETC. ......................................................................................... 35 10 APPLICATIONS .......................................................................................................................................... 37 10.2 Related to the text .......................................................................................................................................... 37 10.3 Grammar exercises........................................................................................................................................ 37 11 TEACHING TEAMWORK......................................................................................................................... 40 11.2 Software project courses...............................................................................................................................40 11.3 Designing a project course ...........................................................................................................................40 11.4 The Introductory Team Software Process .................................................................................................. 41 11.5 Process description........................................................................................................................................ 41 11.6 Faculty and student feedback ......................................................................................................................42 11.7 Data analysis ..................................................................................................................................................43 11.8 Student assessment ...................................................................................................................................... 44 11.9 Course suggestions ....................................................................................................................................... 44 12 WORD STUDY ............................................................................................................................................. 46 12.2 Related words .................................................................................................................................................46 12.3 Right words/Wrong words.............................................................................................................................46 12.3.1 Cause and effect .................................................................................................................................... 46 12.3.2 Diploma degree certificate licence.............................................................................................47 13 GRAMMAR STUDY.................................................................................................................................... 48 13.2 Relative clauses .............................................................................................................................................48

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STRUCTURE: WHOEVER, WHICHEVER, WHATEVER, WHENEVER, WHEREVER, HOWEVER 51 15 APPLICATIONS .......................................................................................................................................... 52 15.2 Related to the text .......................................................................................................................................... 52 15.3 Grammar exercises........................................................................................................................................ 52 16 WIRELESS ADVERTISINGS CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES ........................................... 54 16.2 WIRELESS ADS ............................................................................................................................................54 16.2.1 Vindigo .....................................................................................................................................................55 16.2.2 SkyGo .......................................................................................................................................................55 16.2.3 AvantGo....................................................................................................................................................55 16.3 BUSINESS MODELS ...................................................................................................................................... 55 16.3.1 Voice-subsidized....................................................................................................................................... 55 16.3.2 Safe income...............................................................................................................................................55 16.3.3 Diversified revenue ................................................................................................................................... 56 16.3.4 Outsourced media sales revenue ...............................................................................................................56 16.3.5 In-house media sales revenue ...................................................................................................................56 16.4 EXISTING APPROACHES AND TECHNIQUES..........................................................................................56 16.4.1 Data delivery requirements .......................................................................................................................57 16.4.2 Enabling technologies...............................................................................................................................57 16.5 ISSUES AND CHALLENGES ........................................................................................................................58 16.5.1 Business issues.......................................................................................................................................... 58 16.5.2 Technical issues ........................................................................................................................................ 59 17 WORD STUDY ............................................................................................................................................. 61 17.2 Related words .................................................................................................................................................61 17.3 Right words/Wrong words.............................................................................................................................61 17.3.1 Advertising vocabulary ..........................................................................................................................61 17.3.2 Some important words for talking about business agreements ......................................................62 17.3.3 Some Rules of Management ................................................................................................................62 18 GRAMMAR STUDY.................................................................................................................................... 64 18.2 1. Forming questions ..................................................................................................................................... 64 19 STRUCTURES: SAY TELL; SPEAK TALK ...................................................................................... 67 20 APPLICATIONS .......................................................................................................................................... 68 20.2 Related to the text .......................................................................................................................................... 68 20.3 Grammar exercise.......................................................................................................................................... 68 21 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................................. 69

PREVIEW

The English Practical Course is conceived for students following the Faculty of Computer Science Year I, Distance Learning. Students will be introduced to vocabulary specific to Computing and Software field. The course provides a deep study of words handling and contexts (related words; what words to use and in what context) The grammar study revises the tenses in English, the modal verbs, the way questions are formed, and the relative clauses. The grammar matters and structures are essential for proper communicative skills. The applications are related to both the text and the grammar study. They are based on texts and individual study. Students have to draw up a dictionary containing all the technical words they can find in the four texts . 1. COMPUTER SCIENCE

Computer science, or computing science, is the study of the theoretical foundations of information and computation and their implementation and application in computer systems. Computer science has many sub-fields; some emphasize the computation of specific results (such as computer graphics), while others (such as computational complexity theory) relate to properties of computational problems. Still others focus on the challenges in implementing computations. For example, programming language theory studies approaches to describing computations, while computer programming applies specific programming languages to solve specific computational problems. Major achievements Despite its relatively short history as a formal academic discipline, computer science has made a number of fundamental contributions to science and society. These include: A formal definition of computation and computability, and proof that there are computationally unsolvable and intractable problems[8]. The concept of a programming language, a tool for the precise expression of methodological information at various levels of abstraction [9] The theory and practice of compilers for translating between programming languages Practical applications: the PC, the internet, search engines, scientific computing. Relationship with other fields Despite its name, much of computer science does not involve the study of computers themselves. In fact, the renowned computer scientist Edsger Dijkstra is often quoted as saying, "Computer science is no more about computers than astronomy is about telescopes." The design and deployment of computers and computer systems is

generally considered the province of disciplines other than computer science. For example, the study of computer hardware is usually considered part of computer engineering, while the study of commercial computer systems and their deployment is often called information technology or information systems. Computer science is sometimes criticized as being insufficiently scientific, a view espoused in the statement "Science is to computer science as hydrodynamics is to plumbing" credited to Stan Kelly-Bootle and others. However, there has been much cross-fertilization of ideas between the various computer-related disciplines. Computer science research has also often crossed into other disciplines, such as artificial intelligence, cognitive science, physics (see quantum computing), and linguistics. Computer science is considered by some to have a much closer relationship with mathematics than many scientific disciplines. Early computer science was strongly influenced by the work of mathematicians such as Kurt Gdel and Alan Turing, and there continues to be a useful interchange of ideas between the two fields in areas such as mathematical logic, category theory, domain theory, and algebra. The relationship between computer science and software engineering is a contentious issue, which is further muddied by disputes over what the term "software engineering" means, and how computer science is defined. Some people believe that software engineering is a subset of computer science. Others, taking a cue from the relationship between other engineering and science disciplines, believe that the principle focus of computer science is studying the properties of computation in general, while the principle focus of software engineering is the design of specific computations to achieve practical goals, making them different disciplines. This view is promulgated by (among others) David Parnas. Still others maintain that software cannot be engineered at all. Fields of computer science Computer science searches for concepts and proofs to explain and describe computational systems of interest. It is a science because given a system of interest it performs /analysis/ and seeks general principals to explain that system. As with all sciences, these theories can then be utilised to synthesize practical engineering applications, which in turn may suggest new systems to be studied and analysed. Mathematical foundations Mathematical logic Boolean logic and other ways of modeling logical queries; the uses and limitations of formal proof methods Number theory Theory of proofs and heuristics for finding proofs in the simple domain of integers. Used in cryptography as well as a test domain in artificial intelligence. Graph theory Foundations for data structures and searching algorithms. Type Theory Formal analysis of the types of data, and the use of these types to understand properties of programs especially program safety. Theory of computation Automata theory Different logical structures for solving problems. Computability theory

What is calculable with the current models of computers. Proofs developed by Alan Turing and others provide insight into the possibilities of what may be computed and what may not. Computational complexity theory Fundamental bounds (especially time and storage space) on classes of computations. Quantum computing theory Algorithms and data structures Analysis of algorithms Time and space complexity of algorithms. Algorithms Formal logical processes used for computation, and the efficiency of these processes. Data structures The organization of and rules for the manipulation of data. Programming languages and compilers Compilers Ways of translating computer programs, usually from higher level languages to lower level ones. Based heavily on mathematical logic. Programming languages Formal language paradigms for expressing algorithms, and the properties of these languages (EG: what problems they are suited to solve). Concurrent, parallel, and distributed systems Concurrency The theory and practice of simultaneous computation; data safety in any multitasking or multithreaded environment. Distributed computing Computing using multiple computing devices over a network to accomplish a common objective or task and there by reducing the latency involved in single processor contributions for any task. Parallel computing Computing using multiple concurrent threads of execution. Software engineering Formal methods Mathematical approaches for describing and reasoning about software designs. Software engineering The principles and practice of designing, developing, and testing programs, as well as proper engineering practices. Reverse engineering The application of the scientific method to the understanding of arbitrary existing software Algorithm design Using ideas from algorithm theory to creatively design solutions to real tasks Computer programming The practice of using a programming language to implement algorithms Computer architecture Computer architecture

The design, organization, optimization and verification of a computer system, mostly about CPUs and Memory subsystem (and the bus connecting them). Operating systems Systems for managing computer programs and providing the basis of a useable system. Communications Networking Algorithms and protocols for reliably communicating data across different shared or dedicated media, often including error correction. Cryptography Applies results from complexity, probability and number theory to invent and break codes. Databases Relational databases Data mining Study of algorithms for searching and processing information in documents and databases; closely related to information retrieval. Artificial intelligence Artificial intelligence The implementation and study of systems that exhibit an autonomous intelligence or behaviour of their own. Automated reasoning Solving engines, such as used in Prolog, which produce steps to a result given a query on a fact and rule database. Robotics Algorithms for controlling the behavior of robots. Computer vision Algorithms for identifying three dimensional objects from a two dimensional picture. Machine learning Automated creation of a set of rules and axioms based on input. Soft computing A collective term for techniques used in solving specific problems. See the main article. Computer graphics Computer graphics Algorithms both for generating visual images synthetically, and for integrating or altering visual and spatial information sampled from the real world. Image processing Determining information from an image through computation. Human computer interaction The study and design of computer interfaces that people use. Scientific computing Computational physics Numerical simulations of large non-analytic systems Computational chemistry

Computational modelling of theoretical chemistry in order to determine chemical structures and properties Bioinformatics The use of computer science to maintain, analyse, store biological data and to assist in solving biological problems such as protein folding. Computational neuroscience Computational modelling of real brains Cognitive Science Computational modelling of real minds Computer science education Some universities teach computer science as a theoretical study of computation and algorithmic reasoning. These programs often feature the theory of computation, analysis of algorithms, formal methods, concurrency theory, databases, computer graphics and systems analysis, among others. They typically also teach computer programming, but treat it as a vessel for the support of other fields of computer science rather than a central focus of high-level study. Other colleges and universities, as well as secondary schools and vocational programs that teach computer science, emphasize the practice of advanced computer programming rather than the theory of algorithms and computation in their computer science curricula. Such curricula tend to focus on those skills that are important to workers entering the software industry. The practical aspects of computer programming are often referred to as software engineering. However, there is a lot of disagreement over what the term "software engineering" actually means, and whether it is the same thing as programming.

2 WORD STUDY

2.1 Related words

Data = date, informatii (primare); indicii Data bank = banca de date Data base = baza de date Data base management system = sistem de gestiune a bazelor de date Data block = bloc de date, zona a unui program care concentreaza datele utilizate in cadrul acestuia Data carrier = suport de informatii Data definition name (DD name) = nume de definitie a datelor Data dump = pierdere la transferul informatiilor (intre memorii) Data handling = prelucrare a datelor/informatiilor Data link system = sistem de transmitera a datelor 2.2 Right words/Wrong words

2.2.1 technology

Technical advances affecting daily life example sentence(s) with connected key words The sound quality of a digital tape recorder superior to that of an analogue [non-digital] one

examples of uses/applications digital photography, video and sound recording; digital broadcasting

digital technology

satellite satellite navigation communications systems; mobile phones

She has an in-car GPS [global positioning system] navigation system, so she never loses her way Biotechnology companies are experimenting with new, diseaseresistant crops for farmers. [with a high level of protection against disease

biotechnology

genetic modification of plants

artificial intelligence (Al)

automatic translation; identification systems

Al scientists are hoping to create computers that will be more and more like the human brain

ergonomics

efficient design of human environments

This car has ergonomically designed seats; they're very comfortable on long drives. [designed to give maximum comfort and efficiency]

2.2.2 smart buildings

Future visions

computer-controlled buildings where things like lighting, heating, security, etc. are completely automatic; the adjective smart can be used for anything that is fully automatic, making its own decisions (e.g. a watch, a credit art a camera, dishwasher, cooker) computer-generated experiences that feel like the real thing; the adjective virtual can be used for any experience you can have without leaving your computer (e.g. a virtual university/ supermarket) TV set where you can choose exactly what to watch and when, and which can also be used as a computer for the Internet, etc.; the adjective interactive can be used for anything where the communication between you and the machine is two-way (e.g. interactive video: you do not just watch it, you can also send your own pictures)

virtual reality

interactive TV

interplanetary travel e-commerce

travel to planets in outer space doing business via the Internet

2.2.3

Want need demand

Theres a very great need for money to help the flood victims. (Not want, demand) Im ill for want of sleep. (Not need, demand,) (= lack, shortage of) Theres very little money left after weve met the wants and needs of our children.

(wants and needs is a fixed phrase) Theres a big demand for computers nowadays. (i.e. a lot of people want to buy them) 2.2.4 Demand ask (for) charge

If you decide to sell your bike, how much will you ask? (Not demand) If you cant sell your flat, try asking less for it. (Not demandingfor) Sorry. I asked for a single ticket, not a return ticket. (Not demanded) (= requested) My dentist charges by the minute, with the aid of a kitchen timer! (Not demands) (=applies a rate of payment) She demands an apology before shell speak to you again. (= insist on receiving)

3 GRAMMAR STUDY

3.2 Present tenses There are two present tenses in English: The present continuous: I am working. The simple present: I work. 3.2.1 The present continuous

Form: The present continuous is formed with the present tense of the auxiliary verb be + the present participle: Affirmative I am working You are working He/she/it is working We are working You are working They are working Negative I am not working You are not working He/she/it is not working We are not working You are not working They are not working Interrogative Am I working? Are you working? Is he/she/it working Are we working? Are you working? Are they working?

Use: USE 1. an action happening at the moment of speaking (the action has duration and is not complete): 2. an action that extends over a (slightly) longer period, including the time of speaking: 3. a temporary, limited action/behaviour (+an adverbial indicating present time):

EXAMPLE We are working now. Why are you sitting at my desk? We are designing a new product.

I work in the research department but this week I am working in the production department 4. ones immediate plans for the near We are having a business meeting on future (the time of the action must be Saturday mentioned) 5. a frequently repeated action which Our supervisor is always complaining annoys the speaker (+always, forever, about the wage he gets. continually, all the time): 3.2.2 The simple present tense

Form: In the affirmative the simple present has the same for as the infinitive but adds an s for the third person singular.

Affirmative Negative I work I do not wok You work You do not work He/she/it works He/she/it does not work We work We do not work You work You do not work They work They do not work Contractions: the verb do is normally contracted in doesnt work. Use USE 1. habitual actions (+adverbs such as: often, usually, never, occasionally, sometimes, always, every day, in the morning, on Sundays, twice a year etc.) 2. general truths or characteristics: 3. momentary actions, completed almost at the same time they are performed (in contexts such as: cooking, demonstrations, ceremonial utterances, stage directions, radio or TV commentaries, announcement, head-lines): 4. planned future actions when the future action is considered part of an already fixed programme (with verbs of motion: come, go, leave or verbs expressing planned activity: begin, start, end, finish. The adverbial indicating future time are obligatory.): 5. in temporal and conditional clauses, when there is a future/present/imperative in the main clause: 3.3 The past and perfect tenses

Interrogative Do I work? Do you work? Does he/she/it work? Do we work? Do you work? Do they work? the negative: I dont work, he

EXAMPLE He usually works fixed hours. How often do you meet your manager a week? I never work shift hours. The Earth moves round the sun. A notice at the end of the road warns people not to go any further.

We leave London at 10.00 next Tuesday and arrive in Paris at 13.00. We spend two hours in Paris and leave again at 15.00. We arrive in Rome at 19.30, spend four hours in Rome etc. If we dont finish our job well be dismissed.

3.3.1

The simple past tense

Form: The simple past tense in regular verbs is formed by adding ed to the infinitive: Infinitive: to work Simple past: worked The same form is used for all persons: I worked you worked he worked etc. For the irregular verbs please check the table with irregular verbs. The negative of regular and irregular verbs is formed with did not not (didnt) and the infinitive: I did not/didnt work You did not/didnt work etc.

The interrogative of regular and irregular verbs is formed with did + subject + infinitive: Did I work? Did you work? Etc. Use USE for actions completed in the past at a definite time: when the time/place or other circumstances are given: when the time is asked about:

EXAMPLE

He phoned me at six oclock He phoned me as soon as I got home. When did you achieve the project? I achieved it last week. when the action clearly too place at a The train was five minutes late. definite time even if this time is not mentioned: when there is a sequence of past events I met Philip yesterday and we talked for a (narrative use): few minutes. 2. in indirect speech, instead of the simple He told me he had a new camera present, when the introductory verb (say, tell, ask, etc) is in a past tense 3.3.2 The past continuous tense

Form: The past continuous tense is formed by the past tense of the verb to be + V+ ing Affirmative I was working You were working He/she/it was working We were working You were working They were working Negative I was not working You were not working He/she/it was not working We were not working You were not working They were not working Interrogative Was I working? Were you working? Was he/she/it working Were we working? Were you working? Were they working?

Negative contractions: I wasnt working, you werent working etc. Use USE With a point in time/period of time it expresses an action in progress (going on) precisely at that moment: With another action in the simple past it expresses an action that began before and probably continued after the other action which interrupted it. With another action in the past continuous it expresses an action going

EXAMPLE At 12.30 yesterday/yesterday morning we were making some investigations. While/as I was working, a colleague stopped me and asked me the time.

The girls were doing measurements while the boys were testing the product.

on at the same time with the other past action. With an adverb of (future) time it She was busy packing for she was expresses a definite future arrangement leaving the next day. seen from the past 3.3.3 Present perfect tense

Form: The present perfect tense is formed with the present tense of have + the past participle: I have worked etc. The past participle in regular verbs has exactly the same form as the simple past, loved, walked, worked etc. In irregular verbs, the past participle vary (please check the irregular verbs) The negative is formed by adding not to the auxiliary. The interrogative is formed by inverting the auxiliary and subject.

Affirmative I have worked You have worked He/she/it has worked We have worked You have worked They have worked

Negative I have not worked You have not worked He/she/it has not worked We have not worked You have not worked They have not worked

Interrogative Have I worked? Have you worked? Has he/she/it worked? Have we worked? Have you worked? Have they worked?

Contractions: have/has and have not/has not can be contracted thus: Ive worked, you havent worked, Hasnt he worked? etc. Use The present perfect used with just for a recently completed action. He has just gone out = He went out a few minutes ago. The present perfect used for past actions whose time is not definite I have read the instructions but I dont understand them. Compare with: I read the instructions last night. Note possible answers to questions in the present perfect: Have you seen my stamps? Yes, I have/No, I havent or Yes, I saw them on your desk a minute ago. The present perfect used for actions occurring in an incomplete period it can be indicated by today or this morning /afternoon/ evening/ week/ month/ year/ century etc. (at 11 a.m) Tom has rung up three times this morning already. (at 2 p.m.) Tom rang up three times this morning. Lately, recently also indicate an incomplete period of time. There have been some changes lately/recently. It can be used similarly with ever, never. Always, occasionally, often, several times, etc. since. Have you ever fallen off a horse?

Yes, Ive fallen off quite often/occasionally. Theyve always answered my letters. Ive never been late for work. Note sentences of this type: This is the best wine I have ever drunk. This is the easiest job I have ever had. The present perfect used for an action which lasts throughout an incomplete period Time expressions include all day/night/week, all my life, all the time, always, lately, never, recently. The action usually begins in the past and continues past the time of speaking in the present: We have waited all day. (We are still waiting.) He has lived here all his life. (He still lives here.) Compare with: We waited all day. (Then we left) He lived here all his life. (Presumably he is now dead.) Sometimes, however, the action finishes at the time of speaking: I havent seen you for ages. (but I see you now) Note the questions/answers such as: How long have you been here? Ive been here six months. The present perfect used with for and since For is used with a period of time: for six days, for a long time. For used with the simple paste tense denotes a terminated period of time: We lived there for ten years. (but we dont live there now) For used with the present perfect denotes a period of time extending into the present: We have lived in London for ten years. (and still live there) Since is used with a point in time and means from that point to the time of speaking. She has been here since six oclock. Weve been friends since our schooldays. Note that there is a difference between last and the last. Compare: I have been here since last week (month, year, etc) and I have been here for the last week. It is + period + since + past or perfect tense It is three years since I (last) saw Bill or It is three years since I have seen Bill. I last saw Bill three years ago I havent seen Bill for three years. Further examples of the use of the present perfect and simple past Note that a conversation about a past action often begins with a question and answer in the present perfect, but normally continues in the simple past, even when no time

is given. This is because the action first mentioned has now become definite in the minds of the speakers: Where have you been? Ive been to the cinema What did you see? What was the film? I saw Amadeus. Did you like it? The present perfect is often used in letters: We have carefully considered the report which you sent us on 26 April, and have decided to take the following action. 3.3.4 The present perfect continuous tense

Form: This tense is formed by the present perfect of the verb to be + the present participle: Affirmative: I have been working, he has been working etc Negative: I have/havent been working, etc. Interrogative: Have I been working? etc. Use This tense is used for an action which began in the past and is still continuing or has only just finished: Ive been waiting for an hour and he still hasnt turned up. Im sorry Im late. Have you been waiting long? 3.3.5 The past perfect tense

Form: This tense is formed with had and the past participle: Affirmative: I had/Id worked etc Negative: I had not/hadnt worked etc. Interrogative: Had I worked? etc Use The past perfect is the past equivalent of the present perfect. Present: Ann has just left. If you hurry youll catch her. Past: When I arrived Ann had just left. Present: Ive lost my case. Past: He had lost his case and had to borrow Toms pyjamas. 3.3.6 The past perfect continuous tense

Form: This tense is formed with had been + past participle. It is therefore the same for all persons: I ha/Id been working. They had not/hadnt been working. Had you been working? Use The past perfect continuous bears the same relation to the past perfect as the present perfect continuous bears to the present perfect. It was now six and he was tired because he had worked since dawn. It was now six and he was tired because he had been working since dawn.

3.4 Expressing Future Time FORM THE FUTURE SIMPLE EXAMPLE I shall finish my work next week Tomorrow the weather will be cold and cloudy BE GOING TO subjects intention to I am going to finish the perform a certain future project tonight action PRESENT A future event anticipated We are having an CONTINUOUS by virtue of a present important meeting next plan, programme or Monday. arrangement SIMPLE PRESENT An official plan or We start for Brasov arrangement regarded as tomorrow. The train unalterable leaves at 8.30 THE FUTURE A temporary situation in Dont phone me at seven. CONTINUOUS the future Ill be having dinner BE ABOUT TO In reference to immediate They are about to leave. future 3.5 ACTIVE PASSIVE A preliminary analysis is normally produced. A special aluminium alloy was developed. The sentences above are examples of passive sentences. The passive is frequently used in scientific writing because the form is impersonal and objective. The passive is formed with to be, followed by the past participle of the verb: e.g. to be used, to be developed, etc. MEANING A neutral future even, a prediction about the future

STRUCTURES: WILL AND WOULD: HABITS; USED TO

A. We can use will (for the present) and would (for the past) to talk about characteristics behaviour or habits, or about things that are or were always true: Every day Dan will come home from work and turn on the TV. During the war, people would eat all kinds of things that we don't eat now. A baby will recognise its mother's voice soon after it is born. Early passenger planes wouldn't hold more than 30 passengers. We don't use would in this way to talk about a particular occasion in the past. Compare: Each time I gave him a problem he would solve it for me. and Last night I gave him a problem and he solved it for me. (not ...he would solve it...) In speech, we can stress will or would to criticise people's characteristic behaviour or habits: She will leave all the lights on in the house when she goes out. I was happy when Sam left. He would talk about people behind their backs. When we use stressed would in this way, we can also use it to talk about a particular occasion in the past. We suggest that what happened was predictable because it was typical of a person's behaviour: Jackie says she can't help because she's got a lot of work on.' 'Well she would say that - she always uses that excuse. B. If we want to talk about things that happened repeatedly in the past, but don't happen now, we can use would or used to + infinitive. Used to is more common in informal English: We would / used to lend him money when he was unemployed. Tim would / used to visit his parents every other weekend. We use used to but not would when we talk about past states that have changed: The factory used to be in the city centre. I used to smoke heavily when I was at university. When we use would we need to mention a specific time or set of occasions. Compare: We used to play in the garden, (not We would play...) Whenever we went to my Uncle Frank's house, we would / used to play in the garden. We don't use either used to or would when we say exactly how many times something happened, how long something took, or that something happened at a particular time: We visited Switzerland four times during the 1970s. She went on holiday to the Bahamas last week. C. Study how we normally make questions and negatives with used to in spoken English: Did your children use to sleep well when they were babies? I didn't use to like visiting the dentist when I was young.

These forms are sometimes written as '...did ... used to...' and '...didn't used to...', but some people think this is incorrect. However, in more formal spoken and written English the following negative and question forms are also used, although this question form is now rare-. There used not to be so much traffic, (more likely is There didn't use to be...) Used you to go to university with the Evans brothers? (more likely is Did you use to...?) Notice that nowadays very few people use used to in tags: He used to play cricket for Australia, didn't he? (rather than ..., usedn't he?)

APPLICATIONS

5.2 Related to the text Compare the computer science education in Romania with the computer science education in other countries What skills should a computer professional have? Find 5 adjectives that describe the work of a computer professional. Turn them into nouns. 5.3 Grammar exercises

PRESENT TENSES

I. Choose the correct verb form in each of the following. 1 In this process, the mixture is heated/is heating to 120C. 2 Once the salts are dissolving/have dissolved, the heat is reduced. 3 Several people have survived/are surviving the earthquake and are treating/are being treated in hospital at the moment. 4 For security purposes the employees change/are changing their passwords regularly. 5 Up until now people in this area have taken/take waste plastic to recycling centers, but at present we have tried/are trying a curbside collection system.

II. A journalist is asking some questions. Complete the answers by putting the verb in brackets into the appropriate present tense in the active or passive. 1 A: Do you normally hold these products in stock? B: No. They are normally made _ to order. (make)

2 A: Is the chief engineer here at the moment? B: I'm afraid not. He ________ currently ________ the plant in the north of Scotland. (inspect) 3 A: Can 1 see the new design?

B: Yes, of course. It ________ just ________ off the production line. (come) 4 A: How many units do you produce a month? B: We ________ 5,000 units a month and only a very small number ________ . (produce) (reject) 5 A: How long have you been using imported raw materials? B: We ________ (import) rayon for many years but we ________ only just ________ (begin) using imported polyester. 6 A: Is this the natural color of the fabric? B: No. this fabric ________ (dye). 7 A: And how long will it be kept in store? B: Not long at all. We ________ (dispatch) this load tomorrow afternoon.

PAST TENSES I. Six of the following sentences contain mistakes. Find the mistakes and correct them. 1 Sydney Harbour Bridge was building in 1932. 2 While they were carrying out tests in the laboratories, researchers were analyzing past results. 3 The first real road builders in Britain was the Romans. 4 The Romans built roads of layers of broken stones of various sizes and were covering them with flat stones. 5 The system didn't working because the loudspeaker had been wrongly connected. 6 Before factories were told to stop polluting the environment, waste was being dumped in rivers and in the sea. 7 Louis Pasteur was discovering the action of germs while he was studying fermentation in wines. 8 The production process had already been shut down when the leak in the fuel tank was found. 9 Nuclear energy began to be used from the mid-19 50s.

10 In the second half of the 20111 century, the electronics industry transforming the way we work in factories. II. Make past tense questions and answers using the words given. 1: When were fiber optics first developed? 1 When / be / fiber optics / first / develop? 2 The boxes / break / because they / make / of low quality materials. 3 The power supply / cut off / because / cables / come down / during the storm. 4 They / not complete / the foundations / by the time the building materials / arrive. 5 When / they / install / the solar panels? 6 be / this / the first hydroelectric scheme/ in Scotland? 7 They / not use / wood chip / for heating / when the engineer / visit / the factory. 8 How / they / produce / gas / before they / discover / North Sea gas? 9 be / the oil pollution along the coastline / cause / by an oil tanker spillage? 10 How / they prepare access to this mine? III. Complete the following report of an accident which happened in a factory with the correct form of the verbs in brackets. On Friday morning at 9.25 a worker in the chemical plant(a)_________ (find) by a female colleague. He (b) ________ (lie) on the floor. His colleague (c) ________ (check) that he (d) ________ still _________ (breathe) and then (e)_________ (call) the emergency services. The injured man (f)_________ (take) to hospital where he later (g) _________ (recover). An investigation at the factory (h)_________ (find) that a bottle containing a dangerous chemical liquid (i)________ (leave) open. Vapor from the liquid (j)_________ (escape) into the air. While he had been working in the room he (k)_________(become) unwell. He (I)_________(become) drowsy and then (m)_________ (fall) unconscious. Investigating officers are interviewing everyone who (n) _________ (work) in the factory that morning.

FUTURE TENSES

I. In the following situations choose the correct sentence, a) or b). 1 You are reminding a colleague about the programme for tomorrow. a Remember that you'll meet the supplier at 12 o'clock. b Remember that you're meeting the supplier at 12 o'clock. 2 Two colleagues are discussing the future visit by inspectors. a The inspectors won't allow us to store chemicals in this cupboard. b The inspectors are not allowing us to store chemicals in this cupboard. 3 Designers are discussing the car models with airbags. a The use of airbags is going to save more lives in the future. b The use of airbags is saving more lives in the future. 4 Two managers need the results from some research before November. a They won't be able to complete the research before November. b They aren't completing the research before November. 5 A senior manager isn't looking forward to next week because he's worried about the tests. a Tests will be carried out next week. b Tests are being carried out next week. II. A salesman is describing a new product to a customer. Complete what they say with will or won't and a verb from the box. Give, operate, deal, take, be, contact, install, provide, need, revolutionize, warm, see S: This is an excellent new material which (a) ________ the use of solar panels. C: I see, and how many hours of sunshine (b) ________ we ________ to produce energy? S: It (c) _______ necessary to have sunshine. It (d) _______ in daylight only. C: (e) _______ it _______ enough energy to warm the building in winter? S: It (f) ________ the building but you may need additional heating when it is very cold. C: What about installation? S: We (g) ________ it for you. It (h) ________ long and you (i) ________ soon ________ how effective it is. We (j) ________ you a three year

guarantee and if there are any problems we (k) ________ with them immediately. C: When will you be able to install it? S: As soon as we receive your order we (I) ________ you to discuss a suitable date. ACTIVE AND PASSIVE

I. Rewrite these sentences using the passive form instead of the active, which is underlined. We rarely find pure metals in nature. We recover metallic ores from the earth in many ways. We obtain lead from a mineral which we call galena. We need a lot of electrical energy to separate aluminium from the oxygen in aluminium ore.

II. Put the verb in brackets in the correct form There are many ways of shaping plastics. The most common way is by moulding. Blow-moulding (a) ________ (use) to make bottles. In this process, air (b) __________ (blow) into a blob of molten plastic inside a hollow mould and the plastic (c) ____________ (force) against the sides of the mould. Toys and bowls (d). (make) by injection moulding. Thermoplastic chips (e) . first ________________ (heat) until they melt and then forced into a watercooled mould under pressure. This method (f) (suit) to mass production. Laminating (g) (produce) the heat-proof laminate which (h) _____________ (use), for example, for work surfaces in kitchens. In this process, a kind of sandwich (i) _ (make) of layers of paper or cloth which (j) ____________ (soak) in resin solution. They (k) then (squeeze) together in a heated press. Thermoplastics can (I) _____________ (shape) by extrusion. Molten plastic (m) (force) through a shaped hole or die. Fibres for textiles and sheet plastic may (n). _______ (make) by extrusion.

6 COMPUTERS AND COMMUNICATIONS: A SYMBIOTIC RELATIONSHIP

Ask a financial analyst how the computer and telecommunications industries are alike, and the answer will come back quickly: After years of explosive growth, both are currently in a phase of deep retrenchment, looking for new revenue streams from consumer and business markets that seem determined to keep their hands firmly in their pockets. The symptoms of the current malaise are well known: oversupply of long-haul fibre, undersupply of broadband, uncertainty surrounding third-generation (3G) wireless deployment, and the flight of venture capital and general investor disillusionment following the bursting of the dot-corn bubble. The financial impact has been grim. The aggregate market capitalisation of telecom vendors and component suppliers has decreased by 89 percent from its peak. More than half a million jobs have been lost in this sector since late 2000, with the three major US infrastructure suppliersLucent Technologies, Nortel Networks, and Alcateleach slashing employment by more than half. And the end is not yet in sight. But these stark facts ignore the deep bond between the business that deals in semiconductors and teraflops and the industry that handles voice-minutes that was forged about 50 years ago in a lab in New Jersey. That historic link holds the prospect of lifting both industries out of their current doldrums, restoring economic vitality by offering a flood of new servicesif only the networking pieces can be made to fit together in a timely fashion.

6.2 A SYMBIOTIC RELATIONSHIP The link between computing and communications began in the mid-1950s with the Essex project at Bell Telephone Laboratories. This research effort culminated in 1963 with the 101 ESS, a private branch exchange (PBX) switch incorporating computercontrolled elements. The No. 1ESS, the Bell System's first computer-based central office switch, appeared two years later. About the same time, the desire to transmit data between computers led to development of the modem. This device made it possible to modulate a computer's digital data into an analogue signal that could be transmitted over existing telephone lines, and then demodulate the signal back to digital form so that a receiving computer could interpret it. The first commercial modem, the Bell 103, became available in 1962, and within three years the invention of the automatic adaptive equaliser made highspeed data transfer a reality. Since then, the computer and telecommunications industries have become increasingly intertwined, with the future prospects of each increasingly dependent on the other. Today's highspeed data networks rely on routers made possible by state-

of-the-art microprocessor technology. The high-end routers at the core of data networks consume and drive the development of processor technology. At the edge of the network lie servers another target for high-end processorsand PCs the mass-market computing device. On the wireless front, handsets already consume a substantial proportion of the application-specific integrated circuits and digital signal processors (DSPs). The development of software-defined radios promises to push this trend further. The SDR concept provides a good illustration of how communication applications have come to drive important segments of the semiconductor industry. The SDR is an answer to the call for global mobility in a world of incompatible wireless standards. While we rightly look to software to make SDRs adaptable, it is the advanced hardware such as DSPs and field-programmable gate arrays that provide the flexible platform these devices require. We have seen an evolution from a time when networks designed for voice traffic began to carry data, to the present day, which finds us developing ways for data networks to carry voice. The data networks we now consider as the foundation for a reconvergence of voice and data began as local connections among computers and data terminals in the same building or on the same campus. The desire to connect distant computers and to interconnect with other computer networks drove the growth of a data communications infrastructure and the creation of the Internet. In many ways, the development of data communications has paralleled that of telephony, driven by the basic human desire to communicate and extending the capability to do so over increasing distances with greater ease. 6.3 BROADBAND TO THE RESCUE Many analysts believe that broadband data services will offer the growth required to reverse the telecom downturn. For this to occur, however, applications must be compelling enough to stimulate mass-market deployment of broadband access while providing sufficient revenue to stimulate wide-scale investment. The mass consumer market wants substantial value to justify spending $40 to $60 per month for broadband access. At the same time, service providers claim there is little or no profit at these prices. The current dilemma is that customers want compelling broadband applications, and service providers are seeking ways to derive added revenues from the new broadband world. Emerging broadband applications may spur consumer demand and data revenues. Microsoft has announced a plan to invest $1 billion in an online game service to support its recent entry into the market for video-game systems. With its major competitors, Nintendo and Sony, expected to follow with similar ventures, the stage will be set to see how much demand for broadband services online gaming can drive. Digital cameras are beginning to flood Web sites and e-mail attachments with relatively large image files. Home shopping via e-commerce will benefit from multimedia broadband presentations. Two potential leaders in broadband applications involving subscriptions and customer activity spending may turn out to be gambling and pornography one of the early usage drivers on France's preInternet Minitel system. Online education is rapidly growing, with platforms moving to multimedia. More students are opting to enrol in online educational courses in which they can learn anytime, anyplace at their own pace, unshackled from the 50-minute class routine. Professionals who need to keep up with innovations in their field are increasingly embracing online learning. The International Engineering Consortium's 150-tutorial Web site is expected to have more than 1 million users this year. As more employees have their primary working location at home or in small satellite offices, videoconferencing is serving the need for personal interaction beyond voice calls. In fact, Kinko's, the national business centre chain, has installed videoconference studios in many stores to serve the business market.

However, these applications are more likely to appeal to niche markets rather than driving widespread demand for consumer broadband access. 6.4 KILLER APPS The first "killer app" for personal computers was VisiCalc, the original PC spreadsheet, which was introduced in 1979. VisiCalc earned this distinction by serving as the application that convinced a substantial number of early users to make their decision to buy a PC. But for a growing number of consumers, the primary motive for buying a PC, the computer industry's mass-market product, is not for use in computing applications but rather as a communication tool so they can have Internet access to e-mail and the Web. So what will be the killer broadband application? The answer to that question lies in a similar metamorphosis that began 15 years ago when it was asked in a slightly different way. At that time, cable companies and the telcos were wondering where all the content for data applications would come from, and these carriers were rumoured to be exploring partnerships with content providers such as Disney and Time Warner. Then the advent of the Internet and Web browsers unleashed the creative potential of millions of individuals as well as businesses, governments, and other organisations as they began establishing their Web sites. ! The ability of Web site authors to create richer, more dynamic presentations has in turn fuelled demand for the digital subscriber lines and cable modems needed to accommodate multimedia. As the demand for high-speed Internet access drives broadband deployment, increased traffic in streaming media will in turn fill idle fibre in the network backbone. At the same time, as the computer becomes an important tool for increasing productivity among teleworkers, the need for seamless connectivity will drive the demand for broadband wireless services that bridge the desktop PC and the handset or PDA. 6.5 CONVERGING ON A SOLUTION Data demand continues to be the growth engine for the telecommunications industry. The annual growth rate for voice traffic is 8 percent compared to a 33 percent growth rate in data traffic for local exchange carriers at the end of 2001. Even though voice revenues exceed data revenues by a ratio of 4:1, overall data trafficboth local and long haul has met or surpassed voice data in volume, and it continues to double roughly every six months. Recently, telecom networks have been converging voice traffic onto their data networks by transporting packetized calls as voice over IP (VoIP). This convergence has enabled a faster, more flexible rollout of desirable call features by replacing traditional equipment upgrades with software upgrades. IP convergence also holds the promise of operational savings because carriers will eventually be able to migrate from analogue voice networks to digital data networks. The cable industry has kept pace, embarking in the mid-1990s upon a massive plant upgrade primarily to support two-way data communications. Partly as a result of this initiative, broadband cable boasts one of the more positive outlooks among communication sectors, with Morgan Stanley forecasting a 25 percent appreciation of aggregate equity value annually in 2002 and 2003. Modem service revenue represents a growing proportion of cable revenue, increasing from 3.5 percent in 2000 to 6.7 percent in 2001 and projected at 22.5 percent by 2006. Cable companies are likewise converging voice and data into one system. Most of the largest operators including AT&T Broadband, Cox Communications, Cable Vision, and Charter Communicationsare either testing telephony over their hybrid fibre coaxial lines or they are in the early stages of a full rollout. IP voice over cable networks is expected to generate $534 million in revenue this year, but that figure could grow to $ 1.9 billion by 2007.

Satellite providers are also getting into the voice/data convergence act. In April 2002, DirecTV announced that by early 2003 it would start offering customers the ability to make VoIP calls. This service will take the place of a second phone line, requiring the company's 100,000 current subscribers to upgrade to a new modem. 6.6 MOBILE COMMUNICATIONS Just as mobile computing has become one of the few growth sectors in an otherwise lacklustre retail PC market, mobile communications will dominate telecom's future which also will benefit the computer industry's microprocessor and memory sectors. A new breed of "smart phones" is being designed to look and operate with computing powers and reliability that exceed the desktop PCs of 10 or even five years ago. For example, some future Internet cell phones will contain standard DRAM computer memory to enable rapid data access. The flash memory capacity that Internetenabled phones use for that purpose now will instead serve as a kind of hard drive. Advanced mobile phones are likely to include two CPUs for asymmetric multiprocessing of data. Some phones will complete the PC impersonation by having "home" and "back" buttons on their keypads. Currently, many phones built on platforms from Qualcomm, Microsoft, or Symbian can download software from the Internet. Some Sony phone models use MemoryStick technology to store content, which users can then upload and download between their phones, digital cameras, and PCs. These design advances will occur because consumers increasingly want their mobile phones to offer the same features, reliability, and ease of use as their PCs. Where market forces make home PCs and residential Internet access too expensive, users are turning to Internet-enabled phones such as Japan's NTT DoCoMo. Cost-effective packet networks are driving demand for a range of new services. For example, in Europe properly equipped mobile phones can use the phenomenally popular short message system to transmit brief 160-character notes to send messages for less than the cost of an average phone call. In the US, instant messaging, wildly successful on networked desktop computers, is already a factoryinstalled feature on the latest generation of wireless handsets. Soon, unified communications systems will employ speech-recognition and text-tospeech software to let users receive and review e-mail and voicemail messages on their desktop PC, wireless phone, or Internet-enabled PDA at their discretion. Some mobile systems permit a one-button instant reply to voicemail that is sent as e-mail with an attached audio file containing the message's voice portion. On the horizon are video e-mail and multimedia messaging systems. J-Phone, NTT DoCoMo's largest competitor in Japan, has offered a camera-equipped cell phone and digital picture mail since November 2000 and recently announced that it has sold 4 million units. In March 2002, the carrier introduced a service that lets users send 5second movie clips with a video-equipped handset. 6.7 NETWORKING EVERYTHING In the meantime, broadband sellers are discovering that teaching residential users to network their peripherals, and thereby distribute access among several PCs, is an effective marketing tool. A growing number of consumers are willing to trade the high cost of broadband access for the functionality and convenience of using one pipe to feed multiple devicesdesktop PC, fax machine, home phone system, TV set-top box, game console, home entertainment centre. Expansion of home networking services will accelerate the spread of processor technology to even more home devices. Various consumer appliance manufacturers are planning to incorporate networking chips into their coming designs. Although Internet-enabled refrigerators that automatically reorder groceries may never catch on, devices such as an air-conditioning system that activates one hour before the

resident comes home or security systems that unlock the front door via wireless phone could find a market. 6.8 MARKET DEMAND It data is the way out of the doldrums for telecommunications, does the market demand exist to drive it? Industry observers decry the "weak demand" for broadband services, and service providers wonder aloud about data applications and revenue sources. Yet the number of subscribers for residential broadband servicesDSL, cable modem, satellitein 2001 was about double that of the previous year. Between August 2000 and September 2001, the number of broadband users increased from 11 percent to 20 percent of total Internet users. Many potential subscribers complain that DSL or cable modem service is not available in their neighbourhood and isn't likely to be available soon. This suggests that the mass market has discovered data, with latent demand waiting for a means to tap it. Skeptics also wonder about the existence of sufficient demand for wireless data services to justify deployment of 3G networks. One encouraging indicator is the Cellular Telecommunications Industry Association's year-end survey of the US wireless market, which reported data revenue of $545 million for 2001, after just three years of availability. The same report noted that voice revenues totalled only $482 million in 1985, three years after introduction of mass-market wireless telephony. Services such as broadband and high-speed wireless data will succeed or fail based not on their novelty alone or on their ability to get boxesPCs, servers, handsets, set-tops, game consolesto talk to one another, but on how well they connect many millions of people in useful ways. And that's something the communications carriers have been doing for 125 years.

WORD STUDY

7.2 Related words

a) Network (n) retea, schema, circuit Network admittance matrix matrice nodala de admitanta Network database retea de baze de date Network-driven alimentat de la retea Network hard disk disc fix al unei retele Network layout configuratie a unei retele Network communication comunicatie in retea Network computer calculator de modelare/de reproducere a unei retele 7.3 Right words/Wrong words

7.3.1

actual real topical up to date

Management Information Systems is a highly topical issue at present because of the row over the new bypass. (Not actual) (i.e its in the news) The real/actual problem is the civil war. (= true, the one we are concerned with) I cant comment before I have read the actual report. (Not real report) (=the report itself) Magazines in doctors waiting rooms are never up-to-date. (Not actual, topical) 7.3.2 actually at present/for the present at the moment

Frank has been travelling for a month now. At present/At the moment/For the present, I have no idea of his whereabouts. (Not actually, to the present) (=now, for the time being) Do you realize that Martin has actually been off work for a month now? (= as a matter of fact, really) 7.3.3 actualities the news current events

You should take a daily paper if you want to keep track of the news/of current events. (not actualities) (= facts that are reported) Before you pass judgement, you should consider the actualities of the case. (=the true conditions, circumstance)

7.4 Increasing the vocabulary

Questions and answers about objects: 1. Question: How Answer: .. is high wide. long high wide long is?

2.

Question: height What is the width length Answer: height The width length height width length of?

of..is.

..has a

of..

Notice that height, width and length are nouns and high, wide and long are adjectives. 3. Questions: What shape size colour is ?

How

height width length

is .?

height What is the width length

of?

Answers roughly square more or circular less triungular

..is

..is

not very fairly quite very extremely

heavy light large. small big

.is

light dark

red blue. green

is

roughly approximately about weighs measur es nearly almost just under just over

10 kg

..

5 gm 2m

Questions Whats .. What does..

used for? made of? consist of? contain?

Answers ..is used for ________ing_______. .is made of ______. It consists of ________. It contains __________.

Notice the following pairs of adjectives, verbs and nouns

adjective hot warm cool cold weak tough soft hard rough coarse strong flexible elastic smooth rigid ductile malleable

verb heat warm cool cool weaken toughen soften harden roughen coarsen strengthen make something flexible make something elastic smooth make something rigid make something ductile make something

noun heat warmth coolness cold/coldness weakness toughness softness hardness roughness coarseness strength flexibility elasticity smoothness rigidity ductility malleabilitty

GRAMMAR STUDY

8.2 SUMMARY CHART OF MODALS AND SIMILAR EXPRESSIONS MAY (1) polite request (2) formal permission (3) less than 50% certainty Present/future: May I borrow your pen? Present/future: You may leave the room.

MIGHT

SHOULD

OUGHT TO

HAD BETTER BE SUPPOSE D TO BE TO MUST

Present/future: Where's John? He may be at the library. Past: He may have been at the library. (1) less than Present/future: Where's John? He might be at the 50% certainty library. Past: He might have been at the library. (2) polite Present/future: Might I borrow your pen? request (rare) (1) advisability Present/future: I should study tonight. Past: I should have studied last night (2) 90% Present/future: She should do well on the test (future certainty only) Past: She should have done well on the past. (1) advisability Present/future: I ought to study tonight Past: I ought to have studied last night (2) 90% Present/future: She ought to do well on the test ( certainty future only, not present) Past: She ought to have done well on the test. (1) advisability Present/future: You had better be on time, or we will with threat of leave without you bad results Past: (past form uncommon) (1) expectation Present/future: Class is supposed to begin at 10. Past: Class was supposed to begin at 10. (1) strong expectation (1) strong necessity (2) prohibition (negative) (3) 95% certainty (1) necessity Present/future: You are to be here at 9:00. Past: You were to be here at 9:00. Present/future: I must go to class today. Past: I had to go to class yesterday. Present/future: You must not open that door. Present/future: Mary isn't in class. She must be sick. (present only). Past: Mary must have been sick yesterday. Present/future: I have to go to class today. Past: I had to go to class yesterday.

HAVE TO

(2) lack of Present/future: I don't have to go to class today. necessity Past: I didn't have to go to class yesterday. (negative) HAVE (1) necessity Present/future: I have got to go to class today. GOT TO Past: I had to go to class yesterday. WILL (1) 100% Present/future: He will be here at 6:00 certainty (future only) (2) willingness Present/future: The phone's ringing. I'll get it. (3) polite Present/future: Will you please pass the salt? request BE GOING (1) 100% Present/future: He is going to be here at 6:00. TO certainty (future only) (2) definite Present/future: I'm going to paint my bedroom (future plan only). Past: I was going to paint my room but I didn't have time. (1) Present/future: I can run fast CAN ability/possibilit Past: I could run fast when I was a child, but now I y can't (2) informal Present/future: You can use my car tomorrow. permission (3) informal Present/future: Can I borrow your pen? polite request (4) Present/future: That can't be true! impossibility Past: That can't have been true. (negative only) COULD (1)past ability Past: I could run fast when I was a child. (2) polite Present/future: Could I borrow your pen? request Could you help me? (3) suggestion Present/future: I need help in math. You could talk to your teacher. Past: You could have talked to your teacher. (4) less than Present/future: Where's John? He could be at home. 50% certainty Past: He could have been at home. (5) Present/future: That couldn't be true! impossibility Past: That couldn't have been true! (negative only) BE ABLE (1) ability Present/future: I'm able to help you. I will be able to TO help you. Past: I was able to help him. WOULD (1) polite Present/future: Would you please pass the salt? request Would you mind if I left early? (2) preference Present/future: I would rather go to the park than stay home. Past: I would rather have gone to the park. (3) repeated Past: When I was a child, I would visit my action in the grandparents every weekend. past

USED TO

SHALL

(1), repeated Past: I used to visit my grandparent every weekend action in the past (1) polite Present/future: Shall I open the window? question to make a suggestion (2) future with Present/future: I shall arrive at nine "I" or "we" as (will more common) subject

8.3 Obligation and requirements

Verbs for the obliger 1. Oblige someone to do something: compel, demand, force, make, oblige, require 2. Oblige someone not to do something: ban, forbid, prohibit 3. Not oblige someone to do something: not compel, not force, not make, not require Verbs for the obliged: 4. Obliged to do something: be forced to, be required to, be supposed to, have to, must, need to 5. Obliged not to do something: be prohibited from, cannot, may not, must not, not be allowed to, not be permitted to 6. Not oblige someone to do something do not need to, need not, not have to

STRUCTURES: PERMISSION, OFFERS, ETC.

A. To ask permission to do something we use can or could: Can/Could I take another biscuit? We use could to be particularly polite. If we want to put extra pressure on someone to give a positive answer we can use can't or couldn't. For example, you might use couldn't where you expect that the answer is likely to be no, or where permission has been refused before: Can't/Couldn't we stay just a little bit longer? To give and refuse permission we use can and can't: Okay. You can stay in. the spare room. No, you can't have another chocolate. Notice that we prefer can/can't rather than could/couldn't to give or refuse permission: I'm sorry, no, you can't borrow the car tonight, (rather than ...no, you couldn't...) In rather formal English, may (not) can also be used to ask, give or refuse permission, and might can be used to ask permission (e.g. 'Might I ask...?'). B. We use can (for the present or the future) and could (for the past) to report permission: Jim says that we can borrow his house as long as we leave it clean and tidy. He said we can/could use the car, too. To report that in the past someone had general permission to do something, that is, to do it, any time, we can use either could or was/were allowed to. However, to report permission to one particular past action, we use was/were allowed to, but not could: Last century, women were not allowed to vote. (or ...couldn't vote.) Although he didn't have a ticket. Ken was allowed to come in. [not ...could come in.) In negative sentences, we can use either couldn't or wasn't/weren't allowed to report that permission was not given in general or particular situations: We couldn't / weren't allowed to open the presents until Christmas. If we use the present perfect, past perfect or an infinitive, we use be allowed to, not can/could They have been allowed to keep the Roman coins they found in their garden. She is unlikely to be allowed to travel on that airline again. C. When we OFFER to do something, or offer by making a suggestion, we can use can or could: Can/Could I help you with your bags? You can/could borrow my car if you want. In offers that are questions we can also use shall or should: Shall/Should I phone for a taxi for you? If we use could or should we sound less certain that the offer will be accepted. We also use shall/should in questions that request confirmation or advice: Shall/Should I put these books over here? Who shall/should I pass the message to? We can use Would (you) like when we make an offer, but not 'Will...': Would you like me to get you some water? (not Will you like me...?) In requests, too, we can say (I) would like..., but not '(I) will...': I would (or 'd) like an orange juice, (no? I'll like...)

We can use should (with I or we) instead of would in requests like this, but this is formal. Compare these ways of offering food and drink: What will you have to eat/drink? (not What would you have to eat/drink?) What would you like to eat/drink? (not What will you like to eat/drink?)

10 APPLICATIONS

10.2 Related to the text Look up for synonyms for the following words: design, enable, communication. Translate the chapter Mobile Communications into Romanian. Why computers and communications? Please develop your ideas and support them with theoretical and practical study. Fill in the spaces with the correct form of the word given adjective high wide long adjective warm hot cold weak soft hard coarse strong 10.3 Grammar exercises verb warm heat cool cool toughen soften harden roughen noun noun

coolness weakness toughness hardness roughness coarseness strength

Modal verbs exercises: Make sentences from the words in parentheses. 1. Don't phone Ann now. (she might / have / lunch) She might be having lunch 2. I ate too much. Now I feel sick. (I shouldn't / eat / so much) / shouldn 't have eaten so much.__________________ 3. I wonder why Tom didn't phone me. (he must / forget) 4. Why did you go home so early? (you shouldn't / leave / so early) 5. You've signed the contract, (it / can't / change / now) 6. Lauren was standing outside the movie theatre, (she must / wait / for somebody) 7. He was in prison at the time that the crime was committed, so (he couldn't / do / it). 8. Why weren't you here earlier? (you should / be / here earlier) 9. Why didn't you ask me to help you? (I would / help / you) 10. I'm surprised nobody told you that the road was dangerous, (you should / warn)

11. Brian was in a strange mood yesterday, (he might not / feel / very well) Complete B's sentences using can / could / might / must / should / would + the verb in parentheses. In some sentences you need to use have {must have done / should have done, etc.). In some sentences you need the negative (can't/couldn't, etc.). 1. A: I'm hungry. B: But you've just had lunch. You can't be______________ hungry already, (be) 2. A: I haven't seen our neighbours for ages. B: Me either. They must have gone____________ away. (go) 3. A; What's the weather like? Is it raining? B: Not right now, but it ______________________ later, (rain) 4. A: Where has Julie gone? B: I'm not sure. She ______________________ to the bank. (go) 5. A: I didn't see you at John's party last week. B: No, I had to work that night, so I _______________________. (go) 6. A: I saw you at John's party last week. B: No, you ______________________ me. I didn't go to John's party, (see) 7. A: What time will we get to Sue's house? B: Well, it's about a two-hour drive, so if we leave at 3:00, we ___there by 5:00. (get) 8. A: When was the last time you saw Eric? B: Years ago. I ______________________ him if I saw him now. (recognize) 9. A: Did you hear the explosion? B: What explosion? B: There was a loud explosion a few minutes ago. You ______________________ it. (hear) 10. A: We weren't sure which way to go. We decided to turn right. B: You went the wrong way. You ______________________ left. (turn) Which one of the verbs given can complete all three sentences in each set? 1 used to I will I would a Most days my father ............... get up first and make breakfast. b When I was training for the marathon, I............... run over 100 kilometres a week. c We went back to Dublin to see the house where we............... live in the 1960s. 2 should I ought to I must a Students ............... be encouraged to type their assignments. b 'Whose car is that outside Bill's house?' 'It............... belong to Bill's sister. I heard that she's staying with him this weekend.' c You ............... have some of this cake. It's brilliant! 3 needn't I mustn't I don't have to a I'll be quite late getting to London, but you ............... change your plans for me. b I'm afraid I owe quite a lot of money to the bank - but you ............... worry about it. c Next time, read the small print in the document before you sign it. You ............... make the same mistake again. 4 must I need to I have to a People with fair skins ............... be particularly careful when they go out in the sun. b The Browns ............... have won the lottery - they've bought another new car! c We ............... give at least six months' notice if we want to leave the house. 5 may/could/might

a Ray told me that someone had bought the old house next door................ he be right about that, I wondered. b The major changes to the timetable ............... cause delay and confusion. c I asked in the bookshop about Will Dutton's latest book, but all they ............... tell me was that it would be published before the end of the year. 6 can I could I is (or was) able to a Val had always wanted to go scuba diving and ............... do so last summer. b I hope Jim ............... help you tomorrow. c She played the piano quite well even before she ............... read music.

II. Obligation and Requirements Complete the extract by choosing the correct word from the box needn't - permit - permitted - forcing - have supposed - prohibited - require - must (2) - banned Following my visit to your factory last week, I am writing to confirm what we discussed. It is important that these points are followed; otherwise the insurance cover will not be valid. All empty crates (a) not be stacked in the production area. They are a health and safety problem and we will not (b) ____________you to leave them there. The government has (c) ______the dumping of waste chemicals in waste sites and are (d) _________ companies to apply for a licence for waste disposal. However, prior to disposal, these chemicals (e) _________ to be stored in sealed containers in a designated area away from the main plant. Containers that contain flammable materials (f) be at least 100 metres from the building. Present air conditioning systems are adequate, so you (g)________ make any changes there. Walls are (h) __________to be kept clear of dust, so we (i) _______you to arrange to have the walls dusted and cleaned. The use of water fire extinguishers is still (j) ___________, but they are (k) _______ from use near or on electrical equipment.

11 TEACHING TEAMWORK

The software industry needs engineers who know how to produce quality products on schedule. Because computer science programs do not typically teach engineering concepts or practices, students often start their professional careers with little understanding or appreciation of the discipline needed to build quality products or the methods needed to keep projects within cost and schedule constraints. As a result, industrial software groups generally work without plans and have serious schedule and quality problems. To meet industrys needs, many computer science programs now offer software project courses. Course methods vary, however, and there is little agreement as to what the courses should cover. Most academic programs have at least one software engineering overview course and a few offer several courses on the subject. At Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University, students learn the Personal Software Process in their first year, and the Introductory Team Software Process in their second and third years. The PSP uses a phased development paradigm to teach students fundamental engineering practices. The TSPi course teaches team working methods and exposes students to the practical issues and problems of team-based product development. Many other schools are taking an approach similar to ERAUs, and some schools have even instituted software engineering degree programs. This article reports on experiences with the TSPi course at ERAU and at several other institutions. 11.2 Software project courses In the latest draft of volume II of ComI Curriculum 2001 (CC2001), the CC2001 Task Force states that to help students acquire professional skills as undergraduates, all computer science programs should include Early opportunities for teamwork A complex project (usually undertaken in the senior year) designed and implemented by small student teams Software project courses range from first-year two- or three-student teams working on brief (few-week) projects to one-year senior-level courses in which student teams work for real or quasi-real customers. At some universities (Carnegie Mellon, Georgia Tech, and the Milwaukee School of Engineering, for example), students join ongoing laboratory or studio-based software projects that might involve both development and maintenance. One hotly debated issue is the degree to which project courses should incorporate real-world experiences. One side advocates exposing students to real projects with vague and unstable requirements and unrealistic (or unmanageable) schedule constraintsa sink or swim strategy. The other side promotes developing toy projects with stable requirements and realistic schedules in a familiar development environment. Most project courses fit somewhere between these two extremes. 11.3 Designing a project course The academic environment places some special constraints on project courses. First, you must restrict the course to a single term or plan, manage, and co-ordinate it over several terms. The dynamics of typical student populations make it difficult to

maintain stable team membership for more than a single term. Moreover, academic environments can rarely find users to test multiple versions of the completed products. The second problem concerns team formation. Computing faculty rarely have training or experience in creating effective software teams. Forming and building teams involves Selecting team members Assigning team roles Building cohesive units Assessing progress Providing meaningful advice and guidance Third is the problem of project oversight and guidance. A software project course should not focus solely on producing working computer programs. It must teach the proper use of accepted engineering practices, such as project estimation and planning, requirements analysis and specification, and high-level and detailed design. These courses must also address practical project issues for example, task scheduling and tracking, quality measurement and management, and phased development and control. Unfortunately, the typical undergraduate computer science curriculum does not include these practices, and few faculty can provide practical and specific guidance in these areas. Without explicit guidance, most student projects become lessons in how not to develop software. Indeed, most of todays software developers learned to program by learning a programming language, with little or no guidance on disciplined methods or quality practices. 11.4 The Introductory Team Software Process To address these industrial and academic problems, the Software Engineering Institute has developed a family of process improvement methods for individuals, teams, and organisations. The PSP helps students and professional software engineers organise and plan their work, track their progress, manage software quality, and analyse and improve their performance. It provides the necessary foundation for subsequent team-working courses. More than 30 institutions now offer introductory and graduate-level PSP courses. Once trained in the PSP, students take a software project course using the TSPi, which is an academic version of the Team Software Process that industrial software teams use. TSPi support materials include a textbook, an instructors guide, a support tool, and all the scripts, forms, standards, and methods needed to develop quality software products. The TSPi process divides a software development project into development cycles, with the team producing part of the product in each cycle. Figure 1 shows the TSPi processes and their cyclic structure. Depending on the course constraints, students can complete two or three cycles in a one-semester course. In the final cycle, students integrate and test the finished system. 11.5 Process description The TSPi starts with team building. During project launch, students form teams (of four to six students), establish team structure, and produce a project plan. This provides the essential foundation for a successful project. Teams then set measurable goals and objectives. For example, a team might state a quality goal as Team goal-Produce a quality product.

 Measure 1-More than 80 percent of the defects will be found before the first compile. Measure 2-No defects will be found during system test. Measure 3-At project completion, all product requirements will be correctly implemented. One of the most important factors in effective team building is defining clear roles for each team member. The process details the responsibilities and activities for each role during each phase. Thus, at the beginning of the project, students understand their roles and know what is expected each week. The TSPi process covers all of the essential elements for effective quality management for example, test planning during the requirements and design phases and structured test plan reviews. Each team formally inspects the requirements and design specifications and holds both personal code reviews and peer code inspections of each product unit. Students receive review and inspection process documentation that includes process scripts, guidelines for developing review checklists, and forms for recording and reporting inspection data. Because all TSPi artifacts receive quality reviews and inspections, student teams generally produce quality products. During the planning cycle, teams produce a comprehensive plan that includes A list of the products to be produced and their estimated sizes A list of tasks to be completed and the team member responsible for each task Estimated effort to complete each task A week-by-week schedule that identifies the tasks to be completed and the available student work hours A quality plan that estimates defects to be injected and removed in each development phase A template summarising the products estimated and actual size, effort, and defect data TSPi teams develop and track their plans with a spreadsheet tool developed by the SEI. This tool supplies a host of metrics with which faculty and students can track and assess process fidelity, product quality, plan accuracy, and project status. 11.6 Faculty and student feedback More than a dozen university computing programs have used TSPi in software project courses. Several schools, including Auburn University, Carnegie Mellon University, and the University of South Carolina, have shared with us their experiences using the TSPi in both undergraduate and graduate courses. In most cases, instructors presented TSPi material in a laboratory setting using a combination of lecture and informal coaching. While course results varied considerably, all faculty felt that the TSPi course was worthwhile. Many also found that they could adapt the material to the level, background, and sophistication of their students. Not surprisingly, instructors who had used the TSPi several times reported greater success and satisfaction than those who taught it only once. Early problems resulted from defects in the initial version of the TSPi tool as well as its size- it was too big to easily distribute for team use. Also important was students PSP preparation. The better their preparation, the more likely they were to appreciate and properly use the TSPi process. The following quotes are faculty reactions to the TSPi process and course.

 TSPi gives very good material and insights about how to help students organise as a team: role definition, visible commitments, meeting organisation, schedule, and so on. I think the TSPi is a very good vehicle for teaching a project course once the students have PSP knowledge... it provides a lot of good, usable structure that students can pick up, try out, and take away from the course to their jobs. I will never teach a team project course without TSP again! In general, students were most positive when they studied PSP in their first year and continued to use it in subsequent courses. When instructors introduced PSP and TSPi late in the curriculum, more students objected to the required discipline. Also, students who are already accomplished programmers and have never experienced the industrial quality and management problems the PSP and TSP address, can be somewhat negative, especially at the beginning of the TSPi experience. The most common complaints about PSP and TSP courses concern data gathering, planning, tracking, and quality management. Although these disciplines are not easy to learn or practice, the best industrial work requires them. Students who do not learn these planning and quality management skills through their coursework will rarely learn them on the job. 11.7 Data analysis The computer science program at ERAU introduces the TSPi in a second- or thirdyear undergraduate team project course focusing on software engineering fundamentals. Prerequisites are programming experience in an object-oriented language (such as Ada, C++, and Java) and PSP experience. The TSPi course aims to expose students to software team project issues, principles, methods, and technology. Because about one-third of the course time is devoted to software engineering lectures and discussions, there is only time for a two-cycle process. Each team follows the TSPi process but adds a customer review at the end of the first cycle and a more formal customer acceptance test at the end of the second, with the instructor acting as the customer. For consistency, we took the TSPi data in the following analyses from the ERAU courses. Since Fall 1998, ERAU has offered the TSPi course each semester. Through Spring 2001, 42 teams had completed projects using the process. Each team collected data on task completion time, defects found in review, compilation, testing, and size of resulting nalysing. They entered these data into the TSPi tool to produce metrics for tracking progress, planning support, and assessing product quality and team performance. In analysing data from the 42 ERAU teams, we found several errors and omissions. Also, data from the courses first year were organised differently from other years or were not available. For this article, we identified 18 teams that reasonably represent the work you can expect when students follow the TSPi process properly. While they produced slightly more code in cycle 1 than in cycle 2, the cycle-2 code was generally more complex. We attribute the greater productivity in cycle 2 to the teams better understanding of the TSPi and increased efficiency. Defect density did not significantly improve from cycle 1 to cycle 2, but test defects increased. This is partly due to increased code complexity but also likely indicates that teams discovered defects in the second cycle that they had missed in the first. Most importantly, the teams had not yet developed effective precompile reviews, as evidenced by cycle 2s average code-review rate of 309 lines per hourwell above the recommended maximum rate of 200 lines per hour. This area requires improvement.

Teams estimated effort quite accurately for cycle 1 but overestimated effort for cycle 2. This occurred because the teams based their cycle-2 plans on cycle-1 data, but their average productivity improved 66 percent from cycle 1 to cycle 2. In a threecycle course, the students would have recognised and corrected the problem. The 15.6 percent of effort devoted to requirements is appropriate for the problem size and complexity, but the 13 percent spent on design is much too low and is probably one reason for the high test defect density. The course introduces a simple objectoriented design methodology, but students do not get intense design experience until a follow-up junior-level software analysis and design course. Teams found and removed about 80 percent of the defects before testing began. This is remarkable for sophomore and junior student teams. 11.8 Student assessment After each cycle, students completed an anonymous survey. Students, especially those who had been involved in previous team projects, were generally positive about their experiences. About 75 percent of the students were positive about TSPi, and more than 90 percent felt that working on a team project was a worthwhile learning experience. The survey also included questions about what students liked most and least about the course. Overwhelmingly, students were most positive about having clearly defined roles and a process that describes the tasks for each project phase. The biggest complaint was the amount of paperwork involved. Although most students grudgingly admitted that documentation, data collection, and data analysis were important, they did not enjoy it. 11.9 Course suggestions Designing and implementing a software project course can be challenging and demanding. Faculty who have taught such courses will tell you that a successful teacher must work hard, properly plan and prepare, track team progress, and assess both the team members work and their products. To improve the likelihood of a successful effort, you should follow several guidelines. First, clearly identify course goals. Incomplete or fuzzy goals lead to incomplete or fuzzy results. Second, if the course is time-restricted or will represent students first team project experience, use a modest and well-defined problem. Real-world, complex problems can doom a team to frustration and failure. Third, use a defined team process for the project work. We believe the TSPi includes all the elements needed to build, guide, and support effective teams. However, whatever process you use, be sure it includes A detailed written description of the project and the process to be used. This should include support for planning, tracking, and configuration management; procedures and standards for requirements, design, implementation, and testing; and methods and procedures for inspections and reviews. A description of team roles and associated responsibilities. A list of data teams should collect for use in tracking and assessing performance and product quality. A cyclic development approach. We believe incremental development is not only good engineering practice but is a pedagogically sound method of teaching and learning. Fourth, enforce process discipline (phased development, data collection, documentation standards, reviews and inspections, and so on). After you have

decided what activities and deliverables are important, make sure your students follow the process. Students do not easily accept or understand the need for process discipline. Most students (and many software engineers), for example, do not enjoy documenting project work, but few will debate the need for it. As teachers, we must motivate and help our students understand the need for discipline. Easily acquiescing to work complaints and criticism can cause teams to lose confidence in the process and produce a chaotic process du jour work environment. Finally, the course instructor should move from the lecturer mode to a coaching mode. Coaches not only explain methods and procedures for carrying out tasks, they also track and observe team and individual performance and help team members improve. Moreover, they do not throw teams into the big game (an industrial-strength project) before they have learned and practiced the basics (with well-defined, modest projects). Before initiating a TSPi-based course, you should confer with other faculty that have taught the process. We recommend that you attend the TSPi faculty workshop offered each summer (see the Summer Faculty Workshop on the PSP and TSPi side-bar). We have also found that the PSP and TSPi are most effective when integrated into an entire software curriculum rather than treated as isolated technologies. At Embry-Riddle, we have had excellent success using TSPi in introductory software engineering and senior design courses. Of the 42 TSPi teams in the introductory course, those that carefully followed the process had the best performance and produced the best products. However, all teams finished on time with working products. This is in marked contrast to our previous experiences with team projects where many were late or did not produce a working product. Thus, teaching teamwork can make a significant difference.

12 WORD STUDY

12.2 Related words Software = ansamblu de programme, proceduri si regului de folosire a unii calculator electronic; exemple de programme si operatii ce apartin unui calculator; Software bug = eroare de programare Software compatibility = compatibilitate software Software design = proiectare a programelor Software engineer = inginer programator Software maintenance = intretinere software Software package = pachet software Software product = product program Software system = system software 12.3 Right words/Wrong words

12.3.1 Cause and effect Sample sentences We are going to convert the assembly line because we believe it will improve overall effectiveness. Due to the frequent faults in finished products, we are going to install new machinery. As a result of the high cost of local raw materials, we are going to start importing from China. Plastics are a versatile family of materials; therefore they are suitable for a wide range of packaging applications. Since PET (polyethylene terephthalate) is a clear, tough polymer. it is ideal for use in soft drink bottles. Form 1 Causes of cause: Here a subordinating conjunction links the effect and the cause: The automotive industry uses plastics because they are durable, resistant to corrosion and lightweight Here are the other main subordinating conjunctions:

as since 2 Phrases of cause: Here an adverb phrase introduces the cause: Polystyrene manufacturers phased out the use of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) in the late 1980s because of concerns about the ozone layer. Other expressions with a similar meaning are: as a consequence of due to on account of owing to 3 Sentence connectors of cause: accordingly as a consequence/result because of this - consequently hence (formal) so that's why (informal) that's (the reason) therefore thus (formal) Uses Look at the following dialogue which demonstrates the use of expressions of cause and effect: A: Why are we reviewing our quality control practices? B: Because management is thinking of introducing a zero defect production initiative. So we are starting a project group to look at current practices in production. A: So, that's why everyone has been called to the meeting. B: Exactly. We've scheduled a preliminary meeting on account of this new initiative. B: But I thought productivity levels had increased. A: Yes, but because of this it seems that the reject rate 12.3.2 Diploma degree certificate licence Pat has a degree in maths. (not diploma) I did/took my degree at York. (not made) I did a course in computers and gained a diploma. (not degree) (a diploma is often a lower qualification than a degree and may be awarded for practical or more specialised skill: a diploma can also be used to mean the actual certificate) When did you get your driving licence/certificate? (not diploma) (= a document marking official recognition of something: e.g. a birth/marriage/death certificate) What qualifications do I need to teach English as a Foreign Language? (= proof of having passed essential exams)

13 GRAMMAR STUDY

13.2 Relative clauses Defining relative clauses These describe the preceding noun in such a way as to distinguish it from other nouns of the same class. A clause of this kind is essential to the clear understanding of the noun. In the sentence: The man who told me this refused to give me his name 'who told me this' is the relative clause. If we omit this, it is not clear what man we are talking about. Notice that there is no comma between a noun and a defining relative clause. Defining relative clauses usually follow the + noun, but they can also be used with a/an + noun, plural nouns without the and the pronouns all, none, anybody, somebody etc. and those. Clauses following a/an + noun, plural nouns without the and somebody/someone/something sometimes define their noun/pronoun only indirectly. The noun/pronoun in these cases is usually the object of a verb or preposition: I met someone who said he knew you. The book is about a girl who falls in love with . . . Sometimes these clauses are separated from their noun/pronoun by a word or phrase: There's a man here who wants I saw something in the paper which would interest you. But normally relative clauses should be placed directly after their noun or pronoun: The noise that he made woke everybody up. She was annoyed by something that I had said. Relative pronouns used in defining relative clauses The forms are as follows: Subject who that which that Object whom/who that which that Possessive whose whose/of which

For persons For things

Defining relative clauses: persons Subject: who or that who is normally used: The man who robbed you has been arrested. The girls who serve in the shop are the owner's daughters. Only those who had booked in advance were allowed in. Would anyone who saw the accident please get in touch with the police'-'

But that is a possible alternative after all, everyone, everybody, no one, nobody and those: Everyone who/that knew him liked him. Nobody who/that watched the match will ever forget it. Object of a verb: whom or who or that The object form is whom, but this is considered very formal. In spoken English we normally use who or that (that being more usual than who), and it is still more common to omit the object pronoun altogether: The man whom I saw told me to come back today or The man who I saw ... or The man that I saw ... or The man I saw . . . (relative pronoun omitted) The girls whom he employs are always complaining about their pay or The girls who he employs ... or The girls that he employs ... or The girls he employs... With a preposition: whom or that In formal English the preposition is placed before the relative pronoun, which must then be put into the form whom: the man to whom I spoke In informal speech, however, it is more usual to move the preposition to the end of the clause, whom then is often replaced by that, but it is still more common to omit the relative altogether: the man who/whom I spoke to or the man that 1 spoke to or the man I spoke to Similarly: The man from whom I bought it told me to oil if or The man who/that I bought it from ... or The man I bought it from ... The friend with whom I was travelling spoke French or The friend who/that I was travelling with ... or The friend I was travelling with ... Possessive whose is the only possible form: People whose rents have been raised can appeal. The film is about a spy whose wife betrays him. Defining relative clauses: things Subject Either which or that. Which is the more formal: This is the picture which/that caused such a sensation. The stairs which/that lead to the cellar are rather slippery. Object of a verb: which or that, or no relative at all: The car which/that I hired broke down or The car I hired . . .

which is hardly ever used after all, everything, little, much, none, no and compounds of no, or after superlatives. Instead we use that, or omit the relative altogether, if it is the object of a verb: All the apples that/all are eaten by the pigs. This is the best hotel (that) I know. Object of a preposition The formal construction is preposition + which, but it is more usual to move the preposition to the end of the clause, using which or that or omitting the relative altogether: The ladder on which I was standing began to slip or The ladder which/that I was standing on began to slip or The ladder I was standing on began to slip. Possessive whose + a clause is possible but with + a phrase is more usual: a house whose walls were made of glass a house with glass walls Relative adverbs: when, where, why Note that when can replace in/on which (used of time): the year when (= in which) he was born the day when (= on which) they arrived where can replace in/at which (used of place): the hotel where (= in/at which) they were staying why can replace for which: The reason why he refused is . . . when, where and why used in this way are called relative adverbs. Cleft sentences: it + be + noun/pronoun + defining relative clause It was 'Tom who helped us. (not Bill or Jack) It was 'Ann that I saw. (not Mary) When the object is a proper noun, as above, that is more usual than who. With all other objects, that is the correct form: It's the manager that we want to see. It was wine that we ordered, (not beer) that is usual for non-personal subjects: It's speed that causes accidents, not bad roads.

14 STRUCTURE: WHOEVER, WHICHEVER, WHATEVER, WHENEVER, WHEREVER, HOWEVER

These have a variety of meanings and can introduce relative and other clauses. a) whoever (pronoun) and whichever (pronoun and adjective) can mean 'the one who', 'he who', 'she who': Whoever gains the most points wins the competition. Whichever of them gains the most points wins. Whichever team gains the most points wins. Whoever gets home first starts cooking the supper. Whichever of us gets home first starts cooking. Whoever cleans your windows doesn 't make a good job of it. b) whatever (pronoun and adjective), whenever, wherever: You can eat what/whatever you like. (anything you like) When you are older you can watch whatever programme you like. My roof leaks when/whenever it rains, (every time it rains) You will see this product advertised everywhere/wherever you go. Go anywhere/wherever you like. c) whoever, whichever, whatever, whenever, wherever, however can mean 'no matter who' etc. If I say 'heads, I win; tails you lose', I will win whatever happens or whichever way the coin falls. Whatever happens don't forget to write. I'll find him, wherever he has gone. (no matter where he has gone) whatever you do is often placed before or after a request/command to emphasise its importance: Whatever you do, don't mention my name. however is an adverb of degree and is used with an adjective or another adverb: I'd rather have a room of my own, however small (it is), than share a room. However hard I worked, she was never satisfied. d) whatever, wherever can indicate the speaker's ignorance or indifference: He lives in Wick, wherever that is. (I don't know where it is, and I'm not very interested.). He says he's a phrenologist, whatever that is. (I don't know what it j is and I'm not very interested.) who ever? when ever? what ever? etc. may be written as separate! words, but the meaning then changes: I lost seven kilos in a month. How ever did you lose so much in such a short time? BILL (suspiciously): / know all about you. TOM (indignantly): What ever do you mean? Where ever did you buy your wonderful carpets?

15 APPLICATIONS

15.2 Related to the text You and 4 other colleagues make up a team that is assigned a particular project (it is up to you to choose the object of the project). Answer the following questions: How do you organise your work? How do you choose your leader? What are the leaders tasks? How do you assign the tasks for each team member? 15.3 Grammar exercises I. Choose the appropriate relative pronoun in each of the following sentences. 1 A load-bearing wall is a wall that/where supports a vertical load as well as its own weight. 2 An architect is someone whose/who draws up plans for buildings and other structures. 3 An unheated building, a cellar or a basement are examples of places which/where are often damp. 4 Manufacturing takes place in factories when/where finished products are made. 5 Marconi was the scientist who/whom first received signals across the Atlantic. 6 You are invited to attend the meeting on Tuesday which/when details of the project will be discussed. 7 The company has opened a new workshop where/which engineering parts will be produced. 8 The operations manager, whom/whose office is on the first floor, is dealing with the problem.

II. Use the information in brackets to complete the following sentences. For example: (The manufacturers provided some information.) We have used the information that... We have used the information that the manufacturers provided. 1 (The assembly line produces car parts.) They have automated the assembly line that.. 2 (Water is stored in a tank.) The water tank where ...is underground-

3 (Circuits can store large amounts of information.) Computers contain many circuits which. 4 (W.C. Rtintgen discovered X-rays by accident.) X-rays have been used since 1895 when 5 (Faraday was born in the south of England.) Faraday, who _________, developed the process of electromagnetic induction. 6 (The manager's signature appears on the document.) The manager whose is responsible for purchasing. 7 (Several people work in this area.) Everyone who _________ is responsible for regular maintenance of the machinery.

16 WIRELESS ADVERTISINGS CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES

The fast development of wireless networking technology and the significant increase in mobile device users have made advertising and marketing activities that deliver ads to mobile devices over a wireless network a hot topic. According to Cyberatlas' and WindWire,2 the number of mobile users exceeded 468 million in 2000a much higher number than the 365 million people using the Internet that year. The Kelsey Group estimated that the US wireless advertising market would reach $35 million in 2000, while Jupiter Media Metrix predicted that the market would soar to 600 million in 2003, with the worldwide wireless advertising market swelling to 6.5 billion. eTForecasts also predicts that more than 675 million people worldwide will use the mobile wireless Internet by 2005.4 Jupiter Media Metrix suggests that the wireless advertising market will reach $700 million annually in the US market over the next four years, while the Kelsey Group projects revenues for the same period that total more than five times the JMM estimate$3.9 billion.' Studies by wireless media research companies such as WindWire and SkyGo indicate that delivering permission-based alerts to wireless phones captures consumers' attention, drives response actions, and builds brand awareness. Microsoft, Yahoo, AOL, and other large companies have created subsidiaries that specifically target this market with wireless advertising. Europe has only 5 percent of the world's wireless Internet users, while Asia has nearly 94 percent81 percent of whom live in Japan. Surprisingly, the US has just under 1 percent of wireless Internet users, at least in part because the wellestablished wired Internet's infrastructure already provides Americans with reliable and convenient Internet-based Web access. Wireless devices have three main advantages over PCs and other conventional platforms. Accessible. Wireless devices are rapidly becoming personal devices that must be handy, portable, and always available for use. Personal. The typical wireless device belongs to a single person and thus becomes uniquely identified with that individual. Location aware. If a wireless device is on and connected, it can be used to track a user's physical locationa critical capability for effective user-oriented marketing and advertising. These three characteristics allow for highly targeted, flexible, and dynamic wireless ads. Yet the target audience is vast, and users must be able to search for information, issue inquiries, and make purchases at any mobile location. This advertising medium has specific needs and characteristics that can potentially cause both business and technical problems. 16.2 WIRELESS ADS Various kinds of wireless ads can be delivered to different mobile devices, such as mobile phones, PDAs, or pocket PCs. Unlike ads that appear on Web browsers, wireless ads must work within the constraints of a small display area. The following wireless advertising vendors are representative of the businesses offering services in this emerging field.

16.2.1 Vindigo This location-based service, available to Palm OS, pocket PC, or Internet-enabled cell phone users, helps individuals on the street find nearby businesses such as restaurants, stores, and other attractions. It deals with wireless ads on a mobile device for a media company, wireless carrier, directory publisher, travel agency, real estate firm, and field technician. 16.2.2 Sk yGo This vendor delivers wireless ads to any mobile phone, PDA, or pager. It supports a wide range of operating systems and protocols for delivering phone and PDA ads. Wireless advertising can be an effective channel for brand-building ads. 16.2.3 AvantGo This vendor provides its wireless-enabled handheld and smart-phone users with more than 1,000 channels. These channels deliver wireless ads for various businesses, such as finance, entertainment, healthcare, publishers and media, retail shopping, sports, computer technology, and travel. AvantGo provides two types of wireless advertising services: wireless homepage ads and wireless category pages. Homepage ads receive more traffic than standard ads because they appear on the first page users see when they access AvantGo's wireless service. AvantGo's wireless category pages target specific demographics with messages focused on consumers who browse channels within a specific interest category. Wireless category ads can help advertisers target consumers registered in a particular geographical location. 16.3 BUSINESS MODELS A business model describes the strategy used to generate revenue by specifying markets, products, customers, and the business's position in the value chain. Table 1 compares five wireless advertising business models. The "Major Players" sidebar provides information about how wireless ad vendors implement some of these models. 16.3.1 Voice-subsidized The voice-subsidized model seeks to provide competitive offerings, with no intention of generating additional revenue. It lets wireless service providers support wireless Internet services and content, using subscriber fees and WSP resources only. This model requires no wireless ad technology. 16.3.2 Safe incom e The safe income, no-upside revenue model seeks to subsidize the acquisition of premier content to elevate the quality of a wireless Internet business's offerings. As with the voice-subsidized business model, this model requires no wireless ad technology. It derives revenue not only from subscriber fees, but also from content providers' placement fees. The business charges these fees to providers that want

top-deck placement or general distribution across the WSP's network. This strategy also refrains from taking a share of any revenue that content providers generate as a result of ad distribution over the WSP network. 16.3.3 Diversified revenue The diversified revenue model seeks to increase content quality and create a compelling offering that draws and retains subscribers. This model can generate revenue either through placement fees or by receiving a share of advertising revenues and m-commerce fees. The content and service providers receive these fees directly, using the WSP's distribution channel in addition to subsidized subscriptions or content fee acquisition. This model has the added benefit of increasing profitability, with minimal media sales effort required by the WSP. It can also subsidize the cost of either acquiring content or discounting consumer service fees. The model does, however, suffer from the drawback of requiring that the WSP have its own wireless ad server or a sanctioned ad server that publishers can use. This server must be able to accurately track the ads served to WSP subscribers based on subscriber profiles or WSP restrictions. 16.3.4 Outsourced m edia sales revenue The media-dependent, outsourced media sales revenue model seeks to grow and retain the subscriber base, while generating significant revenue. This model generates revenue wholly from a share of all advertising and m-commerce revenue generated over the WSP distribution channel. Hence, it requires a greater commitment to wireless advertising from WSPs. Media sales for a publisher's content is an out-sourced task that is largely the publisher's responsibility. In this scenario, in addition to tracking the ads they serve over their network to ensure proper revenue sharing, WSPs also may opt to control the number and frequency of ads they serve to their wireless consumers based on subscriber profiles or restrictions. 16.3.5 I n-house m edia sales revenue The media-dependent, in-house media sales revenue model seeks to expand the carrier's business function to include media sales, thereby controlling and drawing revenue from the wireless Internet property. This model differs from the mediadependent, outsourced media sales model in that it requires a WSP to create an inhouse team devoted to media sales as well as processing and maintaining wireless ads. This model depends fully on wireless advertising and m-commerce fees for wireless content acquisition and subscriber access. It also requires a complete technology solution to support wireless advertising in ad creation, management, services, and measurement. 16.4 EXISTING APPROACHES AND TECHNIQUES Wireless advertising requires wireless networks, mobile technology and infrastructure, systematic marketing and advertising solutions, and technologies that support these components.

16.4.1 Data delivery requirem ents Delivering wireless ads requires wireless data-access methods, environments, and platforms. Access methods. The two access methodspush and pulluse different approaches for delivering data to end users. The push method delivers data to a user's mobile device without that user first requesting it. In the push approach, wireless data arrives at mobile devices as a short burst of text. Vendors frequently generate these short text messagessometimes called alertsand deliver them based on each user's profile or current location. The pull method delivers wireless data to users only when they request it. Typically, this occurs when a user accesses the wireless Internet and receives wireless ads while browsing a specific page that displays those ads. Environment. Wireless advertising currently supports visual and audio data access. Frequently used and most popular, visual data access includes text and, occasionally, graphic images. Audio data access provides a text message converted into an audio format. Ideally, both visual and audio data will support wireless advertising in the near future. Ptatform. The most commonly used mobile devices mobile phones and PDAs have several drawbacks compared to traditional PCs. These include a smaller user interface and screen size, less memory, limited graphic formats and power, and slower data transfer rates. These limitations require scaling down ads and designing them specifically to accommodate the constraints of wireless platforms. 16.4.2 Enabling technologies Standardized, cost-effective wireless technology will be the key to wireless advertising's success. Today, three major wireless technologies are in use worldwide: Japan favours i-mode, based on C-HTML; Europe prefers the short messaging service protocol; and the wireless application protocol is the most popular choice in North America. These technologies focus on specific user groups and require particular mobile devices and wireless environments. I-mode. The predominant wireless Internet service offering wireless Web access and e-mail services through mobile phones, i-mode was first introduced in Japan by NTT DoCoMo. As of November 2000, i-mode had an estimated 10 million users roughly 60 percent of the world's wireless Internet market. I-mode uses a C-HTML-based language and protocols to link wireless devices to the Internet. In a practice that differs markedly from Western countries, Japan's i-mode vendors charge users according to the volume of data they transmit rather than for their connection time. SMS. A silent and discreet digital cellular network feature, the short messaging service protocol lets users send short text and numeric messages to and from digital cell phones over the Internet. It does this via cell phone and e-mail addresses based on public SMS gateways. Today, SMS applications include stock quotes, sports scores, and news that the service can deliver to mobile phones at regularly scheduled intervals. WHP. An open, global specification, the wireless application protocol serves as a bridge and information channel between a wireless network and the Internet to give mobile users wireless access to information and services. WAP technology uses the WAP gateway and WML/HDML to translate mobile Web requests into traditional HTML/ HTTP requests and vice versa.

Syncing technology. This simple and popular technology lets users store or cache content on their PDAs. Doing so does not require a wireless service because syncing uses only a computer system and its Internet access to update the stored information during synchronization. With this technology, wireless advertising service providers can offer downloadable ads, such as discount promotions and coupons, to PDA users. Vindigo, for example, currently uses syncing to let its users obtain information on movies, dining, and places to visit in most major US cities. Web clipping. This technology lets users access Web content dynamically through applications stored on mobile devices and wireless modems. The client-side applications translate Web server HTML to a Web clipping format tailored for a handheld platform. The content displayed on a PDA replicates a regular Web site's content, but with fewer graphics. Unlike a regular Web page, a tailored page fits the PDA's limited screen size well. 16.5 ISSUES AND CHALLENGES Many business issues and technical challenges must be studied and overcome before wireless advertising gains wider use and acceptance. 16.5.1 B usiness issues Resolving the business issues that confront wireless advertising enterprises will prove critical to business planning, solution delivery, and achieving an enduring market position. Cost. Wireless customers, advertisers, and marketing vendorsas well as advertising service agenciesmust face the cost issue first because customers consider the current cost of wireless devices and subscriptions too high. IDC analyst Kevin Burden has observed that current wireless access for handhelds is "too expensive for what you are getting back. Advertising agencies, on the other hand, must deal with the high costs of industrial research and technology placement. Push versus pull. Push ads operate from the assumption that a consumer's profile reveals certain preferences, such as watching movies. Using push technology, current movie theatre advertisements could be sent to the consumer's mobile device. The risk is that the consumer might find these ads intrusive, react negatively, and buy less from the vendor. If, however, the consumer pulls information about all movie theatres within a specified radius, the pull ads will be less intrusive by definition. This option does, however, carry a higher functional cost. It also requires more complicated systematic solutions than broadcasting wireless ads without tracking their receptions. High business risk. With a new market comes high uncertainty, which means high business risks and low advertising revenues. These conditions will result in a lack of infrastructure development and investment research, making early entrants become pioneers forced to navigate uncharted territory with little support and few resources. Ad reception. Wireless vendors must determine if consumers have even received a pushed ad. Were the targeted mobile devices on and connected at the time of transmission? If so, did the pushed ad actually reach the targeted customer? Further, unlike acceptedor at least toleratedTV and radio ads, most users view wireless ads pushed to their personal mobile devices as intrusive and unwelcome. On the upside, pushed wireless ads will likely be less expensive than delivered pulled ads. Privacy. When discussing consumer profiling, privacy must be addressed. A law must be drafted that will govern what ad agencies can request and share. Data presented by The Yankee Group during the 2001 WAA (Wireless Advertising Association) meeting, for example, indicated that more than 50 percent of consumers have privacy concerns about their carriers' use of personal profile and location

information. Adding to their concern is the extent to which current wireless communication protocols lack security. Ad pitches. One method advertising agencies use to attract consumers, ad pitches, takes multiple forms ranging from paper coupons to wired online advertising. Now, with wireless advertising, vendors can target ad pitches based on consumer location. For example, an advertiser could deliver and display a list of all French restaurants within a specified range of the consumer's current location. 16.5.2 Technical issues Wireless advertising pioneers must overcome several technical challenges as well. Smaller screen size. Given the compact size of most mobile devices, the wireless device user interface is quite limited and cannot display information-rich content well. Wireless advertising companies must figure out how to create effective ads that fit the small screen. The inconsistency of screen sizes on mobile devices presents another problem. For example, a mobile phone's screen is much smaller than a PDA's. Advertising agents confront this dilemma whenever they generate and deliver wireless ads. To solve this problem, manufacturers must adopt and enforce mobile device standards and clearly communicate their definitions to the wireless advertising community. Inconsistent formatting. When deciding on presentation formats for wireless advertisements, vendors must consider how easily consumer devices can accept these formats. For example, special fonts, colours, and picture formats might not display well on some wireless devices. Stow download Speeds. The wireless Internet must deal with the limitations of the current wireless backbone and its resulting slow download speeds. This issue affects users' acceptance of wireless ads and also reduces advertising performance because users might cancel, delete, or ignore a wireless access page that loads ads too slowly. Several technologiessuch as 2.5G and 3Gaddress this issue, but unfortunately these technologies may not become widely available for a year or more. Broad technology spectrum. Powerful playerssuch as Microsoft, Nokia, and Phone.cornare lining up to push wireless technologies and solutions in different directions. As a result, wireless advertising agents face a dilemma when deciding which technology to use. The industry is just now developing the means for pushing ads to mobile devices and creating organisations to regulate and standardise this practice. Standardisation. Without standardisation, the wireless industry will become too convoluted and cutthroat to sustain itself. Currently, wireless advertising lacks welldefined standards and regulations for format, content, payment, and transmission protocols. Without such standards and regulations, major players such as wireless advertising businesses, service providers, and solutions vendors must struggle to succeed. For businesses and consumers to embrace wireless advertising, the industry must meet four essential goals. First, it must establish well-defined and acceptable standards for wireless advertising, including presentation style, screen size, communication protocol, payment method, privacy rules, delivery techniques, and performance measurement. Second, it must devise new wireless solutions for mobile

advertising and marketing. Third, it must standardise the wireless networking infrastructure and protocols to improve wireless ads' exchangeability, operationability, and format. Fourth, it must ensure that the next generation of wireless network technology offers mobile customers a better user experience and richer media advertisements. From a business perspective, the wireless industry must determine how to deliver wireless ads tailored to each individual's demographic, location, and interests. The industry must also determine how to provide customers with the flexibility to control when and how they view wireless advertisementsas well as the choice of receiving or not receiving such ads at all.

17 WORD STUDY

17.2 Related words Advertising = advertising schedule = calendar al anunturilor/ al programelor publicitare advertising tape = banda cu anunt publicitar advertising operator = concesionar publicitar advertising outlays = cheltuieli de reclama advertising rates = tarife de publicare a reclamelor advertising design/drwaing = desen publicitar advertising approach = abordare publicitara advertising apropriation = alocatie pentru scopuri publicitare advertising allowance = rabat publicitar advertising aerial = reclama pe calea undelor radio/TV 17.3 Right words/Wrong words

17.3.1 Advertising vocabulary

Advertisers like language that suggests their product is of especially high quality. Buy our latest CD player - many innovative features, [original and interesting] The design of our beds is unsurpassed, [the best there is] Our cars leave other cars standing, [are much better than other cars] Use our exam courses - they will put/leave other candidates in the shade, [make candidates from other courses seem insignificant] Advertisers like language that suggests value for money. Rock-bottom prices in our sale. [extremely low] Prices slashed! [dramatically reduced] Bargains galore! [a huge number of products on sale at ridiculously low prices] Advertisers like language that suggests luxury and comfort. Pamper yourself with our new perfume, [treat yourself to something luxurious] Indulge yourself with the best. [allow yourself something enjoyable] Enjoy a sumptuous meal in opulent surroundings. [Both adjectives mean rich and special sumptuous collocates most strongly with words relating to food and furnishings, and opulent with words relating to lifestyle.] Live in the lap of luxury for two weeks. [in a very luxurious way] Advertisers like language that suggests scientific backing for their product.

Vacuum cleaner scientifically designed to help you exercise as you use it. Health drink medically proven to boost energy levels, [shown by research] All our computers are state-of-the-art, [use the very latest technology] Advertisers like language that suggests their products make us more attractive. Our ties will make you stand out in the crowd, [be noticed] Our new lipsticks are tantalisingly appealing, [temptingly] Have fetching feet and alluring ankles in our summer sandals, [both adjectives mean attractive] Here are some different kinds of advertising that are common in contemporary life: magazine and newspaper advertisements/adverts; classified ads; TV commercials; posters; billboards [very large boards used for advertising]; flyers (sheets of printed information advertising something]; trailers [brief excerpts from a film, TV or radio programme which are used to advertise it]; sports sponsorship; banners; sky-writing [words written in the sky using smoke from a plane]; sandwich boards [advertising posters hung at the back and front of a person who then walks around a busy area]; brochures; carrier bags; logos or clothing and other products. In addition, personalities often use TV interviews to plug [advertise] a new book or film. 17.3.2 Some important words for talking about business agreements to put in/submit a tender: to supply a written offer to do a job for an agreed price to win a tender: to be given a job, after submitting a tender to meet/miss a deadline: to supply / fail to supply something by the agreed time a penalty clause: part of a contract specifying what will happen if an agreement is broken an outstanding account: an account that has not yet been paid to default on a payment: to fail to pay something that had been agreed to acknowledge receipt: to inform the sender when something is received to ship an order: to send out goods that have been ordered - nothing to do with boats what is sent is the shipment to expire: to end - of something that was agreed for a fixed period; the noun is expiry 17.3.3 Some Rules of Management (from a Handbook for Managers) Reading humorous books about work can be a fun way of learning new words on the topic. Here is an example from a popular book which makes fun of the modern workplace. The problem is not a lack of resources, it's a lack of meetings. If you're talking, you're communicating1. Low morale2 is caused by character flaws3 in your employees.

If 10 people can complete a project in 10 days, then 1 person can complete the project in 1 day. Teamwork4 is when other people do your work for you. ' this verb suggests that listeners understand what the speaker is trying to convey 2 amount of confidence felt by a person or group 3 weaknesses 4 working together for a common purpose

18 GRAMMAR STUDY

18.2 1. Forming questions A. Some questions begin with a wh-word. We can call these whquestions: What are you doing tomorrow? Where have you been? Some questions can be answered with yes or no. We can call these yes/no questions. Have you had to come far? Did she leave any message? B. If there is an auxiliary verb (be, do, have, can, will, etc.) we put it in front of the subject: Have you ever visited California? Why are you telling me this now? If there is more than one auxiliary verb, we put only the first auxiliary in front of the subject; Will they be arrested if they refuse to leave? (not Will be they arrested...?) We can make questions in a similar way when be is a main verb: Was she happy when she lived in France? When is he likely to arrive? When we ask yes/no questions with have as the main verb, we usually use Have...got...? or Dohave...? Questions such as Have you a pen? are rather formal: Do you have... / Have you got a reservation? {rather than Have you a...?) C. If there is no other auxiliary verb, we make a question by putting do or does (present simple),or did (past simple) in front of the subject. A bare infinitive comes after the subject: Does anyone know where I left my diary? When did you last see Mary? If we use what, which, who or whose as the subject, we dont use do: What happened to your car? (not What did happen...?) Compare: Who (= object) did you speak to at the party? And Who (= subject) spoke to you? Notice that we can sometimes use do when what, which, who or whose is subject if we want to encourage the speaker to give an answer. Do is stressed in spoken English: Come on, be honest who did tell you? D. Study how we ask questions about what people think or say using a that-clause: When do you think (that) he will arrive? What do you suggest (that) I should do next? We can ask questions like this with advise, propose, recommend, say, suggest, suppose, think. When the wh-word is the subject of the second clause we dont include that: Who did you say was coming to see me this morning? (not ...say that was coming...?)

Wh-questions with how, what, which, and who A. Study these sentences: Which biscuits did you make the chocolate ones or the others? (rather than What...?) Ive got orange juice or apple juice. Which would you prefer? (rather than What...?) He just turned away when I asked him. What do you think he meant? (not Which...?) What do you want to do this weekend? (not Which...?) We usually use which when we are asking about a fixed or limited number of things or people, and what when we are not. Often, however, we can use either which or what with little difference in meaning. Compare: What towns do we go through on the way? (the speaker doesnt know the area) and Which towns do we go through on the way? (the speaker knows the area and the towns in it) B. We usually use who to ask a question about people: Who will captain the team if Nick isnt available? However, we use which when we want to identify a person or people out of a group (for example, in a crowded room, or on a photograph) and when we ask about particular classes of people. We can use what to ask about a persons job or position: Which is your brother? The one next to Ken? Which would you rather he a doctor or a vet? (or What would...?) Whats your sister? Shes a computer programmer. C. We use which, not who or what, in questions before one(s) and of: Which one of us should tell Jean the news? (not Who one of us...?) Ive decided to buy one of these sweaters. Which one do you think I should choose? (rather than What one do you think...?) Which of these drawings was done by you? (not What of...) Which of you would like to go first? (not Who of...) D. When we use who or what as a subject, the verb that follows is singular, even if a plural answer is expected: Who wants a cup of coffee? (said to a number of people) What is there to do in Leeds over Christmas? (expects an answer giving a number of activities) E. Study the use of how and what in these questions: Whats this one called? (not How...) What do you think of her work? (not How...) What is the blue button for? (= What purpose does it have?) (not How...) How about (having) a swim? (= a suggestion) (or What about...) What is your brother like? (= asking what kind of person he is) (not How...) How is your brother? (= asking about health) (not What...) What was the journey like? (= asking an opinion) (not How...)

How was the journey? (= asking an opinion) (not What...) What do you like about it? (= asking for specific details) (not How...) How do you like it? (not What...) = asking for a general opinion = asking for details about coffee, tea or a meat dish (How would you like it? is also possible)

19 STRUCTURES: SAY TELL; SPEAK TALK

Say tell You havent got much time, he said/he said to me. (not he told he said me) (say on its own, or followed directly by to me, etc.) We must hurry, he told me. (not he told he told to me he said me) (we always use a personal direct object after tell: tell somebody, not tell to somebody, not tell on its own) He said that/told me that hes retiring. (the same rule apply in indirect speech) It is said that there is plenty of oil off our coast. (not It is told that) There is said to be plenty of oil off our coast. (not there is told to be/to exist) Mandy is said to be some kind of secret agent. (not Mandy is told to be) (said = believed) Who says so? (not tells so/tells is) (also say a few words, say goodnight, say no more, say nothing, say your prayers, say something) I told you so! (Not said you so/said you it) (also: tell the difference, tell a lie, tell a story, tell the time, tell the truth) speak talk We spent the whole night talking. (not speaking) The lecturer took up the entire hour speaking and didnt answer any questions (preferable to talking) (talk suggests conversation; speak suggests a single person saying something: I want to talk to you = have a conversation with you; I want to speak to you = tell you something perhaps serious or unpleasant; also: speak a language; you ask to speak to someone on the phone) I wish you wouldnt speak/talk like that in front of your mother! (interchangeable)

20 APPLICATIONS

20.2 Related to the text The most useful computing words for you to learn are those that relate to your own field. Find different sites organised according to a range of computing fields. Print out any useful pages and keep them in a special file. 20.3 Grammar exercise Make up 10 questions that you wish to ask your manager referring to the tasks you are required to accomplish at your workplace. Underline one or both. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 1 I cant get the computer to work. Which/What have you done to it? 2 When we get to the next junction, which/what way shall we go? 3 Which/What countries in Europe have you been to? 4 Which/What are you worried about? 5 Which/What kind of work do you do? 6 Which/What do you think I should wear my blue or my red tie? 7 I still have to type these letters and photocopy your papers. Which/What do you want me to do next? 8. 8 Which/What is the best way to get to Sutton from here? 9. Look again at the answers in which you have underlined both. Are there any where which is more likely than what? Complete the sentences with who, which or what. 1. .................. are you working for now? 2. ..................... are Pauls parents? The couple near the door. 3. .............living person do you most admire? 4. ................. are Toms parents? Theyre both teachers. 5. ..................... of them broke the window? 6. ..................... one of you is Mr Jones? 7. ..................... else knew of the existence of the plans? 8. ............... is to blame for wasting so much public money? 9. ..................... knows what will happen next? 10. ..................... of the countries voted against sanctions? 11. I know that Judy is an accountant, but..................... is her sister Nancy? If necessary, correct these sentences. 1. What one of you borrowed my blue pen? 2. Who do you want to be when you grow up? An astronaut. 3. Who are you inviting to the meal? 4. What are left in the fridge? 5. Which of the children are in the choir? 6. Who are coming with you in the car? Jane, Amy and Alex.

21 REFERENCES

1. McCarthy, Michael; ODell, Felicity. English Vocabulary in Use. Cambridge: University Press, 2002; 2. Brieger, Nick; Pohl, Alison. Technical English. Vocabulary and Grammar. Oxford: Summertown Publishing Limited, 2004 3. Raymond, Murphy. Advanced Grammar in Use. Cambridge: University Press, 2002; 4. Thomson, A.J; Martinet, A.V. A Practical English Grammar. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997; 5. Dictionar tehnic englez-roman. Bucuresti: Editura Tehnica, 1997; 6. Alexander, L.G. Right Word Wrong Word. London: Longman, 1998 7. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_and_development 8. http://www.writing.eng.vt.edu/index.html *** Computer magazine, January 2003 *** Computer magazine, May 2003 *** Software Magazine, September/October 2002