TRAINER MANUAL Enterprise Quality Management

Prepared by:
Mrs. Swati Bhandari Lecturer New Horizon Leadership Institute Bangalore

I. COURSE OVERVIEW
Quality management has always been an essential part of an organization. In todays scenario, where global competition is existent and everything is uncertain, survival of any company depends mainly upon the quality of the products or services that it provides to customers. If a company continuously delivers quality products to customers, customers trust will be generated towards the company and they will purchase more and more of its products. This will ultimately lead to higher revenue and profits generation for the company and ensure its existence for long-term.

Considering this need and importance of quality, the course is designed to provide a theoretical and practical exposure to the students. The course will enable the students to apply various quality management tools in their respective organizations. The course is structured in five parts giving knowledge about the basic quality concepts, various quality management philosophies, quality management systems, quality tools and overall framework of TQM.

I. COURSE OBJECTIVE
To introduce the students to the basic concepts of total quality management and how the focus of TQM has become so important for all companies in recent times. To familarise the students to the philosophy and role of TQM in revitalizing the organization. To enable the students to acquire requisite diagonistic skills and understand the use of the tools of TQM.

II. COURSE STRUCTURE

1. Introduction to Quality
Defining Quality Five views of Quality Seven faces of Quality Page | 2

Types of Quality Quality & Profitability Quality & Competitive advantage Three levels of Quality

2. Quality Management Philosophies

Deming Philosophy Juran Philosophy Crosby Philosophy Comparison of Quality Philosophies Other Quality Philosophers - A.V. Feigenbaum, Kaoru Ishikawa, Genichi Taguchi

3. Quality Management Systems

ISO 9000:2000 Six Sigma CMMI

4. Quality Tools
Benchmarking FMEA Poka Yoke Five S Quality Circle Quality Function Deployment Taguchis Robust Design Total Productive Maintenance Force Field analysis Tree & Matrix Diagram 5. Total Quality Management Evolution of TQM Page | 3

Definition of TQM TQM Framework TQM Implementation TQM Benefits and Obstacles

III. COURSE KEY LEARNING AREAS

The key learning areas are: Learn the concept of Quality and its different types and faces. Learn the basic framework of TQM and about its benefits and problems. Learn how to implement TQM in an organization. Learn the quality management philosophies of TQM gurus such as Deming, Juran and Crosby and how they are similar or different to one another. Learn the contemporary quality management systems such as ISO 9000:2000 and Six-Sigma and their application. Learn the quality management tools such as QFD, FMEA, Poka Yoke, Force Field Analysis.

IV. COURSE OUTCOME

At the end of the course students would be able to: Know about the concept of quality and how creating and maintaining quality is important for an organization. Know how quality is ensured at three levels of organization. Know about the contribution of various quality management gurus and how can their philosophies be practically applied. Know how different quality management systems such as Six Sigma can be used. Know the concept of benchmarking. Know how different quality management tools can be used. Know the benefits of TQM and how it can be practically applied.

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V.

COURSE BENEFITS
This course would enable the students toUnderstand the concept of quality and how its creation and management is important. Understand the basic concept and framework of TQM. Understand the philosophies of various experts of Quality Management. Understand various Quality Management Systems prevalent today in Industry. Understand the use of Different Quality Tools. Find ways to implement TQM effectively in the organization.

VI. TEACHING/TRAINING METHODOLOGY

The method of training would be through lectures, power point presentations, case studies, presentations by the students, group representation, task execution, assignments, class tests and group discussions.

Guidelines for internal assessment:

Internal assessment would comprises of the following segments-

1. Quizzes- Quizzes would be taken after the completion of few chapters to test the
understanding of the concepts by the students. Objective type quizzes would also prepare the students for the multiple type questions, thereby preparing them for the examination.

2. Assignment-Topics for them would be prior given to the students during the course
tenure. Four assignments would have to be completed. These topics should be comprehensively written covering all the possible aspects of it. Five assignments and five case studies will be given to each student which has to be submitted as on when requested.

3. Seminar / Class presentation- Students should present the case studies either in
group or individually depending upon the trainers request and this will test their Page | 5

communicative ability, together with the knowledge of the subject, and their group dynamics.

4. Class Test - Test will be conducted on a cycle basis on every Monday afternoon by
the respective subject trainer with the syllabus covered till that date. This helps the trainer to continuous evaluation and the students will study day to day portions covered.

5. Attendance 85% of the attendance in each subject is compulsory to take up the

each trimester examinations failing on which the student will not be permitted to take up the examinations.

6. Paper Reading Every student has to read the suggested paper and should note
down the important happening in the business world and should maintain the cuttings of the same and should be produced when remained. Satisfying all the above conditions a student is eligible for a healthy evaluation.

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LESSON PLAN POST GRADUATE DIPLOMA IN MANAGEMENT

Course: PGDM 205 Enterprise Quality Management Session: 35 hours Faculty: Swati Bhandari
No. of Classes 1 Planned Date 3/12/2008 Actual Date Topics INTRO TO QUALITY Defining Quality *Five views of Quality *Seven faces of Quality *Types of Quality INTRO TO QUALITY Overall importance of quality Profitability, Competitive Advantage and other factors *Three levels of Quality QUALITY MGMT PHILOSOPHIES Deming Philosophy Intro, 14 points of management QUALITY MGMT PHILOSOPHIES Deming Philosophy Theory of variance, 7 Deadly Diseases and Sins QUALITY MGMT PHILOSOPHIES Deming Philosophy Deming Wheel, Demings Chain Reaction, Strengths and Weaknesses QUALITY MGMT PHILOSOPHIES Juran Philosophy Intro, 10 steps for quality improvement Pedagogical Tools Slides/Blackboard/ Case Remarks

4/12/2008

Slides/Blackboard/ Case

5/12/2008

Slides/Blackboard

8/12/2008

Slides/Blackboard

10/12/2008

Slides/Blackboard

11/12/2008

Slides/Blackboard

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12/12/2008

17/12/2008

18/12/2008

19/12/2008

22/12/2008

24/12/2008

26/12/2008

QUALITY MGMT PHILOSOPHIES Juran Philosophy Cost of quality, How to reduce the cost of quality or Jurans optimum cost of quality QUALITY MGMT PHILOSOPHIES Juran Philosophy Trilogy, Universal Breakthrough Sequence QUALITY MGMT PHILOSOPHIES Juran Philosophy Strengths and Weaknesses, Comparison between philosophies of Deming and Juran; Crosby Philosophy - Intro QUALITY MGMT PHILOSOPHIES Crosby Philosophy Absolutes of quality management, Quality Vaccine QUALITY MGMT PHILOSOPHIES Crosbys Philosophy 14 points for quality QUALITY MGMT PHILOSOPHIES Crosby Philosophy Strengths and Weaknesses, Comparison of Quality Philosophies QUALITY MGMT PHILOSOPHIES Philosophies of A.V. Feigenbaum, Ishikawa

Slides/Blackboard

Slides/Blackboard

Slides/Blackboard

Slides/Blackboard

Slides/Blackboard

Slides/Blackboard

Slides/Blackboard

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1/1/2009

3 1

3/1/2009 8/1/2009

QUALITY MGMT PHILOSOPHIES Genichi Taguchi REVISION SESSION I QUALITY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS - ISO 9000:2000 QUALITY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS Six Sigma, CMMI QUALITY TOOLS Benchmarking QUALITY TOOLS FMEA QUALITY TOOLS Poka Yoke QUALITY TOOLS Five S QUALITY TOOLS Quality Circle, QFD QUALITY TOOLS Taguchis Robust Design, Total Productive Maintenance QUALITY TOOLS Force Field analysis *Tree & Matrix Diagram TQM - Evolution of TQM *Definition of TQM TQM TQM Framework TQM TQM Implementation *TQM Benefits and Obstacles REVISION SESSION II Assignment 3 - Case Study REVISION SESSION III

Slides/Blackboard

Presentations by Students Slides/ Blackboard Case

9/1/2009

Slides/ Blackboard/ Case

2 2 1 1 1 1

12/1/2009 15/1/2009 16/1/2009 19/1/2009 21/1/2009 22/1/2009

Slides/Blackboard Slides/Blackboard Slides/Blackboard Slides/Blackboard Slides/Blackboard Slides/Blackboard

23/1/2009

Slides/Blackboard

28/1/2009

Slides/Blackboard

1 1

29/1/2009 30/1/2009

Slides/Blackboard/ Case Slides/Blackboard/ Case

1 1 1

5/1/2009 6/1/2009 9/1/2009

Presentations by Students Discussion Presentations by Students

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SUGGESTED READINGS
1. Dale H.Besterfield Carol Besterfield Glen H.Besterfield Mary Besterfield Total Quality Management Prentice Hall 2003 2. Dale H.Besterfield Carol Besterfield Glen H.Besterfield Mary Besterfield Total Quality Management Pearson Education 2003 3. James R.Evans Total Quality Management, Organization and Strategy Thomson Learning 2005 4. James R.Evans Total quality Thomson Learning 2005 5. Adrian Wilkinson et al., Managing with Total Quality Management: Theory and Practice Palgrave Macmillan 2006 6. B.Janakiraman R.K. Gopal Total Quality Management Text and Cases Prentice Hall 2006 7. Donna C.S. Summers Quality Management Pearson Education 2005 8. Frank M.Gryna Richard C.H.Chua Joseph A.Defeo Quality Planning and Analysis for Enterprise Quality Tata McGraw Hill 2007 9. Hubert K.Rampersad Managing Total Quality Tata McGraw Hill 2005 10. James R.Evans William M.Lindsay The Management and control of Quality Thomson Learning 2005 11. Kanishka Bedi Quality Management Oxford University Press 2006 12. L.Suganthi Anand A.Samuel Total Quality Management Prentice Hall 2004 13. P.L Jain Quality Control and Total Quality Management Tata McGraw Hill 2001 14. P.N Mukherjee Total Quality Management Prentice Hall 2006 15. Sid Kemp,PMP Quality Management Demystified Tata McGraw Hill 2006 16. Subbraj Ramasamy Total Quality Management Tata McGraw Hill 2005 17. Suresh Lulla World Class Quality Tata McGraw Hill 2003

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ASSIGNMENTS
Topics for assignment are general which would require the students to study current situations, thereby giving practical solutions.

Assignment Topic- 1
What do you understand by Quality? Why creating and maintaining quality is important for an organization?

Assignment Topic- 2
Write short notes on: i) Six Sigma ii) Deming Wheel iii) Benchmarking

Assignment Topic- 3
A Case Study (Group Activity)

Topics for Discussion / Presentation

How various philosophies of quality management differ? Which of these can be applied practically? Companies practically applying Six Sigma in India. TQM is it cost-effective or ineffective? Should a Company tolerate a less than Zero-defect level?

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CASE STUDIES
The significance of case method as a teaching technique as against the methods of class-room lecture and text-book reading is proved beyond doubt both for gaining sound foundation in management principles and practices and for developing the requisite practice and experience in decision-making in actual business situation .Of course, the case methods is not to be regarded as a substitute of other methods of teaching. In order that the participants are able to obtain the maximum value from the use of case method, they should first understand the basic principles of the particular subject and then be asked to analyze the case. The case method provides opportunities to business students to develop their analytical abilities and decision-making skills and to utilize their imagination in devising feasible course of action. Certain valuable skills that case analysis enables one to learn are given below: 1. Thinking logically and meaningfully in a given business situation. 2. Identifying the basic problem amidst the complexities of business situation. 3. Analyzing, interpreting and weighing the available evidence bearing upon the business. 4. Recognizing the limits of efficient decision-making where complete data are not obtainable. 5. Recognizing what additional information can possibly be acquired. 6. Distinguishing relevant material from irrelevant material. 7. Reaching a decision with the co-operation of others.

Case will be presented to the students after the end of the topics. The case method has come to occupy a significant in the tool-kit of management education. A case may be defined as narration of facts and other relating to problem-loaded business situation. To conclude, the case method has large educational value as the class-room discussion of case studies helps the management trainees in developing necessary skills for successful decision-making in actual business situations. Case study method has also been found useful in training programmers or working executives. The realism of the case material makes many managers relate what they are Page | 12

learning to their own situations. They use their own experience in analyzing the cases and derive management principles from the discussion their analysis. Despite all the benefits, the case study method has its own limitations. The case study method takes getting used to. Trainees who have not had previous experience with this method can become quite frustrated when they find that there is no right answer to the case problem and that there even may be a question as to just what the problem is. How can I learn to manage, they ask, if no one is sure of what is wrong or what should be done about it? Most trainees pass through this stage successfully; they learn eventually that management situations often are ambiguous and that there frequently is no single best solution.

CASE 1 Perfect Pack is one of the largest packing companies in India. It has 5 manufacturing plants, produces 7m containers daily, high fixed cost and is volume sensitive and has 3000 employees. Fifteen years ago, alternative packaging didnt pose a threat. But now, because of wide growth of alternative packaging such as cartons, cans, and plastics, the company faced intense competitive threat. Initial effort to meet the challenge revealed that the survival is linked to two factors viz. Meeting customer requirements and gaining commitment and involvement of every employee. Total quality management was considered as a key to survival. At the initiative of the CEO, Quality management was launched. Management and supervisors received in-house training. The concepts of TQM were explained to them. However, it was noticed that the lessons learnt during training were not practised in reality and the total teamwork was lacking. Two years after initiating TQM, the review was taken and it was noticed that there is little change in the attitudes of workforce. Questions 1. What do you think went wrong?

2. If you were the CEO of the company, what initiatives would you take to implement Total Quality Management?

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CASE 2 CARE, a Hospital and Research Center was trying to reduce the operating cost of the hospital and improve customer service. The management of the hospital decided to go all out for TQM and form a TQM secretariat and started necessary training programs. The management as well as other staff was enthusiastic approach to implement lasting change in the organization through the use of teamwork and participation, statistical methods, management leadership and problem solving management. The steering committee for TQM constituted of temporary groups to assist them in spreading the message of TQM and involving everyone. However, it was found that the cultural change required within the organization is rather hard to get. Furthermore, because of the limited resources, heavy workloads, fear of change and problems in defining quality standards, the TQM effort did not reach the level expected.

Questions 1. Why the TQM effort did not reach the expected level? 2. What measures should have been taken by the management to make TQM a success in a service organization such as CARE?

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FORMAT OF QUESTION PAPER

The paper is divided into four sections.

Section

Format of questions

Section A Objective-type questions Section B Short-answer type questions (about 80-100 words) Section C Long-answer type questions (about 150 words) Section D Case Study

Questions Total number of questions required to be given attempted 20 20 6 4

Valuation 20 X 1 = 20 4 X 5 = 20

4 X 10 = 40

1 X 20 = 20

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MODEL QUESTION PAPER

New Horizon Leadership Institute Ring Road, Panathur Post, Near Marathahalli Bangalore-560 087
Subject: Enterprise Quality Management Sub Code: PGDM 205

Duration: 3 Hours
Section-A (Answer all the Questions)

Total Marks: 100

20x1=20

Quality should begin at the individual level in an organization. [True/False] The members of a quality circle are decided by the management. [True/False] Deming, Juran and Taguchi are considered Quality Management Gurus. [True/False] Poka-Yoke is a technique of avoiding simple human errors using automatic devices or methods. [True/False] 5. Demings and Jurans philosophies are more technical than behavioral. [True/False] 6. Internal customer concept was given by Crosby. [True/False] 7. As per value based view of quality, a product should ensure conformance to specifications irrespective of the cost of the product. [True/False] 8. Improved quality of design leads to lower manufacturing and service costs. [True/False] 9. TPM should be directed towards elimination of planned equipment and plant maintenance. [True/False] 10. TQM is a philosophy that involves everyone in the organisation. [True/False] 11. Which of the following is not one of the quality views given by Garvin? a) Transactional view b) Product based view c) User based view d) Value based view 12. As per Big Q approach, the quality focus is on all except: a) Product b) Process c) Customer d) Manager 13. Quality that customer does not notice or appreciate is: a) Expected quality b) Indifferent quality c) One-dimensional quality d) Exciting quality Page | 16

1. 2. 3. 4.

14. Which of the following is not a conceptual contribution by Deming towards Quality management? a) Chain reaction b) Quality Trilogy c) Theory of variance d) PDCA cycle 15. From the point of user based view, quality is: a) Based on quality of some desired ingredient or attribute b) Learnt through experience c) Conformance to specifications d) How well the product fits patterns of consumer preference 16. Which of the following is not a dimension of quality? a) Performance b) Reliability c) Durability d) Integrity 17. Which of the following is not a type of benchmarking? a) Performance benchmarking b) Strategic benchmarking c) Design benchmarking d) Process benchmarking 18. FMEA stands for: a) Failure mode and error analysis b) Failure mode and evaluation analysis c) Failure mode and effect analysis d) Feasible mode and evaluation analysis 19. Which of the following is not one of the S in Five S methodology? a) Sort b) Sustain c) Shift d) Set 20. Which of the following is not a technique of quality management? a) Poka-Yoke b) Deming Wheel c) Five S d) House of Quality
Section B (Answer any four) 4 x 5 = 20

21. Explain PDCA cycle. 22. What is House of Quality? Explain briefly.

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23. When will a product be considered fit for use? State with respect to Jurans definition for quality. 24. Quality is a means to achieve better business results. Explain. 25. What are the different types of quality? 26. Explain Five S.
Section C (Answer any four) 4 x 10 = 40

27. As per Juran, what is cost of Quality? Describe the optimum cost of quality model. 28. Quality has different faces. Do you agree? 29. Explain how quality can be examined at three levels by an organization that is committed to quality. 30. What do you understand by TQM? What are the benefits and problems of TQM. 31. Six Sigma is an effective technique of quality management. Justify the statement explaining the concept of six sigma. 32. Explain the procedure of giving ISO certification to an organisation.
Section D (Compulsory) 1 x 20 = 20

Perfect Pack is one of the largest packing companies in India. It has 5 manufacturing plants, produces 7m containers daily, high fixed cost and is volume sensitive and has 3000 employees. Fifteen years ago, alternative packaging didnt pose a threat. But now, because of wide growth of alternative packaging such as cartons, cans, and plastics, the company faced intense competitive threat. Initial effort to meet the challenge revealed that the survival is linked to two factors viz. Meeting customer requirements and gaining commitment and involvement of every employee. Total quality management was considered as a key to survival. At the initiative of the CEO, Quality management was launched. Management and supervisors received in-house training. The concepts of TQM were explained to them. However, it was noticed that the lessons learnt during training were not practised in reality and the total teamwork was lacking. Two years after initiating TQM, the review was taken and it was noticed that there is little change in the attitudes of workforce. 33. What do you think went wrong? 34. If you were the CEO of the company, what initiatives would you take to implement Total Quality Management?

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QUESTION BANK
UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION TO QUALITY
Section A: Objective Type Questions 1. Which of the following is not one of the quality views given by Garvin? e) Transactional view f) Product based view g) User based view h) Value based view 2. From the point of product based view, quality is: e) Based on quality of some desired ingredient or attribute f) Learnt through experience g) Conformance to specifications h) How well the product fits patterns of consumer preference 3. As per Big Q approach, the quality focus is on all except: e) Product f) Process g) Customer h) Supplier 4. Which of the following is not a dimension of quality? e) Performance f) Reliability g) Aesthetics h) Cost 5. Kano specified four types of quality. These are: a) Indifferent quality, expected quality, two-dimensional quality, exciting quality b) Indifferent quality, accepted quality, one-dimensional quality, exciting quality c) Indifferent quality, expected quality, one-dimensional quality, exciting quality d) Different quality, expected quality, two-dimensional quality, exciting quality 6. At the task design level, who should be responsible for quality? a) Top managers b) Workers c) Supervisors d) Middle level managers 7. Quality that customer does not notice or appreciate is: e) Expected quality Page | 19

f) Indifferent quality g) One-dimensional quality h) Exciting quality 8. Competitive advantage is: a) Ability of a company to achieve market superiority. b) Ability of a company to produce the product before time. c) Ability of a company to come first in a competition organized by Federation of Industry d) Ability of a company to expand its business. 9. Profitability for a company will result from all except: a) Lowering manufacturing and service costs. b) Increased market share c) Increased revenue d) Increasing service costs 10. Quality is a source of value for the organization because of the following reasons except: a) Quality will increase market reputation of the organization. b) Quality will improve productivity. c) Quality will give a sense of pride to the employees. d) Quality will reduce the customers perceived value for the company. 11. Quality is the conformance with specifications. (True / False) 12. Quality is in the mind of the consumer. (True / False) 13. Big Q is the symbol for product focus on quality. (True / False) 14. As per value based view of quality, a product should ensure conformance at an acceptable price. (True / False) 15. Serviceability is providing good pre-sales and post-sales service to customers. (True / False) 16. Quality should begin at the individual level in an organization. (True / False) 17. Quality will lead to improved business results for a company. (True / False) 18. Quality of a product of a market leader is easy to copy for its competitors. (True / False) 19. Quality provides direction and motivation to the entire organization. (True / False)

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20. One-dimensional quality is the one that the customer does not notice or appreciate. (True / False) Section B: Short-Answer Type Questions 21. What is quality? 22. Quality is meeting or exceeding customer expectations. Comment. 23. What is quality improvement? 24. What are the five views specified by Garvin for Quality definition? 25. Define quality in five ways. 26. What are the seven faces of quality? 27. What do you understand by the terms reliability and durability? 28. What do you understand by the terms aesthetics and conformance? 29. What are the different types of quality? 30. What is the difference between Small q and Big Q? 31. What are the three levels of quality? 32. Quality is a driver of productivity machine . Explain. 33. Quality is a means to achieve better business results. Explain. 34. Quality and financial performance are intimately related. Elaborate. 35. Total Quality in an organization gives the employees a sense of pride. Justify the statement. 36. Quality should begin at the individual level in an organization. Justify the statement. Section B: Problems and Essay Type Questions 37. What do you mean by quality? What are the five views of quality? 38. Define Quality. Describe Garvins views of quality. 39. What are the different faces of quality? 40. Quality has different dimensions. Do you agree? 41. Define quality. What do you understand by Small q and Big Q? Differentiate between the two. 42. Explain how quality can be examined at three levels by an organization that is committed to quality. 43. An organization committed to quality should examine it at three levels. Explain the statement describing the three levels for quality. 44. Quality is the new competitive weapon. Justify the statement. 45. Discuss the importance of quality for an organization. 46. Discuss the importance of quality for a manufacturing organization. 47. Discuss the importance of quality for a service organization. 48. Describe the benefits of quality for the continued growth and success of a firm. 49. How quality is a source of value to an organization? Page | 21

50. Quality leads to profitability. Explain.

UNIT 2 QUALITY MANAGEMENT PHILOSOPHIES

Section A: Objective Type Questions 1. Doing the job right the first time is always cheaper is said by Crosby. [True/False] 2. Deming, Juran and Crosby are considered Quality Management Gurus. [True/False] 3. Management commitment is required for providing a quality product to customers. [True/False] 4. As per Deming, all variances can be classified as controlled and uncontrolled variances. [True/False] 5. As per Demings Theory of variance, special causes reflect short-term sources of variation in an operating process that workers could correct. [True/False] 6. Demings and Jurans philosophies are more technical than behavioral. [True/False] 7. Genichi Taguchi put greater emphasis on Product Design stage than any other stage in manufacturing a quality product. [True/False] 8. Kaoru Ishikawa emphasised on process improvement through problem analysis. [True/False] 9. Internal customer concept was given by Crosby. [True/False] 10. The book Quality is free is written by Crosby. [True/False] 11. All are the main conceptual contributions by Deming towards Quality management except: e) Chain reaction f) Theory of variance g) PDCA cycle h) Quality Trilogy 12. What are the main contributions to quality management made by Juran? I. Concept of Cost of Quality II. Quality Trilogy III. Absolutes of quality management IV. Quality loss function Page | 22

a) I, II, III b) I, II, III, IV c) I, II d) I, III 13. Which of the following is not an absolute of quality management given by Crosby? a) The only performance measurement is cost of quality. b) The only performance standard is Zero Defects (ZD). c) Quality means conformance to requirements, not elegance. d) Promoting work systems for performing error-free work 14. Cause and effect diagram was given by: a) A V Feigenbaum b) Genichi Taguchi c) Kaoru Ishikawa d) Keinzen 15. Which of the following is not one of the stages for developing quality habit? a) Establish specific goals b) Establish plans c) Reward based on results d) Take corrective action 16. What are the four stages of Deming Wheel? I. Check II. Plan III. Do IV. Act a) I, II, III b) I, II, IV c) I, III, IV d) I, II, III, IV 17. Quality Control Handbook is a famous book of: a) Deming b) Juran c) Crosby d) Feigenbaum 18. As per Juran, when the degree of conformance is high, a) Defects are low. b) Cost of internal failure is high. c) Cost of control is low. d) Cost of external failure is high. Page | 23

19. As per Crosby, which of the following is not required to improve the overall health of a firm? a) Integrity b) Communication c) Planning d) Systems and Operations 20. In the function, L(x) = K(X-T)2 , K stands for: a) Ideal value of quality characteristic b) Measured value of quality characteristic c) Loss coefficient d) A cost constant Section B: Short-Answer Type Questions 21. Compare the philosophies of Deming and Juran. 22. Compare the philosophies of Deming, Juran and Crosby. 23. Who was Deming? What are his contributions? 24. Who was Juran? State his contribution to quality management. 25. Who was Crosby? State his contribution to quality management. 26. Who was A V Feigenbaum? State his contribution to quality management. 27. Who was Kaoru Ishikawa? State his contribution to quality management. 28. Who was Genichi Taguchi? State his contribution to quality management. 29. Explain Demings Theory of variance. 30. What do you understand by deadly sins and diseases with respect to quality management? 31. Describe Demings chain reaction. 32. State the contribution of Deming to quality management. What are the strengths and weaknesses of his philosophy? 33. What do you understand by Quality and Cost of Quality? 34. When will a product be considered fit for use? State with respect to Jurans definition for quality. 35. Explain Quality Trilogy given by Juran. 36. State the contribution of Juran to quality management. What are the strengths and weaknesses of his philosophy? 37. What are the absolutes of quality management as per Crosby? 38. What do you understand by Quality vaccine? 39. Explain the Cause and Effect Diagram given by Ishikawa with example. 40. Define the terms quality of design, quality of conformance, and quality habit. 41. Discuss the concept of Total quality control originated by AV Feigenbaum. 42. Doing the job right the first time is always cheaper. Justify. 43. The only performance standard is Zero Defects. Justify the statement. Page | 24

44. How is Doing stage different from Act stage? 45. What is Total quality control? Give the stages involved in Total quality control.

Section C: Problems and Essay Type Questions 46. What are the 14 points for management given by Deming? 47. What are the deadly sins and diseases as per Deming? 48. As per Juran, what is cost of Quality? Describe the optimum cost of quality model. 49. What do you understand by Universal Breakthrough Sequence? Explain it. 50. Discuss Crosbys 14 points for quality. 51. Discuss A V Feigenbaums quality philosophy. 52. Discuss Genichi Taguchis quality philosophy. What is Quality Loss Function. 53. State Demings 14 points for quality management. Explain the interrelationship between them. How do they support each other? 54. Quality is a function of quality charecteristics. Justify the statement.

UNIT 3 & 4 QUALITY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS, TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES

Section A: Objective Type Questions 1. TPM should be directed towards elimination of planned equipment and plant maintenance. [True/False] 2. Poka-Yoke is a technique of avoiding simple human errors using automatic devices or methods. [True/False] 3. The members of a quality circle are decided by the management. [True/False] 4. FFA is a comprehensive TQM technique. [True/False] 5. Poka-Yoke focuses on recognizing that a defect is about to occur and giving warning as well as that a defect has occurred and stop the process. [True/False] 6. Which of the following is not one of the S in Five S methodology? a) Sort b) Sustain c) Shift Page | 25

d) Set 7. Which of the following is not a technique of quality management? a) Poka-Yoke b) Deming Wheel c) Five S d) House of Quality 8. Which of the following is not one of the stages for developing quality habit? a) Establish specific goals b) Establish plans c) Reward based on results d) Take corrective action 9. Which of the following is not a type of benchmarking? a) Performance benchmarking b) Strategic benchmarking c) Design benchmarking d) Process benchmarking 10. FMEA stands for: a) Failure mode and error analysis b) Failure mode and evaluation analysis c) Failure mode and effect analysis d) Feasible mode and evaluation analysis Section B: Short-Answer Type Questions 11. Briefly describe ISO standards. 12. What is the importance of getting an ISO certification for a company? 13. An ISO certified company has the advantage of improved marketing, productivity and employee motivation. Justify. 14. What is benchmarking? What are its different types? 15. Explain the concept of FMECA? 16. How FMEA is different from Poka-Yoke? 17. Poka-Yoke is a technique of avoiding human errors and achieving high quality. Explain. 18. Explain the concept of Poka-Yoke in the context of a service organization. 19. Explain Five S methodology. 20. Quality Circle is a quality management technique by the people and for the people. Justify. 21. What do you mean by QFD? 22. What is House of Quality? 23. Briefly explain the robust design given by Taguchi. 24. What is TPM? What are its objectives? 25. Briefly explain the concept of Force Field Analysis with the help of an example. Page | 26

26. FFA is a tool to analyse the potential benefits and problems of a business decision. Justify the statement. 27. What is a tree diagram? 28. What is a matrix diagram? Section C: Problems and Essay Type Questions 29. What do you mean by ISO standards? When were these first formulated? What are the objectives of creating ISO standards? 30. What is the structure of ISO standards? 31. Explain the procedure of giving ISO certification to an organisation. 32. What do you mean by ISO standards? What are the advantages and disadvantages of getting ISO certification for an organisation? 33. Six Sigma is an effective technique of quality management. Justify the statement explaining the concept of Six Sigma. 34. Briefly explain the various tools and techniques of quality management. 35. What is benchmarking? Explain the process of benchmarking. 36. What are the different types of benchmarking? Give the benefits of benchmarking for an organisation. 37. What is FMEA? How is it implemented? Explain with the help of an example. 38. What is a quality circle? What are the benefits of having quality circles in a company? 39. Explain the implementation of quality circle in an organization. 40. Explain the phases in QFD process. 41. How can TPM be implemented in a company?

UNIT 5 Total Quality Management

Section A: Objective Type Questions 1. TQM should be directed towards elimination of unplanned equipment maintenance. [True/False] 2. TQM was first evolved in Japan. 3. Quality Movement formally began in US and all across the world in 1980s. 4. One of the objectives of TQM is to achieve customer satisfaction. 5. TQM enhances teamwork in an organization. 6. TQM represents an ongoing, continuous commitment to improvement. 7. TQM implementation involves: I. Management commitment II. Formation of quality council Page | 27

III. Involvement of all employees a) I, II b) II,III c) I, II, III d) I, III 8. Quality Movement first began in a) US b) UK c) Japan d) India 9. In India, quality movement has been generally pushed over the years by: a) NASSCOM b) FICCI c) CII d) UN 10. All are obstacles in TQM implementation except: a) Lack of management commitment b) Improper planning c) Failure to continually improve d) Failure to grab a foreign client

Section B: Short-Answer Type Questions 11. Describe briefly the evolution of TQM in India. 12. Give the meaning and definition of TQM. 13. Give the framework of TQM. 14. Give the overview of TQM. 15. What is TQM? What are its objectives? Section C: Problems and Essay Type Questions 16. What is TQM? How it can be implemented? 17. How TQM is implemented? What can be the obstacles in implementing TQM? 18. What is TQM? What are its benefits? 19. TQM provides a lot of advantages to an organization. Justify the statement. 20. How TQM was evolved?

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QUALITY Quality is the conformance to specifications. It is all in the mind of the consumer. In the vernacular, quality can mean a high degree of excellence (a quality product), a degree of excellence or the lack of it (work of average quality), or a property of something (the addictive quality of alcohol). Q Quest for excellence U Understanding customers needs A Action to achieve customers appreciation L Leadership i.e. determination to be a leader I Involving all the people T Team spirit to work for a common goal Y Yardstick to measure progress

TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT TQM is composed of three paradigms: Total: Involving the entire organization, supply chain, and/or product life cycle Quality: With its usual definitions, with all its complexities [1] Management: The system of managing with steps like Plan, Organize, Control, Lead, Staff, provisioning and organizing[citation needed]. As defined by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO): "TQM is a management approach for an organization, centered on quality, based on the participation of all its members and aiming at long-term success through customer satisfaction, and benefits to all members of the organization and to society."

QUALITY MANAGEMENT PHILOSOPHIES

Deming Philosophy William Edwards Deming (October 14, 1900 December 20, 1993) was an American statistician, professor, author, lecturer, and consultant. Deming is widely credited with improving production in the United States during World War II, although he is

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perhaps best known for his work in Japan. There, from 1950 onward he taught top management how to improve design (and thus service), product quality, testing and sales (the last through global markets) through various methods, including the application of statistical methods. Deming made a significant contribution to Japan's later renown for innovative highquality products and its economic power. He is regarded as having had more impact upon Japanese manufacturing and business than any other individual not of Japanese heritage. Despite being considered something of a hero in Japan, he was only beginning to win widespread recognition in the U.S. at the time of his death. The philosophy of W. Edwards Deming has been summarized as follows: "Dr. W. Edwards Deming taught that by adopting appropriate principles of management, organizations can increase quality and simultaneously reduce costs (by reducing waste, rework, staff attrition and litigation while increasing customer loyalty). The key is to practice continual improvement and think of manufacturing as a system, not as bits and pieces." In the 1970s, Dr. Deming's philosophy was summarized by some of his Japanese proponents with the following 'a'-versus-'b' comparison: (a) When people and organizations focus primarily on quality, defined by the following ratio, Quality = Result of work efforts/ Total Costs Quality tends to increase and costs fall over time. (b) However, when people and organizations focus primarily on costs, costs tend to rise and quality declines over time.

The Deming System of Profound Knowledge "The prevailing style of management must undergo transformation. A system cannot understand itself. The transformation requires a view from outside. The aim of this chapter is to provide an outside viewa lensthat I call a system of profound knowledge. It provides a map of theory by which to understand the organizations that we work in.

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"The first step is transformation of the individual. This transformation is discontinuous. It comes from understanding of the system of profound knowledge. The individual, transformed, will perceive new meaning to his life, to events, to numbers, to interactions between people. "Once the individual understands the system of profound knowledge, he will apply its principles in every kind of relationship with other people. He will have a basis for judgment of his own decisions and for transformation of the organizations that he belongs to. The individual, once transformed, will: Set an example; Be a good listener, but will not compromise; Continually teach other people; and Help people to pull away from their current practices and beliefs and move into the new philosophy without a feeling of guilt about the past." Deming advocated that all managers need to have what he called a System of Profound Knowledge, consisting of four parts: Appreciation of a system: understanding the overall processes involving suppliers, producers, and customers (or recipients) of goods and services (explained below); Knowledge of variation: the range and causes of variation in quality, and use of statistical sampling in measurements; Theory of knowledge: the concepts explaining knowledge and the limits of what can be known (see also: epistemology); Knowledge of psychology: concepts of human nature. Deming explained, "One need not be eminent in any part nor in all four parts in order to understand it and to apply it. The 14 points for management in industry, education, and government follow naturally as application of this outside knowledge, for transformation from the present style of Western management to one of optimization." "The various segments of the system of profound knowledge proposed here cannot be separated. They interact with each other. Thus, knowledge of psychology is incomplete without knowledge of variation.

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"A manager of people needs to understand that all people are different. This is not ranking people. He needs to understand that the performance of anyone is governed largely by the system that he works in, the responsibility of management. A psychologist that possesses even a crude understanding of variation as will be learned in the experiment with the Red Beads (Ch. 7) could no longer participate in refinement of a plan for ranking people." The Appreciation of a system involves understanding how interactions (i.e. feedback) between the elements of a system can result in internal restrictions that force the system to behave as a single organism that automatically seeks a steady state. It is this steady state that determines the output of the system rather than the individual elements. Thus it is the structure of the organization rather than the employees, alone, which holds the key to improving the quality of output. The Knowledge of variation involves understanding that everything measured consists of both "normal" variation due to the flexibility of the system and of "special causes" that create defects. Quality involves recognizing the difference in order to eliminate "special causes" while controlling normal variation. Deming taught that making changes in response to "normal" variation would only make the system perform worse. Understanding variation includes the mathematical certainty that variation will normally occur within six standard deviations of the mean.

Deming's 14 points Deming offered fourteen key principles for management for transforming business effectiveness. 1. Create constancy of purpose toward improvement of product and service, with the aim to become competitive and stay in business, and to provide jobs. 2. Adopt the new philosophy. We are in a new economic age. Western management must awaken to the challenge, must learn their responsibilities, and take on leadership for change. 3. Cease dependence on inspection to achieve quality. Eliminate the need for inspection on a mass basis by building quality into the product in the first place.

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4. End the practice of awarding business on the basis of price tag. Instead, minimize total cost. Move towards a single supplier for any one item, on a long-term relationship of loyalty and trust. 5. Improve constantly and forever the system of production and service, to improve quality and productivity, and thus constantly decrease cost. 6. Institute training on the job. 7. Institute leadership. The aim of supervision should be to help people and machines and gadgets to do a better job. Supervision of management is in need of overhaul, as well as supervision of production workers. 8. Drive out fear, so that everyone may work effectively for the company. 9. Break down barriers between departments. People in research, design, sales, and production must work as a team, to foresee problems of production and in use that may be encountered with the product or service. 10. Eliminate slogans, exhortations, and targets for the work force asking for zero defects and new levels of productivity. Such exhortations only create adversarial relationships, as the bulk of the causes of low quality and low productivity belong to the system and thus lie beyond the power of the work force. 11. a. Eliminate work standards (quotas) on the factory floor. Substitute leadership. b. Eliminate management by objective. Eliminate management by numbers, numerical goals. Substitute workmanship. 12. a. Remove barriers that rob the hourly worker of his right to pride of workmanship. The responsibility of supervisors must be changed from sheer numbers to quality. b. Remove barriers that rob people in management and in engineering of their right to pride of workmanship. This means, inter alia, abolishment of the annual or merit rating and of management by objective. 13. Institute a vigorous program of education and self-improvement. 14. Put everyone in the company to work to accomplish the transformation. The transformation is everyone's work. Seven Deadly Diseases The Seven Deadly Diseases (also known as the "Seven Wastes"): Page | 33

1. Lack of constancy of purpose. 2. Emphasis on short-term profits. 3. Evaluation by performance, merit rating, or annual review of performance. 4. Mobility of management. 5. Running a company on visible figures alone. 6. Excessive medical costs. 7. Excessive costs of warranty, fueled by lawyers who work for contingency fees. Jurans Philosophy Joseph Moses Juran was a 20th century management consultant who is principally remembered as an evangelist for quality and quality management, writing several influential books on those subjects. Cost of Quality Concept The price of nonconformance (Philip Crosby) or the cost of poor quality (Joseph Juran), the term 'Cost of Quality', refers to the costs associated with providing poor quality product or service. Cost of quality comprises of four elements: 1 External Failure Cost cost associated with defects found after the customer receives the product or service ex: processing customer complaints, customer returns, warranty claims, product recalls. 2 Internal Failure Cost cost associated with defects found before the customer receives the product or service ex: scrap, rework, re-inspection, re-testing, material review, material downgrades. 3 Inspection (appraisal) Cost cost incurred to determine the degree of conformance to quality requirements (measuring, evaluating or auditing) ex: inspection, testing, process or service audits, calibration of measuring and test equipment. 4 Prevention Cost

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cost incurred to prevent (keep failure and appraisal cost to a minimum) poor quality ex: new product review, quality planning, supplier surveys, process reviews, quality improvement teams, education and training.

Quality Trilogy I. Quality Planning Create a process that will be able to meet established goals and do so under operating conditions Establish quality goals Identify the customers Determine the customers' needs Develop product features which respond to the customers' needs Develop processes that are able to produce the product features Establish quality controls Transfer the plans to the operating forces

II. Quality Control Keep the waste from getting worse; meet quality goals during operations Evaluate actual performance Compare actual performance to quality goals Act on the difference

III. Quality Improvement Breaking through to unprecedented levels of performance Prove the need Establish the infrastructure Identify the improvement projects Establish project teams Page | 35

Provide the teams with resources, training, and motivation to: Diagnose the causes Stimulate remedies Establish controls to hold the gains

Crosbys Philosophy Philip Bayard "Phil" Crosby, was a businessman and author who contributed to management theory and quality management practices. Crosby initiated the Zero Defects program at the Martin Company Orlando, Florida plant. As the quality control manager of the Pershing missile program, Crosby was credited with a 25 percent reduction in the overall rejection rate and a 30 percent reduction in scrap costs. In 1979 after a career at ITT, Crosby started the management consulting company Philip Crosby Association, Inc. This consulting group provided educational courses in quality management both at their headquarters in Winter Park, Florida and at eight foreign locations. Also in this year Crosby published his first business book, Quality Is Free. This book would become popular at the time because of the crisis in North American quality. During the late 1970s and into the 1980s North American manufacturers were losing market share to Japanese products largely due to the superiority of quality of the Japanese products. Crosby's response to the quality crisis was the principle of "doing it right the first time" (DIRFT). He would also include four major principles: 1. Quality is conformance to requirements Every product or service has a requirement: a description of what the customer needs. When a particular product meets that requirement, it has achieved quality, provided that the requirement accurately describes what the enterprise and the customer actually need. This technical sense should not be confused with more common usages that indicate weight or goodness or precious materials or some absolute idealized standard. In common parlance, an inexpensive disposable pen is a lower-quality item than a gold-plated fountain pen. In the technical sense of Zero Defects, the inexpensive disposable pen is a quality product if it meets requirements: it writes, does not skip nor clog under normal use, and lasts the time specified. Page | 36

2. Defect prevention is preferable to quality inspection and correction The second principle is based on the observation that it is nearly always less troublesome, more certain and less expensive to prevent defects than to discover and correct them. 3. Zero Defects is the quality standard The third is based on the normative nature of requirements: if a requirement expresses what is genuinely needed, then any unit that does not meet requirements will not satisfy the need and is no good. If units that do not meet requirements actually do satisfy the need, then the requirement should be changed to reflect reality. 4. Quality is measured in monetary terms the Price of Non-conformance (PONC) The fourth principle is key to the methodology. Phil Crosby believes that every defect represents a cost, which is often hidden. These costs include inspection time, rework, wasted material and labor, lost revenue and the cost of customer dissatisfaction. When properly identified and accounted for, the magnitude of these costs can be made apparent, which has three advantages. First, it provides a cost-justification for steps to improve quality. The title of the book, "Quality is free," expresses the belief that improvements in quality will return savings more than equal to the costs. Second, it provides a way to measure progress, which is essential to maintaining management commitment and to rewarding employees. Third, by making the goal measurable, actions can be made concrete and decisions can be made on the basis of relative return.

Taguchis Philosophy Gen'ichi Taguchi is an engineer and statistician. From the 1950s onwards, Taguchi developed a methodology for applying statistics to improve the quality of manufactured goods. Taguchi methods have been controversial among some conventional Western statisticians, but others have accepted many of the concepts introduced by him as valid extensions to the body of knowledge.

Quality Loss Function

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The Quality Loss Function gives a financial value for customers' increasing dissatisfaction as the product performance goes below the desired target performance.

Equally, it gives a financial value for increasing costs as product performance goes above the desired target performance. Determining the target performance is an educated guess, often based on customer surveys and feedback. The quality loss function allows financial decisions to be made at the design stage regarding the cost of achieving the target performance.

Quality through Robust Design Methodology Taguchi methods emphasised quality through robust design, not quality through inspection. Taguchi breaks the design process into three stages: 1. System design - involves creating a working prototype 2. Parameter design - involves experimenting to find which factors influence product performance most 3. Tolerance design - involves setting tight tolerance limits for the critical factors and looser tolerance limits for less important factors.

Taguchis Robust Design methodologies allow the designer through experiments to determine which factors most affect product performance and which factors are unimportant. The designer can focus on reducing variation on the important or critical factors. Unimportant or uncontrollable noise factors have negligible impact on the product performance and can be ignored.

Ishikawas Philosophy Kaoru Ishikawa was a Japanese University professor and influential quality management innovator best known in North America for the Ishikawa or cause and effect diagram (also known as Fishbone Diagram) that are used in the analysis of industrial process.

Cause and Effect Diagram

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The Ishikawa diagram (or fishbone diagram or also cause-and-effect diagram) are diagrams, that shows the causes of a certain event. A common use of the Ishikawa diagram is in product design, to identify potential factors causing an overall effect. Cause 1 Cause 2 Problem / Effect Cause 3 Cause 4

QUALITY TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES Poka-Yoke Poka-yoke is a Japanese term that means "fail-saving", "Foolproof" or "mistake-proofing" avoiding (yokeru) inadvertent errors (poka)) is a behavior-shaping constraint, or a method of preventing errors by putting limits on how an operation can be performed in order to force the correct completion of the operation. The concept was formalised, and the term adopted, by Shigeo Shingo as part of the Toyota Production System. Originally described as Bakayoke, but as this means "fool-proofing" (or "idiot proofing") the name was changed to the milder Poka-yoke. Examples include: automatic transmissions: the inability to remove a car key from the ignition switch of an automobile if the automatic transmission is not first put in the "Park" position, so that the driver cannot leave the car in an unsafe parking condition where the wheels are not locked against movement. (An example of a Trapped key interlock). 3.5" floppy disk: the top-right corner is shaped in a certain way so that the disk cannot be inserted upside-down. In the manufacturing world an example might be that the jig for holding pieces for processing only allows pieces to be held in one orientation, or has switches on the jig to detect whether a hole has been previously cut or not, or it

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might count the number of spot welds created to ensure that, say, four have been executed by the operator. high-security padlocks: it is impossible to remove the key from some high-security padlocks unless the shackle on the padlock is closed. Only by locking the padlock can the key be removed. Security mistakes/accidents are therefore much less likely to occur, particularly where the padlock key is kept on a chain attached to someone's belt. This is because the design ensures that a key cannot easily be left in an unlocked padlock, or a padlock left unlocked after opening it, or not fully closing the shackle of a padlock. Each of these three scenarios would be dangerous in high-security scenarios such as military installations, armories, prisons or bonded warehouses. In contrast, most standard-security padlocks do allow a key to be removed from a padlock, regardless of whether the shackle is closed or not. Microwave ovens: a door switch automatically disconnects the activation button when the door of the oven is opened. As a result, it is impossible to cook anything in a microwave oven unless the door (which contains a faraday cage to block microwaves) is fully closed. If it were possible to activate an oven with the door open, this would allow dangerous leakage of high intensity microwave radiation, which would be very harmful to any living creatures in the immediate area.

Benchmarking Benchmarking is the process of comparing the cost, time or quality of what one organization does against what another organization does. The result is often a business case for making changes in order to make improvements. Also referred to as "best practice benchmarking" or "process benchmarking", it is a process used in management and particularly strategic management, in which organizations evaluate various aspects of their processes in relation to best practice, usually within their own sector. This then allows organizations to develop plans on how to make improvements or adopt best practice, usually with the aim of increasing some aspect of performance. Benchmarking may be a one-off event, but is often treated as a continuous process in which organizations continually seek to challenge their practices. Page | 40

There is no single benchmarking process that has been universally adopted. The wide appeal and acceptance of benchmarking has led to various benchmarking methodologies emerging. The most prominent methodology is the 12 stage methodology by Robert Camp (who wrote the first book on benchmarking in 1989). The 12 stage methodology consisted of 1. Select subject ahead 2. Define the process 3. Identify potential partners 4. Identify data sources 5. Collect data and select partners 6. Determine the gap 7. Establish process differences 8. Target future performance 9. Communicate 10. Adjust goal 11. Implement 12. Review/recalibrate.

The following is an example of a typical shorter version of the methodology: 1. Identify your problem areas - Because benchmarking can be applied to any business process or function, a range of research techniques may be required. They include: informal conversations with customers, employees, or suppliers; exploratory research techniques such as focus groups; or in-depth marketing research, quantitative research, surveys, questionnaires, re-engineering analysis, process mapping, quality control variance reports, or financial ratio analysis. Before embarking on comparison with other organizations it is essential that you know your own organization's function, processes; base lining performance provides a point against which improvement effort can be measured. 2. Identify other industries that have similar processes - For instance if one were interested in improving hand offs in addiction treatment he/she would try to identify other fields that also have hand off challenges. These could include air traffic control, cell phone switching between towers, transfer of patients from surgery to recovery rooms. 3. Identify organizations that are leaders in these areas - Look for the very best in any industry and in any country. Consult customers, suppliers, financial analysts, trade associations, and magazines to determine which companies are worthy of study. 4. Survey companies for measures and practices - Companies target specific business processes using detailed surveys of measures and practices used to identify business process alternatives and leading companies. Surveys are typically masked to protect confidential data by neutral associations and consultants.

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5. Visit the "best practice" companies to identify leading edge practices - Companies typically agree to mutually exchange information beneficial to all parties in a benchmarking group and share the results within the group. 6. Implement new and improved business practices - Take the leading edge practices and develop implementation plans which include identification of specific opportunities, funding the project and selling the ideas to the organization for the purpose of gaining demonstrated value from the process.

Quality Circle A Quality Circle is a volunteer group composed of workers (or even students) who meet to talk about workplace improvement, and make presentations to management with their ideas, especially relating to quality of output in order to improve the performance of the organization, and motivate and enrich the work of employees. Typical topics are improving occupational safety and health, improving product design, and improvement in manufacturing process. The ideal size of a quality circle is from eight to ten members. Quality circles have the advantage of continuity; the circle remains intact from project to project. Quality circles were first established in Japan in 1962, and Kaoru Ishikawa has been credited with their creation. The movement in Japan was coordinated by the Japanese Union of Scientists and Engineers (JUSE). The use of quality circles then spread beyond Japan. Quality circles have been implemented even in educational sectors in India and QCFI (Quality Circle Forum of India) is promoting such activities. However this was not successful in US as it turned out to be a fault finding exercise.

Total Productive Maintenance Total Productive Maintenance is a new way of looking at maintenance, or conversely, a reversion to old ways but on a mass scale. In TPM the machine operator performs much, and sometimes all, of the routine maintenance tasks themselves. This auto maintenance ensures appropriate and effective efforts are expended since the machine is wholly the domain of one person or team. TPM is a critical adjunct to lean manufacturing. If machine uptime is not

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predictable and if process capability is not sustained, the process must keep extra stocks to buffer against this uncertainty and flow through the process will be interrupted. One way to think of TPM is "deterioration prevention" and "maintenance reduction", not fixing machines. For this reason many people refer to TPM as "Total Productive Manufacturing" or "Total Process Management". TPM is a proactive approach that essentially aims to prevent any kind of slack before occurrence. Its motto is "zero error, zero work-related accident, and zero loss."

Force field analysis Force field analysis is a management technique developed by Kurt Lewin, a pioneer in the field of social sciences, for diagnosing situations. It will be useful when looking at the variables involved in planning and implementing a change program and will undoubtedly be of use in team building projects,when attempting to overcome resistance to change. Lewin assumes that in any situation there are both driving and restraining forces that influence any change that may occur. Driving Forces Driving forces are those forces affecting a situation that are pushing in a particular direction; they tend to initiate a change and keep it going. In terms of improving productivity in a work group, pressure from a supervisor, incentive earnings, and competition may be examples of driving forces. Restraining Forces Restraining forces are forces acting to restrain or decrease the driving forces. Apathy, hostility, and poor maintenance of equipment may be examples of restraining forces against increased production. Equilibrium is reached when the sum of the driving forces equals the sum of the restraining forces.

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