Study exercise Biology 10 12 1. Describe the Chemical Composition of Membranes Membranes are composed of lipid, protein and carbohydrates.

. Membrane Lipids The core of the membrane consists of a sheet of lipids arranged in a bimolecular layer. This lipid bilayer serves as structural backbone of the membrane and provides the barrier that prevents random movements of water solluble materials in and out of the cell. Lipids in the membrane are amphipathic, which means that they contain both hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions.

Lipid bilayer is flexible, so the membranes are deformable and the overall shape can change. And it has the ability to self-assemble. There are 3 main types of membrane lipids : a. Phospoglycerides

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Most membrane lipids contain a phosphate group, which makes them phospolipids. The Has 2 fatty acids and one hydrophyllic phosphate group. This molcule is called phosphatidic The phosphate is negatively charged, hydrophyllic and called as the head group. The fatty acids are hydrophobic, unbranched with 16-22 carbon. The fatty acids can be fully saturated (no double bonds), monounsaturated ( has 1 double

phospholipids are mostly built on glycerole backbone, the phosphglycerides. acid.

bond) and polyunsaturated ( has more than 1 double bond).

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Usually phosphoglycerides contains one unsaturated and one saturated fatty acid. With fatty acid chains at one end of the molecule and a polar head group at the other end,

all of phosphoglycerides show a distinct amphipatic character. Sphingolipids

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An amigo alcohol that contains a long hydrocarbon chain Consists of sphingosine linked to a fatty acid by its amino group. If the sphingosine is replaced by carbohydrate, the molecule is a glycolipid. Glycolipids have roles in certain infectious diseases such as cholera and botulism.

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Cholesterol

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Contains hydrophyllic hydroxil group. They are attached to the membrane surface with the hydroxil group. The remainder of the molecule embeddedin the lipid bilayer. The hydrophobic tails rings of cholesterol are flat, rigid, and interfere with the movements

of the fatty acid tails of the phospolipids. Membrane Proteins Carry out most of the spesific functions of a cell membrane. Each type of differentiated cell contains a unique complement of membrane proteins, which contributes to the specialized activities of that cell type. Has three types : 1. Integral proteins

Penetrates the lipid bilayer (transmembrane protein) Functions as receptors that bind specific substances at membrane surface, as transporter for substances in and out the membrane, agents that transfer electrons during the photosynthesis and respiration.

It is amphipathic. The one reside within the lipid bilayer is hydrophobic. The protein is attached to the lipid wall of the membrane by the van der Waals intercation with the fatty acid chains of the bilayer, that makes the permeability barrier of the membrane is preserved, and the protein is in direct contact with surrounding lipid molecules. The part of integral membrane that is in the cytoplasm or extracellular space is the hydrophillic surface. It interacts with water-soluble substances at the edge of the membrane.

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Peripheral proteins It is associated with the membrane by weak electrostatic bonds. Can be solubilized by extraction with high-concentration salt solutions that weakened the electrostatic bonds holding the protein to the membrane. Hard to differ from integral protein because integral membrane proteins consist of several polypeptides that penetrates the lipid bilayer and others that remain on the periphery. Located on the cytosolic surface of the plasma membrane, forms membrane skeleton. Provide mechanical support for the membrane and work as an anchor for the integral proteins. Also found in the internal plasma membrane surface as enzymes, specialized coats, or factors that transmit transmembrane signals. Have dynamic relation ship with the membrane, sometimes is recruited, sometimes is released depending on the prevailing condition

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Lipid-anchored proteins

a covalently attached fatty acid such as palmitate or myristate serves to anchor them to either face of the cell membrane. It is believed that the fatty acid chain inserts and assumes a place in the bilayer structure of the membrane alongside the similar fatty-acid tails of the surrounding lipid molecules. Potential points of attachment include the terminal amino group of the protein backbone and the side chain of cysteine residues.

Membrane Carbohydrates Most carbohydrates are linked to protein to from glycoproteins, others link with lipid to form glycolipids. Carbohydrates of the plasma membrane faces outward into the extracellular space. Carbohydrates of the internal cellulaar membrane also faces away from the cytosol. The modification of protein happened in glycosylation, where carbohydrate was added to the protein and can form oligosaccharides that is attached to membrane proteins and lipids. Oligosaccharides can link to several different amino acids by two major types of linkage : N-glicosidic linkage and O-glycosidic linkage. The carbohydrates of the glycolipids of the red blood cell plasma membrane determine a persons blood type.

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Draw the basic structure of the major types of lipid found in cellular membranes and how are these lipids organized into a bilayer

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What is an oligosaccharide? How are they linked to membrane proteins? How are they related to human blood types? Oligosaccharide is the carbohydrate of a glycoproteins which is unbranched and hydrophillic. It is short, having fewer than 15 sugars per chain. It is attached to membrane proteins and lipids, and can display variations in composition and structure. It can be attached to several different amino acids by two major linkages. 1. N-glycosidic linkage have the glycosidic bond oxygen replaced with nitrogen. Substances containing N-glycosidic bonds are also known as glycosylamines. Example : between aspargine and N-acetylglicosamine 2. O-glycosidic linkage Glycosidic bond with oxygen. Example : between serine and N-acetylgalctaosamine. The carbohydrates of glycolipids of the red blood cell plasma membrane determines the blood type. Person with A type will has an enzyme that adds an N-acetylcalactosamine to the end of the chain. B type has an enzyme that adds galactose to the chain terminus AB has both enzymes and O has neither.

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Describe the properties of the three classes of membrane protein, how they differ from one another, and how they are vary among themselves

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Describe two techniques to measure the rates of diffusion of a specific membrane protein Fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. A particular component of the membrane is first labeled with a fluorescent dye A small region of the surface is then irradiated to bleach the dye molecules The recovery of fluorescence in the bleached region is followed overtime The rate of fluorescence recovery within the illuminated spot can vary depending on the protein being followed The rate of recovery is related to the diffusion coefficient of the fluorescently labeled protein.

Single-particle tracking (SPT) 1. 2. Individual protein molecules are labeled, usually with antibody-coated gold particles The movements of the labeled molecules are followed by computer-enhanced video microscopy

The result of these techniques depend on the protein being investigated. For example : Some membrane proteins move randomly throughout the membrane. Some fail to move and are considered to be immobilized In some cases, a protein is found to move in a highly directed manner toward one part of the cell or another In most studies, the largest fraction of protein species exhibit random movement within the membrane at retes consistent with free diffusion, but the molecules are unable to migrate freely more than a few disstance.

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Describe the effects of differences in the concentration of solutes on opposite sides of the plasma membrane ( see Figure 4.34 ), and explain the effects of putting a cell into a hypotonic, hypertonic, or isotonic medium (see Figure 4.35) Effects of differences in the concentration of solutes on opposite sides of the plasma membrane : 1. 2. 3. A cell placed in a hypotonic solution (one with lower concentration than the cell) swells because of a net gain of water by osmosis. A cell in a hypertonic solution shrinks because the water came out of the cell by osmosis. A cell in an isotonic solution maintains a constant volume because the inward flux of water is equal to the outward flux. Effects of putting a plant cell into a hypotonic, hypertonic, or isotonic medium 1. In a hypotonic enviroment, the water flows into the cells, creating turgor pressure In a hypertonic environment, such as in sea water, the cell loses water and the plasma membrane pulls away from the cell wall. (plasmolysis) Osmosis : water moves through a semipermeable membrane from a region of lower solute concentration to a region of higher solute concentration.

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Describe the Movement of Substances Across Cell Membranes. Give an example The contents of a cell are completely surrounded by its plasma membrane, so all communication between the cell and the extracellular medium must be through this part. Plasma membrane has to choose which materials that can enter the cell. There are two means for the movement of substances through a membrane : a. Passively with diffusion Spontaneous process in which a substance moves from a high concentration region to the A substance must have a higher concentration than the membrane and the membrane lower ones. must be permeable in order for a nonelectrolyte can diffuse passively through a plasma membrane. b. A water will move through membranes through osmosis process. Depends on integral membrane proteins that selectively bind a particular solute and move The movement of a solute agains a gradient requires the input of energy. Unlike in the diffusion system, the movement of ions in active transport is only in one Actively by energy-coupled transport process. it across the membrane.

direction.

The sodium-potassium pump responsibles for the large excess of Na+ ions outside the cell Chloride ions are present greater outside the cell, these ions balance the extracellular Na+ And the K+ ions are balanced by excess negative charges by proteins and nucleic acids.

and the K+ ions inside the cell. The positive charges are neutralized by various anions. ions.

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Compare and contrast the four basically different ways that a substance can move across the plasma membrane ( see Figure 4.32 ) 1. Simple diffusion through bilayer Movement always proceeds from high to low concentration

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Simple diffusion through aqueous, protein lined channel Movement through aqueous channel formed within an integral protein or similar. Movement always down a concentration gradient. The binding caused the protein to have conformational change, then exposed the solute is exposed to the other surface of the membrane, where it can diffuse down its concentration gradient.

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Diffusion facilitated by a protein transporter Solute molecules bind specifically to a membrane protein carrier (facilitative transporter) . Movement from high to low concentration. Dont always diffuse through the lipid bilayer or through a channel. Dont release energy.

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Active transport Has a specific binding site that undergoes a change in affinity driven with energy released by an exergonic process, such as ATP hydrolysis. Movement against a concentration gradient.

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Describe two ways in which energy is utilized to move ions and solutes against a concentration gradient. Using Sodium Potassium Pump 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Sodium ions bind to the protein on the inside of the membrane. ATP is hydrolized and the phosphate is transferred to the protein. The protein changed its conformation. The conformation change allowed the sodium ions to come out to the external spave. Pottasium ions then bind to the protein, then the protein lost the phosphate group. The loss of phosphate group makes the protein to change back into its original conformation. So the potassium ion will diffuse into the cell. Then the process will be repeated all over again.

Using hydrogen-potassium pump 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. The H+/K+ pump are present in the walls of cytoplasmic vesicles. Food entering the stomach triggers hormone-stimulated reaction in the stomach wall. Then the histamine will be released and binds to a receptor on the surface of the acid-secreting parietal cells. The binding of histamine to the receptor will stimulate a response that cause the H+/K+-ATPasecontaining vesicles to fuse to the plasma membrane, forming deep folds / canaliculi. Once at the surface, the transport protein is activated and pumps protons into the stomach cavity against a concentration gradient.

10. Describe the actions of drugs on synapses (see Figure 4.55).

1. The impulse reaches a terminal knob of the axon

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The accompanying depolarization induces the opening of calcium gate channels in the plasma membrane

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This opening of the calcium gates caused calcium ions to diffuse from the extracellular fluid into the terminal knob of the neuron and made the Ca2+ to rise more than supposed to be. As calcium ions are normally present at very low concentration within the neuron, as in all cells.

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The influx of Ca2+ ions caused the release of acetyl-choline from synaptic vesicles and binds to receptor on the postsynaptic membrane. A neurotransmitter molecule can have two opposite effects depending on the type of receptor on the target cell to which it binds : a) The bound transmitter can trigger the opening of cation-selective channels in the membrane, so the influx of sodium ions happen and a more positive membrane potential is achieved (depolarization). If the binding of the neurotransmitter molecules causes a depolarization of the postsynaptic membrane, a nerve impulse may be generated there. b) The bound transmitter can trigger the opening of anion-selective channels, so influx of chloride ions happen, making the membrane has more negative potential (hyperpolarization). if the binding of neurotransmitter causes a hyperpolarization of the postsynaptic membrane, the target cell is inhibited, making it more difficult for an impulse to be generated in the target cell by other excitatory stimulation.